Hole’s Human Anatomy

and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier w Butler w Lewis

Chapter
2
Chemical Basis of Life

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2.1: Introduction

Why study chemistry in an

Anatomy and Physiology class?

- Body functions depend on cellular functions

- Cellular functions result from chemical changes
- Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes
2.2: Structure of Matter

Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight).

It is composed of elements.

Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms:

• Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts
• Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts
• Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very
minute amounts

Atoms – smallest particle of an element

Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter
Elements and Atoms
• All matter is composed of elements
• Elements are the parts of compounds
• Elements are:
• Bulk elements
• Trace elements
• Ultratrace elements
• The smallest parts of atoms are elements
Atomic Structure
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Atoms - composed of Neutron

subatomic particles: (n0)
-
• Proton – carries a single
positive charge Proton
• Neutron – carries no (p+)
electrical charge
• Electron – carries a + 0 Electron
+ - (e–)
single negative charge 0 0
0
+
Nucleus
• Central part of atom
• Composed of protons and
neutrons Nucleus
• Electrons move around the -
nucleus
Lithium (Li)
Atomic Number,
Mass Number and
Atomic Weight

Atomic Number
• Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom
• Each element has a unique atomic number
• Equals the number of electrons in the atom
Mass Number
• The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom
• Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom

Atomic Weight
• Average of mass numbers of the isotopes of an element
Isotopes
Isotopes
• Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with
different mass numbers
• Different number of neutrons
• Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)
Molecules and Compounds

Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms

chemically combine

Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of

different elements chemically combine

Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and

the number of each atom present in the molecule
H2 C6H12O6 H2O
Bonding of Atoms
• Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms

• Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called

electron shells which circle the nucleus

• For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following

rules apply:
• The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons
• The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons
• The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons
Bonding of Atoms
• Lower shells are filled first
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• If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable

- - -

+ + 0
+ 0 0 + -
0 0
+ 0
+

- -

Hydrogen (H) Helium (He) Lithium (Li)

Bonding of Atoms: Ions
Ion
• An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable
• An electrically charged atom

Cation
• A positively charged ion 11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0
• Formed when an atom loses electrons

Anion
Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)
• A negatively charged ion
• Formed when an atom gains
electrons
Ionic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
• An attraction between a cation and an anion

• Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to

another atom Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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Na+
Cl–

+ 11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0 –

Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl–)

Sodium chloride
Covalent Bonds
• Formed when atoms share electrons
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H H H2
- -
-

+ + + +

Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds H―H

• Oxygen atoms form two bonds O=O
• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds N≡N
• Carbon atoms form four bonds O=C=O
Bonding of Atoms:
Structural Formula
• Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in
various molecules
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H H
H H O O O O C O

H2 O2 H2O CO2
Bonding of Atoms:
Polar Molecules
Polar Molecules
• Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
• Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds
• Water is an important polar molecule
Slightly negative ends

(a)
Slightly positive ends
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
• A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule
• Formed between water molecules
• Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
H H
O

H
Hydrogen bonds
O
H
H
O
H
H O

H H

O
H
(b)
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or
break among atoms, ions, or molecules

Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the

atoms, ions, or molecules

Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical

reaction

NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl-

Reactant Products
Chapter 2 | Part 2
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure
is formed
A + B ’ AB
Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form
a simpler chemical structure
AB ’ A + B

Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new

bonds are formed
AB + CD ’ AD + CB
Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the
reactants
A + B n AB
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions
in water
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with
hydrogen ions
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an
acid and a base
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl
Acid and Base Concentration
pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in
solution
Neutral – pH 7; Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

indicates equal Relative Acidic 6.6 7.4

8.4
Sodium
Amounts H+ cow’s Human biocarbonate
concentrations of H+ of H+ (red)
and OH– 3.0
4.2
tomato
5.3
cabbage milk blood
11.5
2.0 10.5
and OH- (blue) apple juice Household
gastric juice milk of ammonia
8.0
juice magnesia
7.0 Egg
6.0

Acidic – pH less than

Distilled white Basic
corn
water OH–
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
7; indicates a greater Acidic H+ concentration increases Neutral OH– concentration increases Basic (alkaline)

concentration of H+
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;
indicates a greater concentration of OH-
Neutralization and Buffers
• Neutralization occurs when an acid and
base react to form a salt and water in a
displacement reaction.
– HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
– Termed neutralization because water is formed
neutralizing the solution.
• Buffers act as acids when pH is high and
bases when pH is low.
– Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system.
2.3: Chemical Constituents
of Cells
Organic v. Inorganic Molecules

Organic molecules
• Contain C and H
• Usually larger than inorganic molecules
• Dissolve in water and organic liquids
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules
• Generally do not contain C and H
• Usually smaller than organic molecules
• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
• Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
Inorganic Substances
Water
• Most abundant compound in living material
• Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
• Major component of all body fluids
• Medium for most metabolic reactions
• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
• Absorbs and transports heat

Oxygen (O2)
• Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in
order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
• Necessary for survival
Inorganic Substances

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Waste product released during metabolic reactions
• Must be removed from the body

Inorganic salts
• Abundant in body fluids
• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)
• Play important roles in metabolism
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
• Provide energy to cells
• Supply materials to build cell structures
• Water-soluble
• Contain C, H, and O
• Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)
• Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
• Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose
• Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
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H O
C

H C O H
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H
H O C H H C O H
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H C O H C O O
H H
H C O H H
C
O H H C
O O H
H C O H C C
H H O H
(a) Some glucose molecules (b) More commonly, glucose (c) This shape symbolizes
(C6H12O6) have a straight molecules form a ring structure. the ring structure of a
chain of carbon atoms. glucose molecule.
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
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O O O
O

(a) Monosaccharide (b) Disaccharide

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(c) Polysaccharide
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
• Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule
• Saturated and unsaturated
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H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

O H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H

Glycerol Fatty acid

portion portions
Neutral Fats
• Triglycerides are formed from a fatty acid and glycerol (a
sugar).
• They are the most plentiful source of stored energy to our
bodies.
– Two types:
• Saturated- contain only single bonds
• Unsaturated- contains one(mono) or more(poly) double bonds
• Short, unsaturated fats are liquids (oils) and come from
plants.
• Long, saturated fats are solid (butter and meat fat) and
come from animals.
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Phospholipids
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per
molecule
• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• Major component of cell membranes
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H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

H H C O Fatty acid

H C O Fatty acid H C O Fatty acid Water-insoluble

(hydrophobic)
H C O Fatty acid “tail”
O H H H
H C O Fatty acid Water-soluble
H C O P O C C N
(hydrophilic)
H H “head”
H O– H H
Glycerol portion
Phosphate portion
(a) A fat molecule (b) A phospholipid molecule (c) Schematic representation
(the unshaded portion may vary) of a phospholipid molecule
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Steroids
• Four connected rings of carbon
• Widely distributed in the body, various functions
• Component of cell membrane
• Used to synthesize hormones
• Cholesterol
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CH3 CH3
H2 CH3 H
C C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH
H2 C C CH2
CH3
H2 CH3
C HC CH CH2
H2C C CH

HO C C CH2
H C C
H2 H

(a) General structure of a steroid

(b) Cholesterol
Organic Substances
Proteins
• Structural material • Protein building blocks are
• Energy source amino acids
• Hormones • Amino acids held
• Receptors together with peptide
• Enzymes bonds H
• Antibodies C
H C C H
H
H C C H
S C
R H C H H C H
H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH
H H O H H O H H O
Organic Substances
Proteins
Four Levels of Protein Structure
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Amino acids H H

Primary structure Tertiary structure

Three-dimensional
H
C
N
H H
C
C O
R
H folding
C

Secondary structure
C N R
C O H N H C
H H H HO
C C R H
R R C
N
N H O C N C C
R O
O C N H C H
R R H H O
R
C C C H

Quaternary structure
H H N C
H N C O C N
O R
H
C O H N O C
H H H
H H R
R C C R N C
N C
N H O C R C O
C H
O C N H
H HO
R R R
C H
C C N C
H H C N
H N C O O
H
Pleated C O H N Coiled O
H H
structure C C
structure
Animation: Protein Denaturation

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Organic Substances
Nucleic Acids
• Carry genes
• Encode amino acid sequences of proteins
• Building blocks are nucleotides
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P B
S

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide

• RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide
Organic Substances
Nucleic Acids
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S
P B P B B
P
S S

S
P B P B B
P
S S

S
P B P B B
P
S S

S
P B P B B
P
S S

S
P B P B B
P
S S

S
P B P B B
P
S S

(a) (b)