Bachelor’s in Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology

CE-104 Engineering Materials

Part-IV

Course Teacher
Dr Muhammad Aslam Bhutto
Concrete
 The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" which means
compact or condensed

 Concrete is a composite material composed of the inert particles of well-

graded fine and course aggregates bound together with a liquid binder
(generally a mixture of cement and water)

 A composite material is a material made from two or more

constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical
properties, but when combined, produce a material with characteristics
different from the individual components

 Concrete is one of the most durable and most widely used building materials.
Its annual consumption as the construction material in the world has been
estimated at as 21 - 31 billion tons.

 The worldwide usage of concrete is twice that of the combined use of the
steel, wood, plastics and aluminum
Ingredients of Concrete
 Cement (generally Portland)
 Course Aggregates
 Fine Aggregate
 Water
 Admixtures (if required)
Note: Admixtures are mixed into the concrete to change or modify its properties
like setting and hardening times and/ or its workability
Properties of Concrete
The four main properties of concrete are

 Workability
 Cohesiveness and Segregation
 Strength
 Durability
 Workability
 Workability means how easy it is to
 Place
 Handle
 Compact
 Finish a concrete mix

 Concrete that is stiff or dry may be difficult to handle, place, compact

and finish. If it is not constructed properly, it will not be as strong or
durable when finally hardened

 A slump test can be used to measure the workability of concrete

Properties of Concrete
 Workability (cont’d)
 The workability of concrete is affected by

 Amount of Cement Paste

The cement paste is the soft or liquid part of the concrete mixture.
The more paste mixed with the coarse and fine aggregates, the more
workable a mix
 Aggregate Grading
Well-graded, smooth and rounded aggregates improve the
workability of the mix
 Other factors affecting the concrete workability are water content,
mix proportion, size, shape, surface texture and grading of
aggregates, use of admixtures
 To make a more workable mix
 Add more cement paste
 Use well-graded aggregates
 Use an admixture
Properties of Concrete
 Workability (cont’d)
 Never try to make a concrete mixture more workable by just adding
more water because this lowers its strength and durability

 Slump Test –A measurement of workability

 This test is extensively carried out at site of work all over the world but is
not useful for a very wet or dry concretes

 It is in-fact not a measure of the concrete workability, but is used to

detect variations in the uniformity of a concrete mix of given nominal
proportions. It provides the following information;
 Consistency and uniformity between the concrete batches
(Consistency is the degree of firmness or relative ability
of freshly mixed concrete to flow)
 Check whether a correct amount of water is added to the mix
 Estimate to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction
Properties of Concrete
 Slump Test -Test Procedure

 The test is carried out using a metal mould known as a slump cone. It is in
the shape of the frustum of a cone, open at both ends and provided with the
handle. The top and bottom internal diameters are 4 inches (102 mm) and 8
inches (203 mm) respectively with a height of 1 foot (305 mm). It is used with
a 2 feet (610 mm) long bullet nosed metal rod having a diameter of 5/8 inches
(16 mm)

 The cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface and is filled with fresh
concrete in three stages, each time it is tamped 25 times using the metal rod.
At the end of the third stage, concrete is struck off flush to the top of the
mould

 Immediately after filling, the mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards, and
the unsupported concrete will now slumps or subsides. This subsidence is
termed as slump, and is measured in to the nearest 5 mm if the slump is less
than 100 mm and is measured to the nearest 10 mm if the slump is greater
100 mm
Properties of Concrete
 Slump Test –Practical View

Slump cone Tamping procedure

Removing cone Height measurement

Properties of Concrete
 Slump Test -Interpretation of Results

When the cone or mould is removed, the slump may take one of the
following three forms

 True slump: The concrete simply subsides keeping

more or less to shape. It gives correct information

 Shear slump: The top portion of the concrete shears

off and slips sideways. Test should be repeated and if
shear slump persists then it is a harsh mix with lack of
cohesion in the mix

 Collapse slump: The concrete collapses completely. A

collapse slump is an indication of too wet a mix. If a
collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be
taken and the test repeated.
Properties of Concrete
 Cohesiveness and Segregation

 Cohesiveness is how well concrete holds together when it is plastic.

Cohesiveness is affected by

 Aggregate Grading
Graded Aggregate means that there is a range of size of aggregates,
from large rocks to small sands. Well-graded aggregates give a more
cohesive mix, too much coarse aggregate gives a boney mix

 Water Content
A mix that has too much water will not be cohesive and may separate
and bleed

 Segregation can be defined as separation of constituents of a

heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform
Properties of Concrete
 Cohesiveness and Segregation (cont’d)

 In case of concrete, the segregation is the differences in the size of

particles and in the specific gravity of the mix constituents

 There are two forms of segregation

 The first form occurs when the coarser particles tend to separate out
since they tend to travel further along a slope or to settle more than
finer particles

 The second form, occurring particularly in wet mixes, is manifested

by the separation of grout (cement plus water) from the mix

 When a lean mix (amount of cement is than that of water) is used

with some grading, the first type of segregation would occur if the
mix is too dry. The addition of water would improve the cohesion of
the mix, but when the mix becomes too wet the second type of
segregation would take place
Properties of Concrete
 Cohesiveness and Segregation (cont’d)

 Segregation of the concrete depends upon the following factors

 Grading of aggregates
 Method of handling and placing of concrete

Grading of Aggregates
Properties of Concrete

 Honey-Combing
 Segregation of the concrete results in honey-combing, i.e.
a decrease in density and an ultimate loss in its strength .
‘Honey-comb’ is a term used to describe a void on the
exterior face of the concrete

 Honey-combing occurs when the concrete is not

adequately or properly compacted. The heavier aggregate
is left exposed with very little cement, sand and smaller
aggregate that would normally surround the larger
aggregate if it had been properly ‘settled’

 This condition is more an indication of poor

workmanship than it is a serious structural defect.
Honey-combing is usually an aesthetical problem.
Depending on the depth and extent of the honey-comb,
both the durability performance and the structural
strength of the member may be reduced
Properties of Concrete
 Bleeding
 Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in which some of the water
(having the lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients) forms the
concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete
 Sometimes, a certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface along
with the coming-out water. This formation of cement paste at the surface
is known as ‘Laitance’
 Bleeding is predominantly observed in (a) a highly wet mix, (b) badly
proportioned and (c) insufficiently mixed concrete
 Bleeding itself is not bad as some of its amount is required to densify the
concrete -excessive bleeding is a matter of concern
 Bleeding can be avoided by (a) controlling the quantity of water, (b)
providing finer grading of fine aggregate, (c) using finely ground cement
and (d) performing suitable optimum compaction
Properties of Concrete
 Strength
 After concrete has hardened, its resistance to bear loads is called its
‘strength’. The strength of concrete in the hardened state is usually
measured by the Compressive Strength Test of 150 mm size cubes after
28 days of casting

 The strength of concrete depends upon

 Grades of concrete
 Water/cement ratio
 Method of compaction
 Time period elapsed

 The compressive strength of concrete goes on increasing, even after 28

days of casting, though at a slower rate. The quantum of increase
depends on the grade and type of cement, curing and environmental
conditions. However, the design should be based on the 28 days
characteristic strength of concrete unless there is evidence
States of Concrete
The concrete has the following three different states; in each state it has
different properties

 Plastic
 Setting
 Hardening

 Plastic State
 When the concrete is first mixed, it is soft and can be worked or moulded
into different shapes -this state is called ‘Plastic’. The concrete is plastic
during placing and compaction

 The most important properties of plastic concrete are workability and

cohesiveness. A worker will sink into plastic concrete
States of Concrete
 Setting State
 After plastic state, concrete starts to stiffen or solidify. The stiffening or
solidification of the concrete, when it is no longer soft, is called ‘Setting’

 The setting takes place after compaction and during finishing.

 Concrete that is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will be more
difficult to finish. A worker leaves foot prints in setting concrete

 Hardening State
 After concrete has set, it begins to gain strength and harden i.e. strength
gain

 The properties of hardened concrete are strength and durability.

Hardened concrete will have no footprints on it if walked on
Concrete Operations
 To obtain good quality concrete, not only materials and their proportions
are important but the concreting operations are important that play an
important role

 Concreting operations include

 Storage of material
 Proportioning and batching
 Mixing
 Transporting
 Depositing and Placing
 Compacting
 Finishing
 Jointing
 Curing
Concrete Operations

 Storage of material
 It should be ensured that the cement is stored in complete dry conditions
and is protected even from moisture because being a finely ground
material, it is not only easily affected by water but also by the
atmospheric humidity

 Aggregates should be stacked in such a way that its size and grading is
not disturbed and it also does not get mixed deleterious (harmful and
injurious) material

 Batching and proportioning

 Material should be measured properly by volume or by mass to satisfy
the required mix proportions of the desired concrete grade

 For volumetric measurements standard boxes in various sizes of 25, 50,

etc liters are available. For mass measurements platform weighing or
swing weigh batchers can be used
Concrete Operations
 Batching and Proportioning (cont’d)
 Each batch of the concrete should be prepared as per convenience of
handling

 While using volumetric batching, care should be taken to compensate for

bulking of sand. For important and large size jobs weigh batching should
be used for better control on quality of concrete

 Mixing of Concrete
 Thorough mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform
concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous,
uniform in color and consistency

 There are two methods adopted for concrete

 Hand mixing
 Machine mixing
Concrete Operations
 Mixing of Concrete

 Hand Mixing
 It is adopted for small scale unimportant works

 As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is advisable to add 10%

more cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method

 It should be done over an impervious (water tight) concrete or brick floor

of large size to carry one bag of cement

 Spread out the measured quantity of aggregates in alternate layers; pour

dry cement on top of it and mix them with shovel, turning the mixture
over and over again until uniformity of color is achieved
Concrete Operations

 Mixing of Concrete

 Hand Mixing (cont’d)

 This uniform mixture is spread over a thickness
of about 20 cm

 Water is taken in a water can fitted with a rose-

head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over. This operation is
continued till such time a good uniform,
homogeneous concrete is obtained

 It is of particular importance to see that the

water is not poured but is only sprinkled. Water
in small quantity is added at the end of the
mixing to get the just required consistency -even
a small quantity of water makes a difference
Concrete Operations
 Machine Mixing
 Machine mixing is not only efficient but it is also economical for the large
quantities of the concrete to be produced

 The mixers available for mixing concrete can be classified as batch

mixers and continuous mixers. Batch mixers produce concrete batch by
batch with time interval, whereas continuous mixers produce concrete
continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is working. This
type of mixers is used in large works such as dams. In normal concrete
works, batch mixers are used

 Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water
into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can
increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete

 The sequence of charging ingredients into a concrete mixer can play an

important role in the uniformity of the finished product
Concrete Operations
 Machine Mixing (cont’d)

Pan (Batch) Mixer Drum (Continuous) Mixer

Concrete Operations
 Transportation of Concrete

 Concrete mix should be transported to the place of deposit without

wasting time i.e. before initial se of cement and without causing
segregation and bleeding

 Concrete can be transported manually by pans, wheelbarrows, chutes

(descend), belt conveyors, lorries, truck mixers, buckets, cranes and
concrete pumps according to quantity, site conditions and requirements

Chute & wheelbarrow Belt conveyor Truck mixer

Concrete Operations

 Depositing and Placing

 Concrete can be deposited in

 Formwork
 Natural subgrade (soil)
 Hardened concrete base

 Before depositing the concrete mix

 A coat of thick cement grout (water + cement) should be scrubbed to
the surface of the prepared base
 The dimensions, shape, detail of reinforcement, cover to
reinforcement, etc, should be checked

 While depositing concrete mix on the hardened concrete base, it should

be trimmed to the required shape and size, roughened, cleaned and
moistened suitably
Concrete Operations

 Depositing and Placing (cont’d)

 In general, concrete is laid in horizontal layers of

uniform thickness of about 150 to 500 mm

 The concrete should be discharged as close as

possible to its final position, preferably straight
into the formwork
 A substantial free-fall distance will encourage
segregation and should therefore be avoided
 With deep pours, the rate of placing should be
such that the layer of concrete below that being
placed should not have set -this will ensure full
continuity between layers and avoid cold joints
and planes of weakness in the hardened concrete
Concrete Operations

 Compaction

 After concrete is deposited in its final position,

it is compacted for achieving maximum
density

 The process of compaction of concrete

comprises essentially of elimination of
entrapped air resulting in denser concrete

 The strength of concrete is highly influenced

by the presence of entrapped air

 Compaction can be carried out by

 Manual Tamping
 Mechanical Vibrators
Concrete Operations
 Compaction by Mechanical Vibrators

 Compaction carried out by the mechanical vibrators is quicker and more

effective than hand compaction and is used for stiffer mixes with low
water-cement ratios
 The type of vibrator is selected depending upon the nature, size and
quantity of reinforcement in the concrete member.

 A vibrator can be
 Internal vibrator that compacts concrete by a direct contact

 Form vibrator is attached to the formwork transfers vibrations to

concrete through the formwork

 Surface vibrator is placed on the top of the concrete and is suitable

for thin layers of concrete
Concrete Operations
 Compaction by Mechanical Vibrators (cont’d)

 Once the concrete is in place, vibration should be used to mould the

concrete around embedment e.g. reinforcement and to eliminate pockets
of entrapped air

 The vibration should not be used to move the concrete into place
 High-workability mixes if over vibrated may cause segregation
Concrete Operations
 Finishing
 Compacting or hand tamping of concrete may leave an uneven and
rough surface. The surface of concrete is finished smooth or as per
desired pattern using floats, trowel and other appliances. Concrete that
will be visible, such as slabs like driveways, highways or patios often
needs finishing

 After the concrete has been jointed, it should be floated with a wood or
metal hand float or with a finishing machine using float blades. Where a
smooth, hard, dense surface is desired, floating should be followed by
steel troweling
Concrete Operations
 Jointing
 Joints in any type of concrete control the location and spread of cracks

 Suitable joints are to be provided in cement concrete construction to

eliminate cracks due to thermal stresses and concreting at intervals.
These joints may be
 Expansion joints or isolation joints
 Contraction joints or control joints
 Construction joints or bonded joints

 Expansion and contraction joints are provided to permit both horizontal

and vertical differential movement due to temperature changes and
shrinkage

 Construction joints join concrete that is paved at different times

Concrete Operations
 Jointing (cont’d)

Expansion or Isolation Joints Construction Joints

Concrete Operations
 Curing
 Concrete has to be cured in a suitable environment during the early
stages of hardening. It is a procedure used for promoting the hydration
of cement and consists of a control of temperature and moisture
movement from and into concrete

 The objective of curing is to keep concrete saturated or as nearly

saturated as possible until the originally water-filled space in the fresh
cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of
hydration

 The necessity for curing arises from the fact that hydration of cement
can take place only in water filled capillaries. This is why a loss of water
by evaporation from the capillaries must be prevented

 It is now known that hydration can only take place only when the vapor
pressure in the capillaries is sufficiently high
Concrete Operations

 Curing Methods
 Plastic Sheeting: Plastic sheets, or other similar
material form an effective barrier against water
loss

 Ponding-Flat: Surfaces such as floors, pavements,

flat roofs and the like may be cured by ponding

 Wet coverings: Fabrics such as hessian, or

materials such as sand, can be used like a ‘mulch’
to maintain water on the surface of the concrete

 Sprinkling or Fog Curing: Using a fine spray or

fog of water can be an efficient method of
supplying additional moisture for curing and
during hot weather, it helps to reduce the
temperature of the concrete
Water-Cement Ratio
 The concept of water–cement ratio was developed by Duff A. Abram who
was an American researcher in the field of composition and properties
of concrete

 WC ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used in a
concrete mix

 It has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced. A lower

water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the
mix more difficult to place. Placement difficulties can be resolved by using
plasticizers and super-plasticizers

 Concrete hardens as a result of the chemical reaction between cement and

water known as hydration. For every kilogram of cement, about 0.25 kg of
water is needed for the hydration, i.e. requiring a WC ratio of 1:4; also
expressed as a proportion 0.25. However, such a concrete mix may not mix
thoroughly and flow well enough, so more water is used. Generally WC ratios
of 0.4 to 0.6 are used
Water-Cement Ratio
 For higher-strength concrete, lower water-cement ratios are used along with
a plasticizers to increase flowing ability

 Excessive use of water in the concrete results in segregation of the sand and
aggregate components from the cement paste

 Also, the water that is not consumed by the hydration reaction may leave the
concrete as it hardens, resulting in bleeding that in turn would reduce the
final strength of the concrete

 A too wet mix would experience more shrinkage as the excessive water leaves,
resulting in internal cracks and visible fractures (particularly around inside
corners) which again will reduce the final strength

 The Uniform Building Code (UBC) 1997 specifies a maximum water-to-

cement ratio as 1:2 or 0.5 for the concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in
a moist condition and as 0.45 for the concrete in severe sulfated conditions
Lime & Asphalt Concretes
 Lime Concrete
 It is a mixture of lime mortar and coarse aggregates

 Coarse aggregates generally used in the lime concrete are either natural
stone ballast or brick ballast or cinder aggregates (extrusive igneous
rocks), while the fine aggregates are sand, surkhi or cinder powder.
Water to be used in making this concrete should be clean and pure

 Asphalt Concrete
 Asphalt concrete is a composite material commonly used to surface roads,
parking lots and airports

 It is commonly called asphalt, blacktop or pavement in North America and

tarmac or bitumen macadam in Great Britain and Ireland

 It consists of mineral aggregates bound together with asphalt laid in layers

and compacted
Topics for Self-study
 Harshness of Concrete

 Impermeability

 Dimensional changes

 Thermal changes

 Creep and Fatigue

 Types of Concrete
 Regular concrete
 High-strength concrete
 High performance concrete
 Self-consolidating concretes
 Vacuum concretes
 Shot-Crete
 Pervious concrete
 Stamped concrete
 Air-entrained concrete
Shot-Crete Concrete
 It refers to a process in which compressed air forces mortar or concrete
through a hose and nozzle onto a surface at a high velocity and forms
structural or non-structural components of buildings

 Relatively dry mixture is consolidated by the force of impact and develops a

compressive strength similar to normal- and high-strength concrete.
Shotcrete may be applied to surfaces using a dry- or wet-mix method

 The wet-mix concrete method consists of Portland cement and aggregate

premixed with water before the pump pushes the mixture though the hose.
Additional compressed air is added at the nozzle to increase the velocity of
the mixture

 In the dry-mix process, compressed air propels a premixed blend of Portland

cement and damp aggregate through the hose to the nozzle. In the nozzle,
water is added from a separate hose and completely mixed with the dry
mixture just as both streams are being projected onto the prepared surface
Shot-Crete Concrete
Stamped Concrete
 It refers to a concrete that is patterned and/or textured or embossed to
resemble brick, slate, flagstone, stone, tile, wood, and various other patterns
and textures

 This concrete is commonly used for patios, sidewalks, driveways, pool decks
and interior flooring. The ability of stamped concrete to resemble other
building materials makes stamped concrete a less expensive alternative to
using those other authentic materials such as stone, slate or brick

 The following three procedures are used in stamped concrete which separate
it from other concrete procedures
 Addition of a base colour
 Addition of an accent colour
 Stamping a pattern into the concrete

 The above procedures provide stamped concrete with a colour and shape
similar to the natural building material. It also is longer lasting than paved
stone, and still resembles the look
Stamped Concrete