PHY 107 LECTURE NOTES

• MAY – AUGUST 2017

• REPORTING PRACTICALS
REPORTING PRACTICALS

1) Date - Write the date of the day

when the experiment was performed.
2) Name and Surname
3) Experiment number
4) Title
5) Apparatus
6) Sources of errors and precautions
6) Sources of errors and precautions
• - Three subsections: Systematic errors, Random
Errors and Precautions. Error section should be
divided by type.
• Use point form, the past tense and report ed
speech.
• Be brief concise and consistent with what you say.
• For the errors use relative statements.
• For the precautions write what has been done.
• Write all the errors that you can think about and
precautions that you have used in this section.
7) Data collection and tabulation
• Tabulate all the quantities you are requested to
measure.
• Take repeated readings.
• Quote the readability interval and error.
• Work the errors for quantities that will be tabulated.
• In the first row (or column) of the table write the
quantity divided by its unit.
• Define symbols being used as appropriate
• In the second row divide by the multiplicative factor
if/as required.
• Use the next line for the absolute or calculated error.
• Check values for decimal consistency.
• Take a minimum of five readings.
8) Graph
• Plot the graph(s) using a graph sheet.
• Place a heading for the graph and for the axis.
• Divide quantities in the headings by the units as
appropriate.
• Use multiplicative factors as required and indicate this on
the axis only.
• Draw the best straight line or curve that can describe all
the points.
• Check readings or calculations for points that lies far away
from the best straight line or curve.
• Indicate on the graph any points that are being read.
• Remove colour from the graph (If you used a computer
program).
9) Calculations
• Use clear intelligible steps.
• Indicate units wherever appropriate.
• Write the equation indicating the intercept, the
independent and dependent variable and identify
the gradient.
• Make sure that all quantities you are using have been
tabulated.
• Check if you need to multiply quantities by any
multiplicative factors.
• Rearrange quantities to be determined and make
them the subject of the formula.
• Check consistency of units.
9) Calculations

• Use linear regression to find the quantities needed (i.

e. convert original equation to y = mx + c)
• Print the results obtained from linear regression (first
two columns).
• Do not repeat symbols especially m.
• Ensure that the values obtained are reasonably good.
• Use reasonable number of decimal places and
significant figures to quote calculated values.
• Use an impersonal construction and the passive
voice for any comment you want to include
10) Calculations of errors

• Calculate the errors for any value you have been

asked for.
• Be reasonable in the number of significant figures
you use when indicating errors.
• Give the calculated error to a reasonable number of
significant figures.
• Find the percentage error for each of the main
quantities.
• Calculate the Accuracy wherever possible.
• Write the result together with its error in a consistent
way.
11) Conclusion or discussion
• Use an reported speech and the passive voice.
• State the values of the quantities you were
supposed to calculate including the error,
percentage error and accuracy.
• Interpret the results obtained.
• Do research work.
• Mention the order of magnitude difference
between the experimental and the quoted value.
• Comment on the percentage error and the
accuracy.
Discussion:- sources of errors
• Comment on the sources of errors giving their relative
importance.
• Discuss the precaution and show how some things can be
performed better.
• Comment on the graph(s).
• Recommend improvements on the procedure adopted.
• Comment on the physical significance or indications of the
values derived.
• Comment on the physical principles involved.
• Specify the use of the experimental value you have been
asked to determine.
• Mention other methods used to determine the experimental
value you were requested to obtain and compare.
12) Check list
• Check the sheet to see that you have done
everything.
• Read the entire sheet provided again to see
that you have left nothing out.
• Identify hinted requests.
2.0 TABULATING DATA
• Keep a record of data while Pd / V Current / A
carrying out practical work. 2.0 0.15
• Tables should have clear headings 4.0 0.31
with units (use a forward slash
6.0 0.45
before the unit or other formats).

Length Time for 10 Distance Count rate

in m oscillations (cm) (s–1)
in s
0.600 15.52 10.0 53
0.700 16.85 15.0 25
0.800 17.91 20.0 12
2.0 Tabulating data

• draw a table before an experiment commences and

then enter data straight into the table
• make a fair copy of the table in ascending order of
values to enable patterns to be spotted more easily.
• Follow the original data with a reordered table in
your lab book.
• the independent variable is the left hand column of a
table, while the following columns show the
dependent variables.
• The body of the table should not contain units
Tabulating logarithmic values
• When taking the logarithm of a physical quantity, the
resulting value has no unit. But be clear about the
unit of that quantity.
• The logarithm of a distance in km is very different
from the logarithm of the same distance in mm.

Reading number time / s log (time / s)

1 2.3 0.36

2 3.5 0.54

3 5.6 0.75
3. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Data in tables should be written to the same number
of significant figures (s.f.)
• The number of s.f. is determined by the resolution of
the device used to measure the data, or the
uncertainty in measurement
• Example
– If length of string measured is 60 cm using a ruler
with mm graduations. It should be recorded as:
– 600 mm or
– 60.0 cm or
– 0.600 m
– and not just 60 cm
3. Significant figures
• Write down all digits showing on a digital meter.
• Calculated quantities should have the s.f. of the data
with the least s.f.
• Example:
• Calculate the size of an object if the magnification of a
photo is ×25 and it is measured to be 24.6 mm on the
photo. (NB: Magnification is only quoted to two s.f.)
0.97 99.7
0.98 99.8
0.99 99.9
1.00 100.0
1.10 101.0
3. Significant figures

• Measurements with equipment measuring to half a

unit (eg a thermometer measuring to 0.5 °C) should
be recorded to one decimal place, (eg 1.0 °C, 2.5 °C).
• The uncertainty in these measurements is ±0.25, but
rounded to the same number of decimal places
• Thus measurements quoted with uncertainty is (1.0 ±
0.3) °C etc).
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in
Measurements
Sources of uncertainties (errors in measurements)
• Every measurement has some inherent uncertainty (or
errors).
• The important question is the observer’s level of
confidence .
– Does the true value lie in the range predicted by the
uncertainty quoted?
• Good experimental design will try to reduce the
uncertainty in the outcome of an experiment.
• The designed experiments and procedures must ensure
minimum and realistic uncertainty for the outcome.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Sources of uncertainty include:
– the resolution of the instrument used
– the manufacturer’s tolerance on instruments
– the observer’s judgments
– the procedures adopted (eg repeated readings)
– the size of increments available (eg the size of
drops from a pipette).
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Readings & measurements: Two terms in Measurements are:
– Readings: the values found from a single judgement when
using a piece of equipment
– Measurements: the values taken as the difference
between the judgements of two values

Reading Measurement
(one judgement only) (two judgements required)
thermometer ruler
top pan balance vernier calliper
measuring cylinder micrometer
digital voltmeter protractor
Geiger counter stopwatch
pressure gauge analogue meter
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• The uncertainty in a reading when using a particular
instrument is at least ± ½ of the smallest division.
Example: Temperature measured with a
thermometer has an uncertainty of
±0.5 °C if the graduations are 1 °C apart
±0.25 °C if the graduations are 0.5 °C apart
• Always write down your readings with the uncertainty.
Example: Write voltage as (2.40 ± 0.01) V.
The uncertainty quoted MUST be the same number of
d.p. as the value. (Unless an advanced statistical
analysis shows otherwise)
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Measurement example: length: When measuring length, there
are two uncertainties
– the uncertainty of the placement of the zero of the ruler
– the uncertainty of the point where the measurement is taken
from.
– Uncertainty at both ends of the ruler is ±0.5 scale division,
• The measurement will have an uncertainty of ±1 division.

For most rulers, it means the uncertainty in a measurement of

length is ±1 mm.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• This “initial value uncertainty” will apply to any
instrument where the user can set the zero
incorrectly; (it is called zero error),
– it does not apply to equipment such as balances or
thermometers where the zero is set by the manufacturer.
• Summary
– The uncertainty of a reading (one judgement) is at least
±0.5 of the smallest scale reading.
– The uncertainty of a measurement (two judgements) is at
least ±1 of the smallest scale reading.
– The way measurements are taken can also affect the
uncertainty
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Measurement example: the extension of a spring
• Measuring the extension of a spring using a metre
ruler can be achieved in two ways.
• Method 1. Measuring the total length unloaded
and then loaded. This means taking four readings:
– The start and end point of unloaded spring’s
length
– the start and end point of loaded spring’s
length.
• Minimum uncertainty in each measured length is
±1 mm using a meter-rule with 1 mm divisions
(Actual uncertainty is larger due to parallax
errors).
• The extension is the difference between the two
readings so the minimum uncertainty is ±2 mm.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Method 2: This requires two readings
– the end point of unloaded spring’s length
– the end point of loaded spring’s length.
• The start point is assumed to have zero
uncertainty as it is fixed.
• The minimum uncertainty in each reading is
0.5 mm, so the uncertainty is extension is ±1
mm.
• Hence this second approach is better.
• Realistically, other sources of uncertainty
include
– how close the ruler can be mounted to the
point as at which the reading
– Thus uncertainty in each reading of 1 mm is
more reasonable.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Other factors: When resolution of the instrument is not the
limiting factor in the uncertainty in a measurement
• Best practice: Write down the full reading and then write to fewer
significant figures when uncertainty has been estimated.
Examples:
• Stopwatch: It has a resolution of hundredths of a second,
– Uncertainty in measurement is mainly to be due to reaction time of observer
– Student should write the full reading on stopwatch (eg 12.20 s, carrying
consistent s.f. for all repeats,
– Reduce to a more appropriate number of s.f. after averaging later.
• The length of a piece of wire: It is very difficult to hold the wire
completely straight against the ruler.
– Uncertainty in the measurement is likely to be higher than the ±1 mm
uncertainty of the ruler.
– Depends on the number of “kinks” in the wire, the uncertainty may be nearer
± 2 or 3 mm.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Reading from digital devices (voltmeters , ammeters, etc)
depends on the electronics and uncertainty is not strictly the
least figure in the readout.
• Manufacturers usually quote the % uncertainties for the
different ranges.
• Unless otherwise stated it may be assumed that 0.5 in the least
significant digit is to be the uncertainty in the measurement.
• This would generally be rounded up to 1 of the least significant
digit when quoting the value and the uncertainty together.
• For example (5.21 0.01) V. If the reading fluctuates, then it may
be necessary to take a number of readings and do a mean and
range calculation.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Uncertainties in given values
• The value of the charge on an electron is given in the data
sheet as 1.60 × 10–19 C.
• In all such cases assume the uncertainty to be 1 in the last
significant digit. In this case the uncertainty 0.01 × 10–19 C.
• The uncertainty may be lower than this but there is no
evidence to assume otherwise.
• Example:
o If the number of lines per m is quoted as 3.5 × 10 3
o then it is usual to assume that the uncertainty is 1 in the
last significant figure,
o 0.1 × 103 since there is no indication of the uncertainties
in the measurements from which that figure came.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Multiple instances of measurements
• Some methods of measuring involve the use of multiple
instances in order to reduce the uncertainty.
• For example: measuring the thickness of several sheets of
paper together rather than one sheet, or timing several
swings of a pendulum.
– Uncertainty of each measurement = uncertainty of the whole
measurement number of sheets or swings.
– because the absolute uncertainty on the time for a single swing is the
same as the absolute uncertainty for the time taken for multiple swings,
– There is a lower % in the time taken for multiple swings.
For example:
• Time taken for a pendulum to swing 10 times: (5.1 ± 0.1) s
• Mean time taken for one swing: (0.51 ± 0.01) s
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Repeated measurements
• Repeating a measurement is a method for reducing the
uncertainty.
• With many readings one can also identify those that are
exceptional (that are far away from a significant number of
other measurements).
– Sometimes it will be appropriate to remove OUTLIERS from
measurements before calculating a mean.
– On other occasions, particularly in Biology, outliers are
important to include. For example, it is important to know that a
particular drug produces side effects in one person in a
thousand.
• If measurements are repeated, the uncertainty can be
calculated by finding half the range of the measured values.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements

• For example: Range 1.32 – 1.22 = 0.10

therefore Mean distance: (1.26 ± 0.05) m
Percentage uncertainties
• The percentage uncertainty in a measurement can be
calculated as:

•For repeated measurement it can also be calculated as:

4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Further examples:
• Example 1. Some values for diameter of a wire

•The exact values for the mean is 0.355 mm and for the
uncertainty is 0.015 mm
• This could be quoted as such or recorded as 0.36
±0.02 mm given that there is a wide range and only 4
readings.
• Given the simplistic nature of the analysis then giving
the percentage uncertainty as 5% or 6% would be
acceptable.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Example 2. Different values for the diameter of a wire

• The mean here is 0.3533 mm with uncertainty of 0.005 mm

• The percentage uncertainty is 1.41% so may be quoted as 1% but
really it would be better to obtain further data.
Uncertainties in exams
• Wherever possible, questions in exams will be clear on whether
students are being asked to calculate the uncertainty of a reading,
a measurement, or given data.
• Where there is ambiguity, mark schemes will allow alternative
sensible answers and credit clear thinking.
• It is important to understand common mistakes to help students
improve in subsequent years.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Reducing Uncertainties in practical work
• develop an understanding of uncertainties in measurements through their
practical work.
• Teachers may use students’ assessments of uncertainties in measurements, and
their recording, as evidence towards several of the endorsement criteria.
• Teachers decide and record on each occasion the acceptable uncertainty values
Examples:
1. Reduce the uncertainties in experiments by choosing appropriate equipment
2. Or by modifying procedures
3. repeating readings to reduce overall uncertainties
• Students’ records must account for uncertainties. For example, by making
sensible decisions about the number of s.f to include, in calculated values.
• Students can comment on the uncertainties in their measurements. For example,
students should comment on whether the true value (eg for a concentration, or
the acceleration due to gravity) lies within their calculated range of uncertainty.
• With some measurements, they may compare their values with those from
secondary sources, (contributing evidence to validate measurements).
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Error bars in Physics
• There are a number of ways to draw error bars. Students are not expected
to have a formal understanding of confidence limits in Physics (unlike in
Biology). The following simple method of plotting error bars would
therefore be acceptable:
• plot the data point at the mean value
• calculate the range of the data, ignoring any anomalies
• add error bars with lengths equal to half the range on either side of the
data point.
Uncertainties from gradients
• To find the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines should be drawn on the
graph. One should be the “best” line of best fit. The second line should be
the steepest or shallowest gradient line of best fit possible from the data.
• The gradient of each line should then be found.
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
• Best gradient

• Worst gradient
could be either:
• Steepest
gradient possible

• or Shallowest
gradient possible
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements

Uncertainty in the gradient is given by:

• NB Modulus bars mean % is always +ve) :

• Similarly, percentage uncertainty in the y-intercept is:
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Combining uncertainties : Rules for combining % uncertainties are:
Combinat Operation Example
ion
Adding or Add the Object distance, u = (5.0 ± 0.1) cm
subtracting absolute Image distance, v = (7.2 ± 0.1) cm
𝒂= 𝒃+𝒄 Δa = Δb + Δc
values uncertainties
Difference (v – u) = (2.2 ± 0.2) cm
Multiplying Add the
Voltage = (15.20 ± 0.1) V

𝒂= 𝒃 ×𝒄 uncertainties
values percentage Current = (0.51 ± 0.01) A
% uncertainty in voltage = 0.7%
εa = εb + εc
% uncertainty in current = 1.96%
Power = Voltage × current = 7.75 W
% uncertainty in power = 2.66%
Absolute uncertainty in power=±0.21 W
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements
Combinat Operation Example
Dividing Add the Mass of object = (30.2 ± 0.1) g

𝒂=
values percentage Volume of object = (18.0 ± 0.5) cm3

𝒃/𝒄
uncertainties
% uncertainty in mass of object = 0.3 %
εa = εb + εc
% uncertainty in volume = 2.8%
Density = 30.2 = 1.68 g/cm3
18.0
% uncertainty in density = 3.1%
Absolute uncertainty in density = +0.05 g/cm3

Power Multiply the Radius of circle = (6.0 ± 0.1) cm

𝒂= 𝒃𝒄
rules percentage
uncertainty by
% uncertainty in radius = 1.6%
the power Area of circle = πr2 = 113.1 cm2
εa = c × εb % uncertainty in area = 3.2%
Absolute uncertainty = ± 3.6 cm2
4. UNCERTAINTIES: Treatment of Errors in Measurements

• Note – the uncertainty in π is taken to be zero)

• Note: Absolute uncertainties (denoted by Δ) have the
same units as the quantity.
• Percentage uncertainties (denoted by ε) have no
units.
• Uncertainties in trigonometric and logarithmic
functions will not be tested in A-level exams
5. GRAPHING
• Graphing skills can be assessed both in theory and practical report
assessment of the endorsement.
• The type of graph that they draw is based on an understanding of the type of
data they are using and the intended analysis of the data.
• The rules below are guidelines which will vary according to the specific
circumstances.
Labelling axes
• Always label axes with the quantity being measured and the units, separated
with a forward slash (solidus):
5. GRAPHING
• Don’t label Axes with the units on the scale marking. le
• Data points : Mark out Data points with a cross.
– Both ‘+’ and ‘x’ marks are acceptable, but ensure that data
points can be seen against the grid.
– Error bars can take the place of data points if appropriate.
• Scales and origins
• Spread the data points on a graph as far as possible without
resorting to scales that are difficult to deal with. Consider:
– Maximum and minimum values of each variable
– size of the graph paper;
– Need to include 0.0 as a data point
– Need to calculate the equation of a line, needs the y intercept
– Avoid using difficult scale markings (e.g. multiples of 3, 7, 11
etc)
– The plots should cover at least half of the grid on the graph.
5. GRAPHING: Spread of data points on graphs
• For the next 3 graphs:
– add in axes labels
and units on the
real practical work
or in exams
– The graph has well-
spaced marks and
the data fills the
paper.
– Each point is
marked with a
cross (so points are
easy to see even
when drawing the
line of best fit
5. GRAPHING
• This graph has
limited
acceptability.
– The points
do not quite
fill the page,
– but to
spread them
further
would result
in the use of
awkward
scales
5. GRAPHING • At first glance, the graph
is well drawn and has
spread the data out
sensibly.
– But, if the graph is to
be used to calculate
the equation of the
line,
– the lack of a y-
intercept could cause
problems.
– Increasing the axes
to ensure all points
are spread out
– And also include the
y-intercept requires
skill an a lot of
practice.
5. GRAPHING
Lines of best fit
• Lines of best fit should be drawn when appropriate. Students should consider the following when
deciding where to draw a line of best fit:
•  Are the data likely to be following an underlying equation (for example, a relationship governed
by a physical law)? This will help decide if the line should be straight or curved.
•  Are there any anomalous results?
•  Are there uncertainties in the measurements? The line of best fit should fall within error bars if
drawn.
• There is no definitive way of determining where a line of best fit should be drawn. A good rule of
thumb is to make sure that there are as many points on one side of the line as the other. Often
the line should pass through, or very close to, the majority of plotted points. Graphing programs
can sometimes help, but tend to use algorithms that make assumptions about the data that may
not be appropriate.
• Lines of best fit should be continuous and drawn as a thin pencil that does not obscure the points
below and does not add uncertainty to the measurement of gradient of the line.
• Not all lines of best fit go through the origin. Students should ask themselves whether a 0 in the
independent variable is likely to produce a 0 in the dependent variable. This can provide an extra
and more certain point through which a line must pass. A line of best fit that is expected to pass
through (0,0), but does not, would imply some systematic error in the experiment. This would be
a good source of discussion in an evaluation
5. GRAPHING (Slope) • Measuring gradients
• When finding the gradient
of a line of best fit,
students should show
their working by drawing a
triangle on the line. The
hypotenuse of the triangle
should be at least half as
big as the line of best fit.
 The line of best fit here
has an equal number of
points on both sides. It is
not too wide so points can
be seen under it.
The gradient triangle has
been drawn so the
hypotenuse includes more
than half of the line.
In addition, it starts and
ends on points where
the line of best fit
crosses grid lines so the

𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = Δ𝒚
points can be read easily
(this is not always
possible).
Δ𝒙
5. GRAPHING
• When finding the gradient of a curve, eg, the rate of
reaction at a time that was not sampled, students should
draw a tangent to the curve at the relevant value of the
independent variable (x-axis).
• Use of a set square to draw a triangle over this point on the
curve can be helpful in drawing an appropriate tangent.
•
• The equation of a straight line
• Students should be able to translate graphical data into the
equation of a straight line.
y=mx+c
• Where y is the dependent variable, m is the gradient, x is
the independent variable and c is the y-intercept.
5. GRAPHING: translate graphical data into the equation
of a straight line: y=mx+c
Where,
y = dependent variable,
m = gradient,
x =independent variable
c = y-intercept.

From the graph:

Δy = 28 – 9 = 19
Δx = 90 – 10 = 80
gradient = 19 /80
= 0.24 (2 sf)
y-intercept = 7.0
equation of line:
y = 0.24 x + 7.0
5. GRAPHING
• Testing relationships
• Sometimes it is not clear what the relationship
between two variables is. A quick way to find a
possible relationship is to manipulate the data to
form a straight line graph from the data by changing
the variable plotted on each axis.
5. GRAPHING: For example
Raw data Graph
x y
0 0.00
10 3.16
20 4.47
30 5.48
40 6.32
50 7.07
60 7.75
70 8.37
80 8.94
90 9.49 This is clearly not a straight line graph.
100 10.00 The relationship between x and y is not
clear, it requires further manipulation
5. GRAPHING: Manipulated data and graphs
• A series of different graphs can
x y √y y2 y3 be drawn from these data. The
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 one that is closest to a straight
10 3.16 1.78 10.00 32 line is a good candidate for the
relationship between x and y.
20 4.47 2.11 20.00 89
30 5.48 2.34 30.00 160
40 6.32 2.51 40.00 250
50 7.07 2.66 50.00 350
60 7.75 2.78 60.00 470
70 8.37 2.89 70.00 590
80 8.94 2.99 80.00 720
90 9.49 3.08 90.00 850
100 10.00 3.16 100.0 1000
0
5. GRAPHING: Manipulated data and graphs
5. GRAPHING: Manipulated data and graphs

This is an
idealised set of
data to illustrate
the point.
The straightest
graph is y2
against x,
suggesting that
the relationship
between x and
y is y2∝x
5. GRAPHING
• More complex relationships
• Graphs can be used to analyse more complex relationships by
rearranging the equation into a form similar to y=mx+c.
Example one
• When water is displaced by an amount l in a U tube, the time period, T,
varies with the following relationship:

•This could be used to find g, the acceleration due to

gravity as follows:

•Take measurements of T and l. Rearrange the equation

to become linear:
5. GRAPHING
This could be used to find acceleration due to gravity g:
• Take measurements of T and l.
• Rearrange the equation to become linear:
5. GRAPHING: Example two: Testing power laws

• A relationship is known to be of the form

y=Axn but n is unknown.
• To rearrange into a straight line relationship take log of
both of the equation
log(y) = n(log(x)) + log(A)
• Measurements of y and x are taken.
• Graph is plotted with log(y) plotted against log(x).
– The gradient of this graph will be n,
– with the y-intercept log(A),
5. GRAPHING: Example three – Testing exponentials
• The equation that relates pd, V, across a capacitor, C,

time, t is : 𝑉 = 𝑉0𝑒−𝑡𝑅𝐶
as it discharges through a resistor, R, over a period of

– where V0 = pd across capacitor at t = 0

ln𝑉= −𝑡𝑅𝐶+𝑙𝑛𝑉0
• Rearrange equation into a straight line form

• Measurements: Potential difference, V, over a

period of time, t.
• Graph of 𝑙𝑛𝑉 plotted against t is a straight line, with
– gradient of −𝑅𝐶
– y-intercept of 𝑙𝑛𝑉o
and
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Accuracy: A measurement result is considered
accurate if it is judged to be close to the true value.
• Calibration : Marking a scale on a measuring
instrument. This involves establishing the
relationship between indications of a measuring
instrument and standard or reference quantity
values, which must be applied. For example, placing
a thermometer in melting ice to see whether it reads
0 °C, in order to check if it has been calibrated
correctly.
• Data: Information, either qualitative or quantitative,
that has been collected.
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Types of Errors (See also uncertainties).
• Anomalies: These are values in a set of results which
are judged not to be part of the variation caused by
random uncertainty
• measurement error: The difference between a
measured value and the true value.
• Random error: These cause readings to be spread
about the true value, due to results varying in an
unpredictable way from one measurement to the next.
Random errors are present when any measurement is
made, and cannot be corrected. The effect of random
errors can be reduced by making more measurements
and calculating a new mean.
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Systematic error: These cause readings to differ from the
true value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made. Sources of systematic error can
include the environment, methods of observation or
instruments used. Systematic errors cannot be dealt with
by simple repeats. If a systematic error is suspected, the
data collection should be repeated using a different
technique or a different set of equipment, and the results
compared.
• Zero error: Any indication that a measuring system gives
a false reading when the true value of a measured
quantity is zero, eg the needle on an ammeter failing to
return to zero when no current flows. A zero error may
result in a systematic uncertainty.
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Evidence Data that have been shown to be valid.
• Fair test A fair test is one in which only the independent
variable has been allowed to affect the dependent
variable.
• Hypothesis : A proposal intended to explain certain facts
or observations.
• Interval : The quantity between readings eg a set of 11
readings equally spaced over a distance of 1 metre
would give an interval of 10 centimetres.
• Precision Precise measurements are ones in which
there is very little spread about the mean value. recision
depends only on the extent of random errors – it gives
no indication of how close results are to the true value.
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Prediction : A prediction is a statement suggesting what will
happen in the future, based on observation, experience or a
hypothesis.
• Range : The maximum and minimum values of the independent or
dependent variables. For example a range of distances may be
quoted as either: 'from 10 cm to 50 cm' or 'from 50 cm to 10 cm'.
• Repeatable : A measurement is repeatable if the original
experimenter repeats the investigation using same method and
equipment and obtains the same results.
• Reproducible : A measurement is reproducible if the investigation
is repeated by another person, or by using different equipment or
techniques, and the same results are obtained.
• Resolution : This is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured (input) of a measuring instrument that gives a
perceptible change in the reading
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Sketch graph: A line graph, not necessarily on a grid, that
shows the general shape of the relationship between two
variables. It will not have any points plotted and although the
axes should be labelled they may not be scaled.
• True value: This is the value that would be obtained in an
ideal measurement.
• Uncertainty : The interval within which the true value can be
expected to lie, with a given level of confidence or probability
eg “the temperature is 20 °C ± 2 °C, at a level of confidence of
95%”.
• Validity: Suitability of the investigative procedure to answer
the question being asked. For example, an investigation to
find out if the rate of a chemical reaction depended upon the
concentration of one of the reactants would not be a valid
procedure if the temperature of the reactants was not
controlled.
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Valid conclusion: A conclusion supported by valid data, obtained
from an appropriate experimental design and based on sound
reasoning.
• Variables : These are physical, chemical or biological quantities
or characteristics.
• categoric variables : Categoric variables have values that are
labels eg names of plants or types of material or reading at week
1, reading at week 2 etc.
• continuous variables: Continuous variables can have values
(called a quantity) that can be given a magnitude either by
counting (as in the case of the number of shrimp) or by
measurement (eg light intensity, flow rate etc).
6. DEFINITION OF TERMS
• control variables : A control variable is one which may, in
addition to the independent variable, affect the outcome of
the investigation and therefore has to be kept constant or at
least monitored.
• dependent variables : The dependent variable is the variable
of which the value is measured for each and every change in
the independent variable.
• independent variables : The independent variable is the
variable for which values are changed or selected by the
investigator.
• nominal variables: A nominal variable is a type of categoric
variable where there is no ordering of categories (eg red
flowers, pink flowers, blue flowers).
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
67. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL ANALYSIS