Situational Public

Speaking
‘Bisi Olawuyi, Ph.D.
Department of Communication and Language Arts
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
An Overview of Situational Public
Speaking
• Situational Public Speaking is also referred to as Ceremonial Speaking or Special
Occasion Speeches.
• All speeches are in a sense special.
• All public speaking situations occur in a context. This context has norms and
expectations that a speaker must recognise, and the purpose that a speaker intends to
accomplish.
• A speech situation can make a big difference to the public speaker. How he decides on
the appropriate topic that can and cannot be used, and even how much to say about
the issues involved.
• Some speech occasions are so special that they have developed almost a ritual of
protocol about them. For instance, University of Ibadan Inaugural Lectures (Attend an
Inaugural lecture and succinctly discuss the ritual of protocol that you observed, 10
marks)
Definitions of Situational Public
Speaking
• “…aims to fit the special needs of a special occasion” (Stephen Lucas,
2009)
• “speeches of special occasion stress and reinforce the common
identities, beliefs and values that unite people into communities”
(Osborn and Osborn, 1994)
• “It is the observance of the rules and rites which characterize the
occasion both in word and dressing”
Definitions of Situational Public
Speaking (Cont.)
• Context-specific speeches that address, through their contents and
manner, the demands of the occasion. It is the acknowledgement of
the peculiarity of the ceremony through the observance of the rites
and rituals that surround the presentation.
• Situational public speaking requires on the part of the speaker an
overly sensitive, responsive and conscious awareness of the occasion
in order to effectively tie the message and its delivery to reflect the
spirit of the moment.
• The actual reason for why you are making that presentation.
Defining Features of Situational
Public Speaking
• The participants
• The speaker and their audience constitutes the participants in situational
public speaking. It emphasises the existence of social relations that define the
interaction between the speaker and his audience.
• The participants must share a social relationship (not cordial) which should be
foregrounded by some level of familiarity and power relations.
• The authenticity of the speaker’s message is enhanced by the intimacy they
have with the audience.
The Location/Setting/Context
• Context refers to the event in question. In other words, the occasion
or event that necessitated the speech
• The context of the speech significantly influences the nature of
situational public speaking; it determines if the speech is situational
or not.
The Purpose
• The purpose of the event will define if the speech is situational or
otherwise. Effective public speakers identify the purpose of their
speeches in order to frame them within the conventional rules and
rites that define them as occasional speeches.
• A knowledge of the purpose of situational public speaking helps the
speaker to understand the “dos” and “don’ts” of the speech (content
and delivery).
The Topic
• The context and event will determine what the speaker would say.
• The topic, also, can be influenced by the purpose of the speech. This
implies that the speaker should be able to answer the questions: what
is the reason for the speech? What do I want to achieve?
Mode of Linguistic Expression
• Figurative language is used to shape the understanding of the world.
• Figurative language in general, and metaphor in particular, plays a
central role in reflecting and shaping how people think in various
situational speech contexts. Other examples of linguistic expressions
are idiomatic expressions, proverbs, etc.
Understanding Situational Public
Speaking within the context of
Rhetoric
• The Greek word “rhetoric” comes from rhetorike, -ike, meaning “art
or skill of,” and rhetor, meaning “an experienced political/public
speaker.”
• Rhetoric is the instrumental use of language. One person engages
another person in an exchange of symbols to accomplish some goals.
It is not communication for communication’s sake. Rhetoric is
communication that attempts to coordinate social action. For this
reason, rhetorical communication is explicitly pragmatic. It’s goal is to
influence human choices on specific matters that require immediate
attention (Gerald A. Hanser)
Rhetorical Situation
• Rhetorical Situation is a situation in which people’s understanding can
be changed through messages.
• We are bound to encounter worldviews that differ from our own.
There are obviously two available options:
• Engage in communication that isolates and protects us from those
perspectives
• Embrace challenges to our thinking as opportunities for growth and change
Rhetorical Purposes
• Rhetorical Purposes “are conscious attempts to influence processes
that are occurring in us all of the time as we come in contact with the
world and the people in it” (Karlyn Kohrs Campbell)
• Rhetorical purposes imply the goals that a speaker aims to achieve
with his speech within a specific rhetorical situation which is
determined implicitly by his personal experiences and interactions
with others
Rhetorical Purposes
• Creating Virtual Experience
• Public speakers through their use of symbols, call up ideas, pictures, and
experiences in the minds of the audience
• Altering Perceptions
• “I have a Dream” by MLK and Mark Anthonio’s oration when Julius
Caesar was assassinated were speeches which called the attention of
the audience to take an immediate and remote action. Hence, when a
speaker’s intention is to alter perception, he does so to stimulate his
audience to a particular course of action.
• Explaining
• A speaker’s desire to explain is “most strongly felt when he encounters an
intense, apparently irrational experience
• Formulating Belief
• This is a form of persuasion in which a speaker seeks to get his audience to do
that which they otherwise would not have done (reinforce, modify, and
reverse).
• Initiating Action
• Shared belief is not necessarily linked to a willingness or an ability to act. Even
when beliefs are formulated, action will not follow unless that belief is
reinforced, rendered salient, and then channelled so that action seems
appropriate, possible, and necessary.
• Maintaining Action
• The responsibility of the speaker with this rhetorical purpose is to ensure the
sustainable maintenance of attitude/and or behaviour
Modes of Rhetoric
• There are many different forms, patterns, or modes of communication
that can serve as frameworks for presentational speaking. An
explanation of all of the options available to speakers is a useful
starting point for understanding invitational rhetoric .
• There are five basic rhetorical modes that can serve as frames for
presentational speaking
Conquest Rhetoric
• CR has winning as its goal. This type of rhetoric emphasises the
winning of an argument as hallmark of ultimate success.
• The purpose of this mode of rhetoric is to establish an idea, claim, or
argument as the best one from among competing potions.
• The basic rule of CR is: “Every disagreement has to end with a winner
and a loser”
Conversion Rhetoric
• CR is a form of speaking designed to change the audiences’
perspectives on an issue or to change how they behave in some way.
This form of speaking is intended to convince others of the rightness
or superiority of a perspective. The primary method involved in
conversion rhetoric is persuasion.
Benevolent Rhetoric
• BR is a form of speaking that provides assistance to individuals out of
a genuine desire to make their lives better. The speaker seeks to
change audience members out of a concern for their wellbeing. It is
the provision of information to the audience so that their lives can be
better in a way.
Advisory Rhetoric
• AR provides requested assistance to members of a particular
audience. It is a speaker’s response to an implicit or explicit request
for advice or information from others. Recipients of AR are interested
in learning, growing, and changing. They deliberately seek out
information from individuals who can help accomplish these goals.
This type rhetoric provides guidance by offering new ideas that
encourage others to broaden their understanding in some way
Invitational Rhetoric
• Invitational Rhetoric is a request by a speaker to his audience to see
the world as he sees it and also consider his perspective seriously. The
primary objective of this type of rhetoric is understanding reached as
communicators engage in a “sharing of words through words.” The
goal is not to win or prove superiority but to clarify ideas—to achieve
understanding for the participants devoid of non-judgemental and
nonadversarial.
Elements of Rhetorical Action
• Rhetorical Act is a speaker’s response to a perceived rhetorical
problem. These elements provide both a speech critic and a speaker
with a checklist that provides a roadmap in addressing a speech
situation in order to possess, understand, analyse, and describe it as
fully and carefully as possible
• Purpose:
• the conclusion argued (thesis) and the response desired by the speaker
• Audience:
• the speaker’s target; the listeners; the audience role
• Persona:
• the role(s) adopted by the speaker in making his argument (such as teacher,
preacher, prophet, etc
• Tone:
• the speakers attitude toward the subject (detached, emotional, satirical, etc.)
and toward the audience (personal/impersonal,
authoritative/egalitarian/suppliant, etc.)
• Structure:
• the way the materials are organised to gain attention, develop a case, and
provide emphasis
• Supporting materials:
• different kinds of evidence for the argument
• Strategies:
• adaptation of all of the above, including language, appeals, and arguments to
make the speech effective.
Interactional Goals
• At the most basic level of public speaking, the speaker’s goal could be
to achieve any or combination of the following:
Planning Speeches of Special
Occasion
• Special occasion speeches should be carefully prepared.
• Audience and occasion should be carefully analysed.
• Clear plans and outlines should be developed.
• Ideas should be amplified concretely and vividly.
• Style should be appropriate.
• Delivery should be characterised by conversational quality.
Some Speeches of Special Occasion
• Speeches of Introduction
• Make sure you know something about the speaker and his subject,
• be brief but adequate,
• stress the importance and appropriateness of the speaker’s subject, speak
with sincerity and enthusiasm, lastly pay attention to the speaker
• Presentation and Acceptance
• The speech should sincerely communicate honour, appreciation, and
recognition
• Adapt the speech to the occasion and the award
• Tribute and Commemorative
• Develop a sensitive understanding about the subject
• Be objective and fair to the facts
• Utilise a style of language and delivery in keeping with the occasion
• After-Dinner
• Select suitable topics
• Be good-humored
• Adapt to the audience
• Be clear and brief
Eulogies
• Express grief over the loss, but avoid going into specific details of the
tragedy or illness.
• Offer specific praise of the deceased. If you didn’t know the individual
well, pass on remarks or observations from others.
• Close with gratitude for the deceased’s contribution to life.
Toasts
• Express your affection and good wishes for the individual.
• Focus on the other person rather than yourself.
• Be brief.
• “people say you don’t look like 40. obviously, they mean that as a
compliment. But I’d like to say you’re exactly what 40 looks like these
days—beautiful, poised, self-assured, intelligent. here;’s to at least 40
more.”
Motivational
• Express appreciation for what the audience has already achieved or contributed.
• Focus on one objective, and prefer to make only one primary point in any given
speech. Then illustrate that key point with several supporting details, statistics, or
anecdotes. It’s better to make one point well with several memorable illustrations
than to present several key points and have none remembered.
• Call for specific action. Don’t leave your audience with the feeling fluff: “what did
he say?” instead, give them specifics about changes, improvements, or goals to
which you want them to aspire.
• Be clear and direct—even about the negatives.
• Use a “we’re in this together” approach.
• Be upbeat in your tone; express confidence in the future rather than condemnation
of the past.
Achievements
• Lead the audience to appreciate the achievement with a history and
details of the distinction and with names of other individuals or
corporations who have excelled in this way.
• Mention the effort, time, or expertise this distinction required.
• Express pride in the individual or the company’s contribution.
Awards (Acceptance)
• Express appreciation for the recognition.
• Mention why the achievement was important to you, if appropriate. What does the
award symbolize to you? What is your driving force? Your goal? Benefits to others
from work in this field?
• Share credit with other individuals or groups who have contributed to your
achievement; however, avoid a laundry list of unrecognizable names.
• Be modest; don’t boast of all your efforts and accomplishments on the road to
success.
• Display emotion appropriate for the occasion. An audience will value genuineness,
but will suspect insincerity if you display gushy over exuberance about routine
presentations.
• Thank your audience for caring enough about you or the award to attend.
Awards (Presentation)
• Elaborate on the overall commendation or achievement. What is the
history of the award? What are the criteria for selection of recipients?
• Explain specifically why the recipient deserves the award. Comments
from others, statistics, superior results—all these specifics show thr
recipient that you understand the hard work, time, ability, or attitude
necessary to his or her success.
• Offer your congratulations.
• Be enthusiastic, avoiding the sound of routine presentation.