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Biochem Report WPS Office

Protein synthesis is the process by which cells make proteins and occurs in two main stages: transcription and translation. Transcription involves copying DNA into mRNA with RNA polymerase. Translation involves decoding the mRNA with tRNAs and ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain. Gene regulation controls which genes are expressed and when through various mechanisms like repressors, activators, and inducers in prokaryotes and through multiple levels in eukaryotes.

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Abraham Kashmier L Ali
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12 views

Biochem Report WPS Office

Protein synthesis is the process by which cells make proteins and occurs in two main stages: transcription and translation. Transcription involves copying DNA into mRNA with RNA polymerase. Translation involves decoding the mRNA with tRNAs and ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain. Gene regulation controls which genes are expressed and when through various mechanisms like repressors, activators, and inducers in prokaryotes and through multiple levels in eukaryotes.

Uploaded by

Abraham Kashmier L Ali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Protein Synthesis

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the
process in which cells
make proteins. It occurs
in two stages:
Two stages
Transcription
And
Translation
Transcription
• The process of copying the
sequence of one strand of
DNA, the template strand
• mRNA copies the template
strand
• Requires the enzyme RNA
Polymerase
•Part of DNA temporarily unzips
and is used as a template to
assemble complementary
nucleotides into messenger RNA
(mRNA).
• During transcription, RNA
polymerase binds to DNA and
separates the DNA strands
• RNA Polymerase then uses one
strand of DNA as a template
to assemble nucleotides into
RNA
Transcription
Transcription
• Promoters are regions on DNA that
show where RNA Polymerase must bind
to begin the Transcription of RNA.
Called the TATA box
• Specific base sequences act as signals to
stop. Called the termination signal
mRNA Processing
• After the DNA is transcribed
into RNA, editing must be done
to the nucleotide chain to make
the RNA functional
• Introns, non-functional segments
of DNA are snipped out of the
chain
mRNA Editing
• Exons, segments of DNA that code for proteins,
are then rejoined by the enzyme ligase
• A guanine triphosphate cap is added to the 5”
end of the newly copied mRNA
• A poly A tail is added to the 3’ end of the RNA
• The newly processed mRNA can then leave the
nucleus
Result of Transcription

New Transcript Tail


CAP
mRNA Transcript
•mRNA leaves the nucleus
through its pores and goes to
the ribosomes
Translation
• Translation is the process of decoding the
mRNA into a polypeptide chain
• Ribosomes read mRNA three bases or 1 codon
at a time and construct the proteins
These amino acids come from the food we
eat. Proteins we eat are broken down into
individual amino acids and then simply
rearranged into new proteins according to
the needs and directions of our DNA.
• A series of three adjacent bases
in an mRNA molecule codes for a
specific amino acid—called a
codon.
Amino acid
• Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that
are complementary to the codon
in mRNA.

• Each tRNA codes for a different


amino acid.
Anticodon
• mRNA carrying the DNA
instructions and tRNA carrying
amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
End Product –The
Protein!
• The end products of
protein synthesis is a
primary structure of a
protein
• A sequence of amino acid
bonded together by
peptide bonds
Gene Regulation
What is Gene Regulation
 Gene regulation is the process used to control
the timing, location and amount in which
genes are expressed. The process can be
complicated and is carried out by a variety of
mechanisms, including through regulatory
proteins and chemical modification of DNA.
Gene regulation is key to the ability of an
organism to respond to environmental
changes.
Example, one of the jobs of the liver is
to remove toxic substances like alcohol
from the bloodstream. To do this, liver
cells express genes encoding subunits
(pieces) of an enzyme called alcohol
dehydrogenase. This enzyme breaks
alcohol down into a non-toxic molecule.
The neurons in a person’s brain don’t
remove toxins from the body, so they
keep these genes unexpressed, or
“turned off.” Similarly, the cells of the
liver don’t send signals using
neurotransmitters, so they keep
neurotransmitter genes turned off
Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

The DNA of prokaryotes is organized into


a circular chromosome that resides in
the cell’s cytoplasm. Proteins that are
needed for a specific function, or that are
involved in the same biochemical
pathway, are often encoded together in
blocks called operons.
 For example, all five of the genes needed to
make the amino acid tryptophan in the
bacterium E. coli are located next to each
other in the trp operon. The genes in an
operon are transcribed into a single mRNA
molecule.
 Each operon needs only one regulatory
region, including a promoter, where RNA
polymerase binds, and an operator, where
other regulatory proteins bind.
In prokaryotic cells, there are three types of
regulatory molecules that can affect the
expression of operons.
 Activators are proteins that increase the
transcription of a gene.
 Repressors are proteins that suppress
transcription of a gene.
 inducers are molecules that bind to
repressors and inactivate them.
The trp Operon: A Repressor
Operon
Like all cells, bacteria need amino acids to
survive. Tryptophan is one amino acid that
the bacterium E. coli can either ingest from
the environment or synthesize. When E.
coli needs to synthesize tryptophan, it must
express a set of five proteins that are
encoded by five genes. These five genes are
located next to each other in the tryptophan
(trp) operon.
 When tryptophan is present in the cell, two
tryptophan molecules bind to the trp
repressor. This causes the repressor to
change shape and bind to the trp operator.

 When tryptophan is not present in the cell,


the repressor has no tryptophan to bind to it.
The repressor is not activated and it does not
bind to the operator.
The lac Operon: An Inducer
Operon
The lac operon in E. coli has more complex
regulation, involving both a repressor and
an activator. E. coli uses glucose for food,
but is able to use other sugars, such as
lactose, when glucose concentrations are
low. Three proteins are needed to break
down lactose; they are encoded by the
three genes of the lac operon.
 When lactose is not present, the proteins to
digest lactose are not needed. Therefore, a
repressor binds to the operator and
prevents RNA polymerase from
transcribing the operon.

 When lactose is present, lactose binds to


the repressor and removes it from the
operator. RNA polymerase is now free to
transcribe the genes necessary to digest
lactose
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
In eukaryotes, control of gene expression is more
complex and can happen at many different levels.
Eukaryotic genes are not organized into operons,
so each gene must be regulated independently.

In addition, eukaryotic cells have many more


genes than prokaryotic cells.
Regulation of gene expression can happen at any
of the stages as DNA is transcribed into mRNA and
mRNA is translated into protein.
Regulation is divided into five levels: epigenetic,
transcriptional, post-transcriptional,
translational, and post-translational
 Epigenetic control involves changes to genes
that do not alter the nucleotide sequence of the
DNA and are not permanent.

 Transcriptional control (whether and


how much a gene is transcribed into
mRNA)

 Post-transcriptional regulation occurs


after the mRNA is transcribed but
before translation begins.
 Translational control (whether
and how much an mRNA is
translated into protein)

 Post-translational control (whether


the protein is in an active or inactive
form, and whether the protein is
stable or degraded)
Thank you

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