Marxism

(A structural perspective)
Karl Marx (1818-83)
Marxism
 Historical materialism: the material struggle
for existence in the economic base will result
in changes in society
 Economic factors shape all aspects of society
 The shift from feudalism to capitalism

instigated many social problems and wide

spread injustice
 All social relationships are actually

relationships existing in the economic system

Marxism
◦ The Capitalist Society is structured along two
classes: the upper class/ bourgeoisie and the lower
class/ proletariat
◦ Ownership of private property and of means of
production gives power and gives the authority to
control the lives of those who do not own property
Marxism
When a minority is able to control, command
and enjoy the fruits of the labor of the
majority, it is said to exploit the masses.
This exploitation includes:
 earning massive profits, while paying meager

wages to the workers

 Manipulating the law for personal benefit
 Affecting the consciousness of the masses by

controlling the ideological state apparatuses:

media, religion, culture, education etc
Marxism
Social Order:
Marxists criticize the functionalist perspective of
collective consciousness and suggest that there
can’t be one set of values resulting in integration.
Rather values reflect social relationships, that are
formed according to the economic system
It is more likely that the lower class is forced to
accept the values of the ruling class and hence
their consciousness is infused with ruling class
ideology.
Marxism
SOCIAL ORDER: is maintained through the
domination of the many by the few; it thrives
through coercion
In capitalist societies social order is established
because of the economic pressures on the
working class, that force them to accept their
working conditions and way of life decided
for them by the bourgeoisie
Marxism
False Consciousness:
When the law legitimizes the rights of private property…
When religious beliefs justify economic arrangements….
When discrimination according to class is considered
natural and inevitable…..
Members of society will be largely unaware
of the contradictions existing in this
distorted picture of reality the
consciousness created is false
Marxism
False Consciousness:
 Marxists claim that members of both social

classes are largely unaware of the true nature

of their situation
 Members of ruling class assume that their

particular interests are those of society as a

whole.
 Members of the subject class accept this view

of reality and regard their situation as part of

the natural order of things.
Marxism
The unstable consciousness:
However, this social order based on false
consciousness is temporary….
Marxists claim that our consciousness is derived
from our experiences and is likely to change
when influenced by different ideologies
So Over long periods of time, when the working
class becomes frustrated due to its alienation at
work and when the true nature of their
exploitation is revealed to them, a socialist
consciousness will start developing
Marxism
Alienation at Work:
A sense of meaninglessness, powerlessness,
isolation and self estrangement the lower
class feels at work. Due to the way that
capitalism dehumanizes people as a result of
their abilities, and the products of their
abilities, being taken over by the bourgeoisie
Marxism
Social Change
 Ultimately the proletariat will become aware of

their undue exploitation and of the

contradictions pertaining to their work and
standard of living
 They will organize themselves, and bring about a

revolution that will overthrow the ruling

capitalists
 This will lead to the formation of a communist

society where there is no ownership of private

property
Marxism
Communism:
A society where the means of production are
held in common and separate classes do not
exist, creating an egalitarian society without
class conflict.
Upto 1989-91 used to refer to Eastern Europe
(Poland) and Soviet Union.
Today to China, Vietnam, Cuba and other
similar states.
Marxism
 Acc. to Marx hence revolutionary change is an
inevitable result of the conflicts within a
society where there is unequal distribution of
wealth and power
 Only in a classless or communist society, will

there be true social order that is permanent.

Criticisms Of Marxism
1. History has failed to substantiate Marx’s
views on the direction of social change.
Class conflict, has become institutionalized
rather than becoming more intense.
A third class has emerged, the middle class,
further making the society’s structure more
complex. They are neither helpless nor too
rich.
Criticisms of Marxism
2. History has not borne out the promise of
communism as Marx predicted. Significant social
inequalities are present in communist regimes e.g.
Soviet Union now prefers Western style democracy.
Poland communism broke apart in early 1990s

3. Marx’s view that economy is the most important

institution and it affects all other social institutions
such as family, religion, law etc has been
criticized. Other institutions are also important
(Neo-marxism)
Criticisms of Marxism
 According to critics, in countries where the
means of production are communally owned,
power is still largely monopolized by the
political and bureaucratic elite.
 Pluralism
Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism and Frankfurt School
 An improvement of Marxist theory
 More in line with contemporary societies
 Main theorists include Antonio Gramsci,

Althusser and Habermas

 Ideology is the major source of domination in

modern societies
Ideology
 Refers to the science of ideas, philosophy,
beliefs
 Also known as false or mistaken ideas

imposed by one group on another to

maintain their advantaged position in society.
Neo-Marxism
 Economic factors are not the most important
factors to bring about social change
 Antonio Gramsci suggests that ownership of

means of production are not sufficient to

guarantee that a ruling class would
monopolize power
 Rather, a ruling class has to actively try to win

support from the members of society and

create a “hegemony” (rule by consent)
Neo-Marxism
 According to Gramsci, the ruling class cannot
rely on false consciousness to guarantee its
ruling position and to maintain social order,
since all members are somewhat aware of
their exploitation
 Hence, the ruling class is dealing with a

‘dual-consciousness’ and it has to make

some real concessions to the masses in order
to rule over them
Neo-Marxism
 Althusser adds on that the ruling class has two means
of controlling the masses. One is the ideological state
apparatuses that include: politics, mass media,
religion and the education system.

 By shrewdly manipulating the mind sets of people,

can the ruling class continue to remain in power. This
method is most effective in literate societies

 Hence, more than the economy, the culture of society

and the institutions of the superstructure are given
more importance to maintain political stability
Neo-Marxism
The other means of controlling the masses are
termed as repressive state apparatuses: the
law, police, army and justice system
When the ideological state apparatus fails to
produce the desired affect and there is a crisis
of hegemony, the ruling class can shift to using
the repressive tools to control the masses.
In this sense, social order is again the result of
coercion. But in this case, the lower classes, are
somewhat aware of their exploitation.
Neo-Marxism
 Marx thought that human liberation could
only be achieved once the means of
production were communally owned and
there was material equality for members of
society.
 Habermas, however claims that non-material

factors are as important as material factors in

liberating humans e.g. ideas and language.
Not all ideas are products of material factors