UNIT – II

Computer Networks
 A network consists of two or more computers
that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or
allow electronic communications.

 The computers on a network may be linked

through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites etc.

 A popular example of a computer network is

the Internet, which allows millions of users to
share information.

1
Computer Network (Cont…)

2
Every Network Includes:
1. At least two computers that have
something to share.

2. A cable or wireless pathway, called

Transmission Media, for computers to
signal each other.

3. Rules, called Protocols, so that computers

can use the unified principle of data
communication.

4. Networking Interface Cards (NIC)

3
Advantages of Computer
Networks
 File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and
easy way to share files directly.

 Resource Sharing: All computers in the

network can share resources such as
printers, fax machines, modems and
scanners.

 Communication: Those on the network

can communicate with each other via e-
mail, instant messages etc.
4
Advantages of Computer
Networks (Cont…)

 FlexibleAccess: Networks allow their

users to access files from computers
throughout the network.

 Sharing of Information: Computer

networks enable us to share data and
information with the computers that are
located geographically large distance
apart.

5
Network Computing Models
Centralized Computing
(Client-Server Network)
◦ A client-server network is where
every client is connected to the
server .
◦ Server or mainframe computer has
huge storage and processing
capabilities.

6
Network Computing Models
Distributed Computing (Peer-to-Peer
Network)
◦ All devices have same power.
◦ It interconnects one or more computers.
◦ Centralized backup is not possible.

7
Uses of Computer Network
Simultaneous Access

 Shared Peripheral Devices

 Personal Communication

 Easier Backup

8
APPLICATIONS OF NETWOKS
E-mail
Searchable Data (Web Sites)
E-Commerce
News Groups
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Video Conferencing
Chat Groups
Instant Messengers
Internet Radio
9
What is a Topology?
Network topologies describe the
ways in which the elements of a
network are mapped. They
describe the physical and logical
arrangement of the network
nodes.

The physical topology of a

network refers to the
configuration of cables,
10
Different Types of
Topologies
 Bus Topology

 Star Topology

 Ring Topology

 Mesh Topology

 Tree Topology

 Hybrid Topology
11
Bus Topology
 Allthe nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) on a bus topology are
connected by one single cable.

A bus topology consists of a main run of

cable with a terminator at each end. All
nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) are connected to the linear
cable.

 Popular on LANs because they are

inexpensive and easy to install.
12
Bus Topology

13
Ring Topology
 In a ring network, every device has exactly two
neighbours for communication purposes.

 All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

 A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can

take down the entire network.

 To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring

technology

 A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed

around the network. When a device needs to transmit, it
reserves the token for the next trip around, then
attaches its data packet to it.

14
Ring Topology

15
Star Topology
 In a star network, each node (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) is connected to a central device called
a hub.

 The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and
passes it along to all the other nodes in the network.

 Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch,

or concentrator before continuing to its destination.

 The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls

all functions of the network.

 The star topology reduces the chance of network failure

by connecting all of the systems to a central node.
16
Star Topology

17
Tree Topology
 A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as
a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.

 This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are

required to transmit to and receive from one other only
and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators.

 The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct

hierarchies in order to allow greater control and easier
troubleshooting.

 This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and

schools so that each of the connect to the big network
in some way.

18
Tree Topology

19
Mesh Topology
 In this topology, each node is connected to
every other node in the network.

 Implementing the mesh topology is expensive

and difficult.

 In this type of network, each node may send

message to destination through multiple paths.

 While the data is travelling on the Mesh

Network it is automatically configured to reach
the destination by taking the shortest route
which means the least number of hops.
20
Mesh Topology

21
Hybrid Topology
A combination of any two or more
network topologies.

A hybrid topology always accrues when

two different basic network topologies
are connected.

 It is a mixture of above mentioned

topologies. Usually, a central computer
is attached with sub-controllers which in
turn participate in a variety of topologies
22
Hybrid Topology

23
Network Types

Local Area Networks (LAN)

◦ A Network that links devices within a
building or group of adjacent
buildings
Metropolitan Area Networks
(MAN)
◦ A Network that interconnects within
a geographic region
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
◦ A Network that extends over a large 24
Introduction to OSI Model
 OSImodel is based on the proposal
developed by the International
Standards Organization (ISO).

 Thismodel is called ISO OSI (Open

Systems Interconnection) Reference
model because it deals with connecting
open systems (systems that are open for
communication with other systems)

 We call it as OSI Model.

25
The OSI Model
 OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".
 OSI model was first introduced in 1984 by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
◦ Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one
computer to another.
◦ Not HOW it should be done.
◦ Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for
transmittal (to be transmitted)
 In the OSI model, The specification needed
◦ are contained in 7 different layers that interact with each
other.
What is “THE MODEL?”

 Commonly referred to as the OSI reference

model.

 The OSI model

◦ is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how
data gets from one user’s computer to another.

◦ It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all

of our hardware and software talks nicely to each other.

◦ It aids standardization of networking technologies by

providing an organized structure for hardware and
software developers to follow, to insure there products
are compatible with current and future technologies.
Principles on which OSI model was
designed:
 A layer should be created where different level of
abstraction is needed.

 Each layer should perform a well defined function.

 The function of each layer should be chosen

according to the internationally standardized
protocols.

 The number of layers should be large enough that

distinct functions should not be put in the same
layer and small enough that the architecture does
not become very complex.
28
29
30
OSI Model

31
OSI Layers

32
An Exchange Using the OSI Model

33
Physical Layer

34
Physical Layer (Cont…)

It is the bottom layer of OSI Model.

Itis responsible for the actual physical

connection between the devices. Such
physical connection may be made by
using twisted pair cable.

Itis concerned with transmitting bits

over a communication channel.
35
Functions of Physical Layer

 Transforming bits into signals

 Provides synchronization of bits by a
clock.
 Physical layer manages the way a device
connects to network media.
 It defines the transmission rate.
 It defines the way in which the devices
are connected to the medium.
 It provides physical topologies
 It can use different techniques of
multiplexing. 36
Data Link Layer

37
Data Link Layer (Cont…)
 It is responsible for node-to-node delivery
of data.
 It receives the data from network layer and
creates FRAMES , add physical address to
these frames & pas them to physical layer
 It consist of 2 layers:
Logical Link Layer (LLC) : Defines
the methods and provides addressing
information for communication between
network devices.
Medium Access Control (MAC):
establishes and maintains links between
communicating devices.
38
Functions of Data Link Layer

 Framing : DLL divides the bits received from

N/W layer into frames. (Frame contains all
the addressing information necessary to
travel from S to D).

 Physical addressing: After creating

frames, DLL adds physical address of
sender/receiver (MAC address) in the header
of each frame.

 Flow Control: DLL prevents the fast sender

from drowning the slow receiver. 39
Data Link Layer Example

40
Functions of Data Link Layer

Error Control: It provides the

mechanism of error control in
which it detects & retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

Access Control: When single

comm. Channel is shared by
multiple devices, MAC layer of DLL
provides help to determine which 41
Network Layer

42
Network Layer (Cont…)
 Itis responsible for the source to destination
delivery of a packet across multiple networks.

 If two systems are attached to different

networks with devices like routers, then N/W
layer is used.

 Thus DLL overseas the delivery of the packet

between the two systems on same network
and the network layer ensures that the packet
gets its point of origin to its final destination.

43
Functions of Network Layer
 Internetworking: It provides Internetworking.

 Logical Addressing: When packet is sent outside the

network, N/W layer adds Logical (network) address of
the sender & receiver to each packet.
 Network addresses are assigned to local devices by
n/w administrator and assigned dynamically by special
server called DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)

 Routing: When independent n/w are connected to

create internetwork several routes are available to
send the data from S to D. These n/w are
interconnected by routers & gateways that route the
packet to final destination. 44
Transport Layer

45
Transport Layer (Cont…)
 Itis responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message.

 TL looks after the delivery of entire message

considering all its packets & make sure that all
packets are in order. On the other hand n/w layer
treated each packet independently.

 At the receiver side, TL provides services to

application layer & takes services form n/w layer.

 At the source side, TL receives message from upper

layer into packets and reassembles these packets
again into message at the destination. 46
Transport Layer (Cont…)
 Transport Layer provides two types of services:

Connection Oriented Transmission: In this

type of transmission the receiving devices
sends an acknowledge back to the source after
a packet or group of packet is received. It is
slower transmission method.

Connectionless Transmission: In this type of

transmission the receiving devices does not
sends an acknowledge back to the source. It is
faster transmission method.
47
Functions of Transport Layer

Segmentation of message into packet &

reassembly of packets into message.

Port addressing: Computers run several

processes. TL header include a port address with
each process.

Flow Control: Flow control facility prevents the

source form sending data packets faster than the
destination can handle.

Error control: TL ensures that the entire

message arrives at the receiving TL without error.
48
Session Layer

49
Session Layer (Cont…)
Session layer is the fifth layer of
OSI Model

It has the responsibility of

beginning, maintaining and ending
the communication between two
devices, called session.

It also provides for orderly

communication between devices50
Functions of Session Layer
Establishing, Maintaining and ending a session:
When sending device first contact with receiving
device, it sends syn (synchronization) packet to
establish a connection & determines the order in
which information will be sent. Receiver sends ack
(acknowledgement). So the session can be set & end.

Dialog Control: This function determines that which

device will communicate first and the amount of data
that will be sent.

Dialog separation: Process of adding checkpoints &

markers to the stream of data is called dialog
separation.
51
Presentation Layer

52
Presentation Layer
(Cont…)
Presentation layer is the sixth layer
of OSI Model.

Itis concerned with the syntax &

semantics of the information
exchanged between the two
devices.

It was designed for data

encryption, decryption and53
Functions of Presentation Layer

Data Presentation or Translation: Because

different computers use different encoding systems.
It ensures that the data being sent is in the format
that the recipient can process.

Data Encryption: PL provides this facility by which

hides the information from everyone except the
person who originally sent the information & the
intended recipient. When encrypted data arrives at
destination, PL decrypts the message.

Data Compression: PL shrinks large amount of data

into smaller pieces i.e. it reduces the size of data.
54
Application Layer

55
Application Layer (Cont…)

It
is the topmost i.e. seventh layer of OSI
Model.

It enables the user to access the network.

Itprovides user interface & supports for

services such as e-mail, file transfer,
access to the world wide web.

So it provides services to different user

applications.
56
Functions of Application Layer
 MailServices: This application provides various
e-mail services.

 File transfer & Access: It allows users to access

files in a remote host, to retrieve files from remote
computer for use etc.

 Remote log-in: A user can log into a remote

computer and access the resources of that
computer.

 Accessing the World Wide Web: Most common

application today is the access of the World Wide
Web. 57
OSI Layers
OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit
Network process to
7. Application
application
Data Data representation,
Host 6. Presentation
encryption and decryption
layers
5. Session Interhost communication
Segme End-to-end connections
4. Transport
nts and reliability, Flow control
Path determination and
Packet 3. Network
logical addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Media, signal and binary
Going from
Bit layer 11.to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage
Physical
transmission
Pizza Away
Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data
Processing 58
Introduction to TCP/IP Model
 The current Internet is based on a TCP/IP
reference model.

 TCPand IP are two protocols of this model.

TCP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.

 Thearchitecture or model was defined by

the US department of defense and is used
by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network).

59
Goals on which TCP/IP model was
designed:
The network should connect multiple
networks together.

The connection should withstand till

the source and destination machines
are functioning.

The architecture should be so flexible

that it should be able to transfer data
among different hardware or software
platforms.
60
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Host to Network Layer
 It is the bottom layer of TCP/IP model & lies
below the internet layer.

 It is also known as Network Interface Layer.

 Function of this layer is to connect the host

to the network & inform the upper layers so
that they could start sending the data
packets.

 This layer varies from network to network.

63
Network Layer
 Itis similar to Network Layer of OSI
model in functionality.

 Itallow the hosts to submit the packets

to the network & Packets should travel
independently using any possible route.

 The order in which the packets arrive at

destination can be different from the
order in which they were sent. In such
cases it is the responsibility of higher
layer to arrange these packets in proper
order.
64
Functions of Internet Layer
• It keeps track of which layer
receives the information.

• It translates the logical address to

physical machine address.

• It breaks larger packets into smaller

ones.

• It provides flow control &

congestion control services.
65
Transport Layer
 Itis similar in functionality to transport layer of
OSI model.

 It allows the two processes on source &

destination machines to communicate with each
other.

 It divides the byte stream into messages.

 Ithandles the flow control so that a fast sender

ahould not overflow a slow receiver.

 TransportLayer also provides two types of services:

connection oriented & connectionless services. 66
Transport Layer (Cont…)
 Connection Oriented Services: TCP
(Transport Control Protocol is used for
connection oriented services. By this the
receiving devices sends an acknowledge back
to the source after a packet is received.
Functions of TCP:
◦ Error Control: Deliver byte stream from source to
destination without error.

◦ Flow Control: It prevents the source form sending

data packets faster than the destination can handle.

◦ It divides byte stream into small parts & pass it to

internet layer on sender side & reassembles it into67
Functions of Transport Layer

Connectionless Services: UDP (User

Datagram Protocol) is used for
unreliable connectionless services. It
does not sends an acknowledge back to
the source. It is faster transmission
method.

Function of UDP:

◦ UDP is used for client-server type request queries &

applications in which prompt delivery is more
important than accurate delivery such as transmitting
speech or video. 68
Application Layer
 It is the topmost of TCP/IP Model.

 Itis responsible for data transfer between

applications.

 It provides services such as e-mail, file

transfer, access to the world wide web etc.
to the user applications.

 Ituses the protocols like FTP, SNTP & TELNET

to transfer the data between applications
69
Functions of Application Layer
 Mail Services: It provides various e-mail
services.

 Filetransfer & Access: It allows users to

access files in a remote host, to retrieve files
from remote computer for use etc.

 Remote log-in: A user can log into a remote

computer and access the resources of that
computer.

 Accessing the World Wide Web: Most

common application today is the access of
the World Wide Web. 70
Comparison between OSI Model
&
TCP/IP Model

The OSI and TCP/IP models are

having many similarities in the
functionalities provided by the
layers. The layers of TCP
model behave similar to the
layers of OSI model. But these
two models do have
differences.
71
SIMILARITIES

The main similarities between the two

models include the following:

 They share similar architecture. - Both

of the models share a similar architecture.
This can be illustrated by the fact that both
of them are constructed with layers.

 They share a common application

layer.- Both of the models share a common
"application layer". However in practice this
layer includes different services depending
upon each model.
72
SIMILARITIES (Cont…)

 Both models have comparable

transport and network layers- This can
be illustrated by the fact that whatever
functions are performed between the
presentation and network layer of the OSI
model similar functions are performed at
the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model.

 Both models assume that packets are

switched- Basically this means that
individual packets may take differing paths
in order to reach the same destination.

73
DIFFERENCES

The main differences between the two models

are as follows:

 TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards

around which the internet has developed. The
OSI model however is a "generic, protocol-
independent standard.“

 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session

layer issues into its application layer.

 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical

layers into the network access layer.

74
DIFFERENCES (Cont…)
 TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and
this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer
layers.

 TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible

model- This is mainly due to the fact because
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around
which the internet was developed therefore it
mainly gains creditability due to this reason.
Where as in contrast networks are not usually
built around the OSI model as it is merely used
as a guidance tool.

 The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers

whereas the TCP/IP only has 5 layers.
75
COMPARISON

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open TP/IP stands for

System Interconnection Transmission Control
because it allows any two Protocol/Internet Protocol.
different systems to It is named after these
communicate regardless protocols, being part of
of their architecture. this model.

OSI model has seven TCP/IP has four layers..

layers.

This model provides clear It does not clearly

distinction between distinguish between
services, interfaces and services, interfaces &
protocols protocols.
76
COMPARISON (Cont…)

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

In this model, Protocols do TCP and IP protocols fit well

not fit well into the model. in the model.

Session & Presentation layers There is no session &

are present in this layer. presentation layer in this
model.

OSI model supports both TCP/IP supports only

connection oriented & connectionless comm. In
connectionless in network network layer but supports
layer but connection oriented both in transport layer.
comm. In transport layer.

77
TCP/IP Layers
OSI TCP/IP
Application Layer Application Layer
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, POP3,
Presentation Layer
SNMP, NNTP, DNS,NIS, NFS,
Session Layer HTTP, ...

Transport Layer Transport Layer

TCP , UDP , ...

Network Layer Internet Layer

IP , ICMP, ARP, RARP, ...

Data Link Layer

Network/Link Layer
FDDI, Ethernet, ISDN, X.25,...
Physical Layer

78
TCP/IP Some Protocol
Layer Protocol
DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC,
NNTP, POP3, SIP, SMTP, SMPP, SNMP, SSH, Telnet,
Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP
Applicati
on Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over
TCP/UDP, may also be considered part of the
Internet Layer.
Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP
IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6
Internet OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer
protocol since it runs per IP-subnet, but has been
placed on the Link since RFC 2740.
Link ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP

79
UNIT – II
Data Link Protocols
Data Link Protocols are sets of
rule and regulations used to
implement data link layer.
They contain rules for:
◦ Line Discipline
◦ Flow Control
◦ Error Control

80
Types of Data Link Protocols
Data Link Protocols are divided
into two categories:

◦ Asynchronous Protocols
◦ Synchronous Protocols

81
Asynchronous Protocols
Asynchronous protocols treat each
character in a bit stream
independently.
These protocols are used in
modems.
They use start and stop bits, and
variable gaps between characters.
They are slower than synchronous
protocols in transmitting data.

82
Asynchronous Protocols
(Cont…)
The different asynchronous
protocols are:
◦ XMODEM
◦ YMODEM
◦ ZMODEM
◦ Block Asynchronous Transmission
(BLAST)
◦ Kermit

83
XMODEM
It is a half duplex stop & wait
protocol.
It is used for telephone line
communication between PCs.
The sender sends a frame to
receiver & waits for ACK frame.
The receiver can send one cancel
signal (CAN) to abort the
transmission.
SOH Header Data CRC
1 Byte 2 128
The frame
Bytes format
Bytesof XMODEM is:
84
YMODEM
This protocol is similar to XMODEM
with the following major
differences:
◦ Two cancel signals (CAN) are used to
abort the transmission.
◦ The data field is 1024 bytes long.
◦ ITU-T CRC-16 is used for error
ZMODEM
checking.

Itis a combination of XMODEM and

YMODEM.
85
BLAST
BLAST is more powerful than
XMODEM.
It is a full duplex protocol.
It uses sliding window flow control.

Kermit
 It is a terminal program as well as file
transfer protocol.
 It is similar in operation to XMODEM, except
that sender has to wait for a negative
acknowledgement (NAK) before it starts
transmission.
86
Kermit
It is a terminal program as well as
file transfer protocol.
It is similar in operation to
XMODEM, except that sender has
to wait for a negative
acknowledgement (NAK) before it
starts transmission.

87
Synchronous Protocols
Synchronous Protocols take the
whole bit stream and divide it into
characters of equal size.
These protocols have high speed
and are used for LAN, WAN and
MAN.
Synchronous protocols are
categorized into two groups:
◦ Character-Oriented Protocol
◦ Bit-Oriented Protocol
88
Character-Oriented Protocol
It interprets frame as a series of
characters.
These are also known as Byte-
Oriented Protocols.
Control information is inserted as
separate control frames or as
addition to existing data frame.
The example of character-oriented
protocol is Binary Synchronous
Communication (BSC) developed
by IBM. 89
Bit-Oriented Protocol
It interprets frame as a series of bits.
Control information can be inserted
as bits depending on the information
to be contained in the frame
Bit-oriented protocol can pack more
information into shorter frames.
The examples of bit-oriented
protocol are:
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)
High Level Data Link Control (HDLC)

90
Synchronous Data Link Control
(SDLC) Protocol
 SDLC protocol was developed by IBM in
1975.
 After developing SDLC, IBM submitted it
to American National Standard Institute
(ANSI) and to International Standard
Organization (ISO) for acceptance.
 ANSI modified it to ADCCP (Advanced
Data Communication Control Procedure.
 ISO modified it to HDLC (High Level Data
Link Control).

91
Synchronous Data Link Control
(SDLC) Protocol (Cont…)
The format of SDLC is:
0111111
frame 0111111
0 Flag Address Control User Data ECF 0 Flag

8-Bit 8-Bit 16-Bit

The flag sequence of 8-bits 01111110
marks the beginning and ending of the
frame.
Address field contains the address of the
receiver.
Control field carries the sequence
number, acknowledgement, requests and
responses.
92
Synchronous Data Link Control
(SDLC) Protocol
The frame format of SDLC is:
0111111 0111111
0 Flag Address Control User Data ECF 0 Flag

8-Bit 8-Bit 16-Bit

The user data field carries the data

and is of variable length.
ECF stands for Error Checking Field
and is of 16-bits. It is used for error
control.

93
High Level Data Link Control
(HDLC) Protocol
HDLC came into existence after
ISO modified the SDLC protocol.
It is a bit-oriented protocol that
supports both half and full duplex
communication.
Systems using HDLC are
characterized by:
◦ Station Types
◦ Configuration.
◦ Response Modes
94
Station Types
To make HDLC protocol applicable
to various network configurations,
three types of stations have been
defined:
◦ Primary Station
◦ Secondary Station
◦ Combined Station

95
Primary Station
It has complete control over the
link at any time.
It has the responsibility of
connecting & disconnecting the
link.
The frames sent by primary
station are called commands.

96
Secondary Station
All the secondary stations work
under the control of primary
station.
The frames sent by secondary
station are called responses.
Combined Station
A combined station can behave either as
primary or as secondary station.
 It can send commands as well as
responses.
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Symmetrical Configuration
In this configuration, both sites
contain two stations: one primary
and one secondary.
Primary station of one site is linked
with secondary station of the other
andPrimary
vice versa. Primary
Command

Response

Secondary Secondary
Command

Response

Site A Site B 98
Balanced Configuration
Inthis configuration, both sites
have combined stations.
These combined stations are
connected with single link.
This single link can be controlled
by either station.

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Important Questions
2 Marks

 What is Network?
 List out OSI layer in order.
 What is Frame relay?
 Define Distributed System.
 What is broadcasting?
 What is Multicasting?
 Write down types of networks.
 What is host?
 What is hub? 100
Important Questions
2 Marks (Cont…)

 What is router?
 What is repeater?
 What is transmission media?
 What is twisted pair?
 What is coaxial cable?
 List out types of wireless
transmission,
 What is communication satellite.
 What is MODEM? 101
Important Questions
5 Marks

Explain types of network

Explain network topology
Explain ARPANET
Explain electro magnetic
spectrum
Explain multiplexing
Explain error control
Explain noisy channel
Explain error correcting code 102
Important Questions
10 Marks

Explain network hardware

Explain OSI reference model
Explain TCP /IP model
Explain network software
Explain guided transmission
media
Explain unguided transmission
media 103
Thank You

Mrs. V.Rathika, M.S.,M.Phil., (Ph.D.,)

Assistant Professor,
Department of Computer Applications,
Idhaya College for Women,
Kumbakonam

104