21CS501 COMPUTER NETWORKS

Professional Elective - I
OBJECTIVES:
 To study the fundamental concepts of computer networks and
physical layer.

 To gain the knowledge of various protocols and techniques

used in the data link layer.

 To learn the services of network layer and network layer

protocols.

 To describe different protocols used in the transport layer.

 To understand the application layer protocols

OUTCOMES:
 CO1: Understand the fundamental concepts of computer
networks and physical layer.

 CO2: Gain knowledge of various protocols and techniques used

in the data link layer.

 CO3: Learn the network layer services and network layer

protocols.

 CO4: Understand the various protocols used in the transport

layer.

 CO5: Analyze the various application layer protocols.

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER

Data Communications – Network Types

– Protocol Layering – Network Models
(OSI, TCP/IP) Networking Devices:
Hubs, Bridges, Switches – Performance
Metrics – Transmission media - Guided
media -Unguided media- Switching-
Circuit Switching - Packet Switching
UNIT II - DATA LINK LAYER

Introduction – Link-Layer Addressing-

Error Detection and Correction - DLC
Services – Data Link Layer Protocols –
HDLC – PPP - Wired LANs: Ethernet -
Wireless LANs – Introduction – IEEE
802.11, Bluetooth
UNIT III - NETWORK LAYER

Network Layer Services – Packet

switching – Performance – IPV4
Addresses – Forwarding of IP Packets -
Network Layer Protocols: IP, ICMP v4 –
Unicast Routing Algorithms – Protocols
– Multicasting Basics – IPV6 Addressing
– IPV6 Protocol
UNIT IV - TRANSPORT LAYER

Introduction – Transport Layer

Protocols – Services – Port Numbers –
User Datagram Protocol –Transmission
Control Protocol – SCTP
UNIT V - APPLICATION LAYER

Application layer-WWW and HTTP –

FTP – Email –Telnet –SSH – DNS –
SNMP
Job Roles

 Systems Analyst

 Network engineer

 Network administrator

 Network architect

 VoIP engineer

 Information systems manager

 Infrastructure engineer

 Cloud architect
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

• Exchange of data between two devices via a medium

• Communicating devices is a combination of hardware

(physical equipment) and software (programs)

• Data communications system depends on four

characteristics:
 Delivery,
 Accuracy,
 Timeliness
 Jitter
Components
Data Flow
NETWORKS
• Interconnection of a set of devices
• A device can be a host or connecting device
• Host may be computer, laptop, cellular phone
• Connecting such as a router, switches and modem
• A router connects the network to other network
• A switch connects devices together
• A modem changes the form of data
• Devices in a network are connected using wired or
wireless transmission media
NETWORKS
• Interconnection of a set of devices
• A device can be a host or connecting device
• Host may be computer, laptop, cellular phone
• Connecting such as a router, switches and modem
• A router connects the network to other network
• A switch connects devices together
• A modem changes the form of data
• Devices in a network are connected using wired or
wireless transmission media
Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria.

• The most important of these are

 Performance
 measured by transit time and response time
 depends number of users, transmission medium, hardware, and
the software
 evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay

 Reliability- accuracy of delivery

 Security-protecting data from unauthorized access

Physical Structures- Type of Connection
Physical Structures- Physical Topology
Mesh Topology
Physical Structures- Physical Topology
Star Topology
Physical Structures- Physical Topology
Bus Topology
Physical Structures- Physical Topology
Ring Topology
NETWORK TYPES
Local Area Network
NETWORK TYPES
Wide Area
Wide Area Network
Network
Point-to-Point WAN
Point-to-Point WAN

Switched WAN
NETWORK TYPES
Internetwork- An internetwork made of two LANs and
one point-to-point WAN
NETWORK TYPES
Internetwork- A heterogeneous network made of four
WANs and three LANs
NETWORK TYPES
Internetwork- A heterogeneous network made of four
WANs and three LANs
NETWORK TYPES
Switching- Circuit-Switched Network
NETWORK TYPES
Switching- Packet-Switched Network
NETWORK TYPES
The Internet
PROTOCOL LAYERING
• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and
receiver.

• When communication is simple, we may need only

one simple protocol

• when the communication is complex, we may need

to divide the task between different layers

• So we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol

layering
PROTOCOL LAYERING- First Scenario
A single-layer protocol
PROTOCOL LAYERING- Second Scenario
A three-layer protocol
Principles of Protocol Layering
First Principle-
If we want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it is able to perform two
opposite tasks, one in each direction.

Second Principle-
we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.
Logical Connections
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite
Description of Each Layer- Physical Layer
• Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual
bits in a frame across the link.

• Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the

TCP/IP protocol suite

• The communication between two devices at the

physical layer is still a logical communication

• Because there is another, hidden layer, the

transmission media, under the physical layer.
Description of Each Layer- Physical Layer
• Two devices are connected by a transmission
medium (cable or air).

• The transmission medium does not carry bits; it

carries electrical or optical signals.

• So the bits from the data-link layer are transformed

and sent through the transmission media,

• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a

signal.
Description of Each Layer- Data-link Layer
• Internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs)
connected by routers

• The routers are responsible for choosing the best

links that a datagram can travel

• The data-link layer is responsible for taking the

datagram and moving it across the link

• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a

wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or a wireless WAN
Description of Each Layer- Data-link Layer
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the
data-link layer. It supports all protocols

• The data-link layer takes a datagram and

encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.

• Each link-layer protocol may provide a different

service.

• Some link-layer protocols provide error detection

and correction, some provide only error correction
Description of Each Layer- Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible connection between
the source computer and the destination computers

• The routers in the path are responsible for choosing

the best route for each packet.

• Internet Protocol (IP), that defines the format of the

packet, called a datagram at the network layer.

• IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its

source to its destination
Description of Each Layer- Network Layer
• IP is a connectionless protocol so it doesnt provide
flow control, error control, and congestion control

• A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is

the responsibility of IP),

• But it creates forwarding tables for routers to help

them in the routing process

• The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one)

and multicast (one-to-many) routing protocols.
Description of Each Layer- Network Layer
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps
IP to report some problems when routing a packet.

• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is

another protocol that helps IP in multitasking.

• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

helps IP to get the network-layer address for a host.

• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol

that helps IP to find the link-layer address of a host
Description of Each Layer- Transport Layer
• The transport layer at the source host gets the
message from the application layer

• Then encapsulates it in a transport layer packet and

sends it

• The transport layer is responsible for giving services to

the application layer

• Get a message from an application program in source

host and deliver it to application program on the
destination host.
Description of Each Layer- Transport Layer
• TCP establishes a logical connection between
transport layers at two hosts before transferring data

• TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes.

• TCP provides flow control, error control and

congestion control

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP), transmits user

datagrams without first creating a logical connection
Description of Each Layer- Application Layer
• The two application layers exchange messages
between each other through all the layers

• Communication at the application layer is between

two processes (two programs running at this layer).

• To communicate, a process sends a request to the

other process and receives a response.

• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the

application layer
Description of Each Layer- Application Layer
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - accessing
the World Wide Web (WWW).

• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - used in

electronic mail (e-mail) service.

• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - transferring files

from one host to another.

• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell

(SSH) - used for accessing a site remotely.
Description of Each Layer- Application Layer
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) -
used by an administrator to manage the Internet

• The Domain Name System (DNS) - used to find the

network-layer address of a computer.

• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) -

used to collect membership in a group
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Addressing
Addressing
THE OSI MODEL
OSI versus TCP/IP
categories of connecting devices
Hubs
Link-Layer Switches
Transparent Switches
• A transparent switch is a switch in which the stations
are completely unaware of the switch’s existence

• If a switch is added or deleted from the system,

reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary

• Transparent switches must meet three criteria:

 Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
 The forwarding table is automatically made by learning
frame movements in the network.
 Loops in the system must be prevented
Transparent Switches
Learning
Transparent Switches
Loop Problem
Transparent Switches
Spanning Tree Algorithm
Transparent Switches
Finding the shortest paths and the spanning tree in a system of
switches
Transparent Switches
Forwarding and blocking ports after using spanning tree
algorithm
Routers
There are three major differences between a router and a
repeater or a switch

•A router has a physical and logical (IP) address for each of its
interfaces.

•A router acts only on those packets in which the link-layer

destination address matches the address of the interface at which
the packet arrives.

•A router changes the link-layer address of the packet (both

source and destination) when it forwards the packet.
Routers
.
Performance Metrics
Bandwidth
•Bandwidth in Hertz- the range of frequencies a channel can pass

•Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds- the number of bits per second

that a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit

•Example-The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission can be up
to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the digital
signal to analog
Performance Metrics
Throughput
•The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send
data through a network

•we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.

•This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through
this link
Performance Metrics
Throughput- Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average

of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an average
of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Throughput 5 (12,000 X 10,000) / 60 = 2 Mbps

Performance Metrics
Latency (Delay)
•The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire
message to completely arrive at the destination from the time
the first bit is sent out from the source

•We can say that latency is made of four components:

propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and
processing delay.

•Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time

+processing delay
Performance Metrics
Propagation Time
•measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing
the distance by the propagation speed.

Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)

•What is the propagation time if the distance between the two

points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 ×
108 m/s in cable

Propagation time 5 (12,000 3 10,000) / (2.4 3 28) 5 50 ms

Performance Metrics
Transmission Time
•Time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit
arriving at the receiver.

•The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves
later and arrives later.

•The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the

message and the bandwidth of the channels

•Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth

Performance Metrics
Transmission Time
•What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
2.5-KB (kilobyte) message (an email) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108
m/s.

•Propagation time = (12,000 3 1000) / (2.4 3 108) = 50 ms

•Transmission time = (2500 3 8) / 109 = 0.020 ms
Performance Metrics
Queuing Time

•The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.

•The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load
imposed on the network.

•When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time

increases
Performance Metrics
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Performance Metrics
Jitter
Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter different
delays and the application using the data at the receiver site is
time-sensitive

If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms,
and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses
the packets endures jitter
Transmission Media
Guided Media - Twisted-Pair Cable
Guided Media - Coaxial Cable
Guided Media - Fiber-Optic Cable
Guided Media - Fiber-Optic Cable
Guided Media - Fiber construction
Guided Media - Fiber construction
Unguided Media: Wireless
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Propagation methods
Unguided Media: Radio Waves
Omnidirectional antenna
Unguided Media: Microwaves
Unidirectional Antenna
Unguided Media: Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm),

• It can be used for short-range communication.

• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate

walls
Circuit-switched Networks

Setup Phase
Data-Transfer Phase
Teardown Phase
Delay in a circuit-switched network
Packet Switching
Datagram Networks
Packet Switching
Routing Table
Packet Switching
Delay in a datagram network
Packet Switching

Two types of addressing are involved: global and local

(virtual-circuit identifier)
Packet Switching
Virtual-circuit identifier
Packet Switching
Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network
Packet Switching
Delay in a virtual-circuit network