DATA MINING

M.P.GEETHA,
Department of CSE,
Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore
1
DATA MINING

DATA MINING Motivation -Steps in Data Mining –

Architecture - Data Mining and Databases – Data
Warehouses – Data Mining functionalities –
Classification – Data Mining Primitives – Major issues.
DATA PREPROCESSING: Descriptive data
summarization -Data Cleaning integration
INTRODUCTION
Why Data Mining?

• The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes(10004) to yottabytes(10008)

– Data collection and data availability
• Automated data collection tools, database systems, web
– Major sources of abundant data
• Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
• Science: bioinformatics, scientific simulation, medical research …
• Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, …
• Data rich but information poor!
– What does those data mean?
– How to analyze data?

• Data mining — Automated analysis of massive data sets

Evolution of Database Technology
What Is Data Mining?

• Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

– Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from
huge amount of data
– Data mining: a misnomer?
• Alternative names
– Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data
dredging, information harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
Motivation
Why Data Mining?—Potential Applications

• Data analysis and decision support

– Market analysis and management

• Target marketing, customer relationship management (CRM),

market basket analysis, cross selling, market segmentation
– Risk analysis and management

• Forecasting, customer retention, improved underwriting, quality

control, competitive analysis
– Fraud detection and detection of unusual patterns (outliers)

• Other Applications
– Text mining (news group, email, documents) and Web mining
– Stream data mining
– DNA and bio-data analysis
Market Analysis and Management
• Where does the data come from?
– Credit card transactions, loyalty cards, discount coupons, customer complaint calls, plus (public) lifestyle studies

• Target marketing
– Find clusters of “model” customers who share the same characteristics: interest, income level, spending habits,
etc.
– Determine customer purchasing patterns over time

• Cross-market analysis
– Associations/co-relations between product sales, & prediction based on such association

• Customer profiling
– What types of customers buy what products (clustering or classification)

• Customer requirement analysis

– identifying the best products for different customers

– predict what factors will attract new customers

• Provision of summary information

– multidimensional summary reports

– statistical summary information (data central tendency and variation)

Corporate Analysis & Risk Management

• Finance planning and asset evaluation

– cash flow analysis and prediction
– contingent claim analysis to evaluate assets
– cross-sectional and time series analysis (financial-ratio, trend
analysis, etc.)
• Resource planning
– summarize and compare the resources and spending
• Competition
– monitor competitors and market directions
– group customers into classes and a class-based pricing procedure
– set pricing strategy in a highly competitive market
Fraud Detection & Mining Unusual Patterns

• Approaches: Clustering & model construction for frauds, outlier analysis

• Applications: Health care, retail, credit card service, telecomm.
– Auto insurance: ring of collisions
– Money laundering: suspicious monetary transactions
– Medical insurance
• Professional patients, ring of doctors, and ring of references
• Unnecessary or correlated screening tests
– Telecommunications: phone-call fraud
• Phone call model: destination of the call, duration, time of day or
week. Analyze patterns that deviate from an expected norm
– Retail industry
• Analysts estimate that 38% of retail shrink is due to dishonest
employees
– Anti-terrorism
Other Applications

• Sports
– IBM Advanced Scout analyzed NBA game statistics (shots
blocked, assists, and fouls) to gain competitive advantage for
New York Knicks and Miami Heat
• Astronomy
– JPL and the Palomar Observatory discovered 22 quasars with the
help of data mining
• Internet Web Surf-Aid
– IBM Surf-Aid applies data mining algorithms to Web access logs
for market-related pages to discover customer preference and
behavior pages, analyzing effectiveness of Web marketing,
improving Web site organization, etc.
Steps in Data Mining
Steps of a KDD Process
Steps of a KDD Process
• Learning the application domain
– relevant prior knowledge and goals of application
• Identifying a target data set: data selection
• Data processing
– Data cleaning (remove noise and inconsistent data)
– Data integration (multiple data sources maybe combined)
– Data selection (data relevant to the analysis task are retrieved from database)
– Data transformation (data transformed or consolidated into forms appropriate for mining)
(Done with data preprocessing)
– Data mining (an essential process where intelligent methods are applied to extract
data patterns)
– Pattern evaluation (indentify the truly interesting patterns)
– Knowledge presentation (mined knowledge is presented to the user with
visualization or representation techniques)

• Use of discovered knowledge

Data Mining and Business Intelligence
Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Making
Decisions

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Analysis, Querying and Reporting

Data Warehouses / Data Marts

OLAP, MDA DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Information Providers, Database Systems, OLTP
Architecture
A typical DM System Architecture

• Database, data warehouse, WWW or other information

repository (store data)
• Database or data warehouse server (fetch and combine
data)
• Knowledge base (turn data into meaningful groups
according to domain knowledge)
• Data mining engine (perform mining tasks)
• Pattern evaluation module (find interesting patterns)
• User interface (interact with the user)
Architecture: Typical Data Mining System

Graphical user interface

Pattern evaluation

Data mining engine

Knowledge-base
Database or data
warehouse server
Data cleaning & data integration Filtering

Data
Databases Warehouse
Data Mining and Databases
Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?
• Relational database
• Data warehouse
• Transactional database
• Advanced database and information repository
– Object-relational database
– Spatial and temporal data
– Time-series data
– Stream data
– Multimedia database
– Heterogeneous and legacy database
– Text databases & WWW
Relational Databases
• DBMS – database management system, contains a collection of
interrelated databases
e.g. Faculty database, student database, publications database
• Each database contains a collection of tables and functions to manage and access
the data.
e.g. student_bio, student_graduation, student_parking
• Each table contains columns and rows, with columns as attributes of data and rows
as records.
• Tables can be used to represent the relationships between or among multiple tables.
Relational Databases (2) – AllElectronics store
Relational Databases (3)
• With a relational query language, e.g. SQL, we will be able to find answers
to questions such as:
– How many items were sold last year?
– Who has earned commissions higher than 10%?
– What is the total sales of last month for Dell laptops?
• When data mining is applied to relational databases, we can search for trends
or data patterns.
• Relational databases are one of the most commonly available and rich
information repositories, and thus are a major data form in our study.
Data Warehouses
• A repository of information collected from multiple sources, stored
under a unified schema, and that usually resides at a single site.
• Constructed via a process of data cleaning, data integration, data
transformation, data loading and periodic data refreshing.
Data Warehouses (2)

• Data are organized around major subjects, e.g. customer, item,

supplier and activity.
• Provide information from a historical perspective (e.g. from the past
5 – 10 years)
• Typically summarized to a higher level (e.g. a summary of the
transactions per item type for each store)
• User can perform drill-down or roll-up operation to view the data at
different degrees of summarization
Data Warehouses (3)
Transactional Databases
• Consists of a file where each record represents a transaction
• A transaction typically includes a unique transaction ID and a list of
the items making up the transaction.

• Either stored in a flat file or unfolded into relational tables

• Easy to identify items that are frequently sold together
Data Mining functionalities
Data Mining Functionalities
- What kinds of patterns can be mined?

• Concept/Class Description: Characterization and

Discrimination
– Data can be associated with classes or concepts.
• E.g. classes of items – computers, printers, …
concepts of customers – bigSpenders, budgetSpenders, …
• How to describe these items or concepts?
– Descriptions can be derived via
• Data characterization – summarizing the general characteristics of a
target class of data.
– E.g. summarizing the characteristics of customers who spend more than $1,000 a year
at AllElectronics. Result can be a general profile of the customers, such as 40 – 50 years
old, employed, have excellent credit ratings.
Data Mining Functionalities
- What kinds of patterns can be mined?
• Data discrimination – comparing the target class with one or a set of
comparative classes
– E.g. Compare the general features of software products whole sales increase by 10% in
the last year with those whose sales decrease by 30% during the same period

• Or both of the above

• Mining Frequent Patterns, Associations and Correlations

– Frequent itemset: a set of items that frequently appear
together in a transactional data set (e.g. milk and bread)
– Frequent subsequence: a pattern that customers tend to purchase
product A, followed by a purchase of product B
Data Mining Functionalities
- What kinds of patterns can be mined?

– Association Analysis: find frequent patterns

• E.g. a sample analysis result – an association rule:
buys(X, “computer”) => buys(X, “software”) [support = 1%, confidence = 50%]
(if a customer buys a computer, there is a 50% chance that she will buy software.
1% of all of the transactions under analysis showed that computer and software
are purchased together. )
• Associations rules are discarded as uninteresting if they do not satisfy both a
minimum support threshold and a minimum confidence threshold.

– Correlation Analysis: additional analysis to find statistical correlations

between associated pairs
Data Mining Functionalities
- What kinds of patterns can be mined?

• Classification and Prediction

– Classification
• The process of finding a model that describes and distinguishes the data classes or
concepts, for the purpose of being able to use the model to predict the class of
objects whose class label is unknown.
• The derived model is based on the analysis of a set of training data (data objects
whose class label is known).
• The model can be represented in classification (IF-THEN) rules, decision trees,
neural networks, etc.

– Prediction
• Predict missing or unavailable numerical data values
Data Mining Functionalities
- What kinds of patterns can be mined?
Data Mining Functionalities

• Cluster Analysis
– Class label is unknown: group data to form new classes
– Clusters of objects are formed based on the principle of maximizing
intra-class similarity & minimizing interclass similarity
• E.g. Identify homogeneous subpopulations of customers. These clusters may
represent individual target groups for marketing.
Data Mining Functionalities

• Outlier Analysis
– Data that do no comply with the general behavior or model.
– Outliers are usually discarded as noise or exceptions.
– Useful for fraud detection.
• E.g. Detect purchases of extremely large amounts

• Evolution Analysis
– Describes and models regularities or trends for objects whose
behavior changes over time.
• E.g. Identify stock evolution regularities for overall stocks and for the stocks of
particular companies.
Are All of the Patterns Interesting?
• Data mining may generate thousands of patterns: Not all of them
are interesting
• A pattern is interesting if it is
– easily understood by humans
– valid on new or test data with some degree of certainty,
– potentially useful
– novel
– validates some hypothesis that a user seeks to confirm

• An interesting measure represents knowledge !

Are All of the Patterns Interesting?
• Objective measures
– Based on statistics and structures of patterns, e.g., support, confidence, etc.
(Rules that do not satisfy a threshold are considered uninteresting.)

• Subjective measures
– Reflect the needs and interests of a particular user.
• E.g. A marketing manager is only interested in characteristics of customers who shop

frequently.

– Based on user’s belief in the data.

• e.g., Patterns are interesting if they are unexpected, or can be used for strategic planning,
etc

• Objective and subjective measures need to be combined.

Are All of the Patterns Interesting?
• Find all the interesting patterns: Completeness
– Unrealistic and inefficient
– User-provided constraints and interestingness measures should be used
• Search for only interesting patterns: An optimization problem
– Highly desirable
– No need to search through the generated patterns to identify truly
interesting ones.
– Measures can be used to rank the discovered patterns according their
interestingness.
Classification
Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Database
Statistics
Systems

Machine
Learning
Data Mining Visualization

Algorithm Other
Disciplines
Classification of data mining systems

• Database
– Relational, data warehouse, transactional, stream, object-oriented/relational, active, spatial,
time-series, text, multi-media, heterogeneous, legacy, WWW
• Knowledge
– Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, trend/deviation,
outlier analysis, etc.
– Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
• Techniques utilized
– Database-oriented, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics,
visualization, etc.
• Applications adapted
– Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock
market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.
Data Mining Task Primitives
Data Mining Task Primitives

– The primitives specify:

(1) The set of task-relevant data – which portion of the database to be used
– Database or data warehouse name

– Database tables or data warehouse cubes

– Condition for data selection

– Relevant attributes or dimensions

– Data grouping criteria

Data Mining Task Primitives

– The primitives specify:

(2) The kind of knowledge to be mined – what DB functions to be performed

– Characterization

– Discrimination

– Association

– Classification/prediction

– Clustering

– Outlier analysis

– Other data mining tasks

Data Mining Task Primitives

(3) The background knowledge to be used – what domain knowledge,

concept hierarchies, etc.

(4) Interestingness measures and thresholds – support, confidence, etc.

(5) Visualization methods – what form to display the result, e.g. rules,

tables, charts, graphs, …

• DMQL – Data Mining Query Language
– Designed to incorporate these primitives
– Allow user to interact with DM systems
– Providing a standardized language like SQL
Data Mining: Classification Schemes

• General functionality
– Descriptive data mining
– Predictive data mining
• Different views, different classifications
– Kinds of data to be mined
– Kinds of knowledge to be discovered
– Kinds of techniques utilized
– Kinds of applications adapted
Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
• Data to be mined
– Relational, data warehouse, transactional, stream, object-
oriented/relational, active, spatial, time-series, text, multi-media,
heterogeneous, legacy, WWW
• Knowledge to be mined
– Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering,
trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.
– Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
• Techniques utilized
– Database-oriented, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning,
statistics, visualization, etc.
• Applications adapted
– Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock
market analysis, Web mining, etc.
Major Issues in Data Mining
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining methodology and User interaction
– Mining different kinds of knowledge
• DM should cover a wide spectrum of data analysis and knowledge discovery tasks
• Enable to use the database in different ways
• Require the development of numerous data mining techniques
– Interactive mining of knowledge at multiple levels of abstraction
• Difficult to know exactly what will be discovered
• Allow users to focus the search, refine data mining requests
– Incorporation of background knowledge
• Guide the discovery process
• Allow discovered patterns to be expressed in concise terms and different levels of
abstraction
– Data mining query languages and ad hoc data mining
• High-level query languages need to be developed
• Should be integrated with a DB/DW query language
Major Issues in Data Mining
– Presentation and visualization of results
• Knowledge should be easily understood and directly usable
• High level languages, visual representations or other expressive forms
• Require the DM system to adopt the above techniques

– Handling noisy or incomplete data

• Require data cleaning methods and data analysis methods that can handle noise

– Pattern evaluation – the interestingness problem

• How to develop techniques to access the interestingness of discovered patterns,
especially with subjective measures bases on user beliefs or expectations
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Performance Issues
– Efficiency and scalability
• Huge amount of data
• Running time must be predictable and acceptable

– Parallel, distributed and incremental mining algorithms

• Divide the data into partitions and processed in parallel
• Incorporate database updates without having to mine the entire data again from
scratch

• Diversity of Database Types

– Other database that contain complex data objects, multimedia data,
spatial data, etc.
– Expect to have different DM systems for different kinds of data
– Heterogeneous databases and global information systems
• Web mining becomes a very challenging and fast-evolving field in data mining
Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

54
Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data?

• Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

– Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
– Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
– Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
– Timeliness: timely update?
– Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
– Interpretability: how easily the data can be
understood?
Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers,
and resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data transformation and data discretization
– Normalization
– Concept hierarchy generation
Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

Data Cleaning
• Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g.,
instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
– incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
• e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
– noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
• e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
– inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
• Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
• Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
• discrepancy between duplicate records
– Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
• Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
Incomplete (Missing) Data

• Data is not always available

– E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
• Missing data may be due to
– equipment malfunction
– inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
– data not entered due to misunderstanding
– certain data may not be considered important at the
time of entry
– not register history or changes of the data
• Missing data may need to be inferred
How to Handle Missing Data?
• Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing
(when doing classification)—not effective when the % of
missing values per attribute varies considerably
• Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
• Fill in it automatically with
– a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
– the attribute mean
– the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same
class: smarter
– the most probable value: inference-based such as
Bayesian formula or decision tree
Noisy Data
• Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
• Incorrect attribute values may be due to
– faulty data collection instruments
– data entry problems
– data transmission problems
– technology limitation
– inconsistency in naming convention
• Other data problems which require data cleaning
– duplicate records
– incomplete data
– inconsistent data
How to Handle Noisy Data?

• Binning
– first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
– then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin
median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.
• Regression
– smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
• Clustering
– detect and remove outliers
• Combined computer and human inspection
– detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g.,
deal with possible outliers)
Data Cleaning as a Process
• Data discrepancy detection
– Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
– Check field overloading
– Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
– Use commercial tools
• Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code,
spell-check) to detect errors and make corrections
• Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship
to detect violators (e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)
• Data migration and integration
– Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
– ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify
transformations through a graphical user interface
• Integration of the two processes
– Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)
Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

Data Integration
• Data integration:
– Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
• Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
– Integrate metadata from different sources
• Entity identification problem:
– Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton =
William Clinton
• Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
– For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources
are different
– Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric
vs. British units
Handling Redundancy in Data Integration

• Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple

databases
– Object identification: The same attribute or object may
have different names in different databases
– Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived”
attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue
• Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by
correlation analysis and covariance analysis
• Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may
help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and
improve mining speed and quality
Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
• Χ2 (chi-square) test
(Observed  Expected ) 2
2  
Expected
• The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are
related
• The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are
those whose actual count is very different from the
expected count
• Correlation does not imply causality
– # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
– Both are causally linked to the third variable: population
Chi-Square Calculation: An Example

Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)

Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

• Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are

expected counts calculated based on the data distribution in
the two categories)
(250  90) 2 (50  210) 2 (200  360) 2 (1000  840) 2
 
2
    507.93
90 210 360 840
• It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are
correlated in the group
Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)

• Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product

moment coefficient)

i1 (ai  A)(bi  B) 

n n
(ai bi )  n AB
rA, B   i 1

(n  1) A B (n  1) A B

where n is the number of tuples,A B

and are the respective
means of A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation
of A and B, and Σ(aibi) is the sum of the AB cross-product.
• If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values
increase as B’s). The higher, the stronger correlation.
• rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated
Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
–1 to 1.
Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)
• Correlation measures the linear relationship
between objects
• To compute correlation, we standardize data
objects, A and B, and then take their dot product
a'k  (ak  mean( A)) / std ( A)

b'k  (bk  mean( B)) / std ( B)

correlation( A, B )  A' B '

Covariance (Numeric Data)
• Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:

where n is the number of tuples, A

and areBthe respective mean or expected
values of A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B.
• Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their
expected values.
• Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is
likely to be smaller than its expected value.
• Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
– Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not independent.
Only under some additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow multivariate normal
distributions) does a covariance of 0 imply independence
Co-Variance: An Example

• It can be simplified in computation as

• Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2,
5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).

• Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will
their prices rise or fall together?

– E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4

– E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6

– Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4

• Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.

Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

Data Reduction Strategies
• Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that
is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the
same) analytical results
• Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very long time to
run on the complete data set.
• Data reduction strategies
– Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes
• Wavelet transforms
• Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
• Feature subset selection, feature creation
– Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)
• Regression and Log-Linear Models
• Histograms, clustering, sampling
• Data cube aggregation
– Data compression
Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality Reduction
• Curse of dimensionality
– When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
– Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier
analysis, becomes less meaningful
– The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
• Dimensionality reduction
– Avoid the curse of dimensionality
– Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
– Reduce time and space required in data mining
– Allow easier visualization
• Dimensionality reduction techniques
– Wavelet transforms
– Principal Component Analysis
– Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)
Mapping Data to a New Space
 Fourier transform
 Wavelet transform

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

What Is Wavelet Transform?
• Decomposes a signal into
different frequency subbands
– Applicable to n-
dimensional signals
• Data are transformed to
preserve relative distance
between objects at different
levels of resolution
• Allow natural clusters to
become more distinguishable
• Used for image compression
Wavelet Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
• Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal processing,
multi-resolution analysis
• Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the
strongest of the wavelet coefficients
• Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy
compression, localized in space
• Method:
– Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when
necessary)
– Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
– Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
– Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
Wavelet Decomposition
• Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient hierarchical
decomposition of functions
• S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^ =
[23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1, 0]
• Compression: many small detail coefficients can be
replaced by 0’s, and only the significant coefficients are
retained
Haar Wavelet Coefficients
Coefficient
Hierarchical “Supports”
2.75
decomposition 2.75 +
structure (a.k.a. +
“error tree”) + -1.25
-
-1.25
+ -
0.5
+
0.5
- +
0
- 0
+
-
0 -1 -1 0
+
-
+ - + - + - + - 0

-1
+
-+
-+
2 2 0 2 3 5 4 4
-1
Original frequency distribution 0 -+
-
Why Wavelet Transform?
• Use hat-shape filters
– Emphasize region where points cluster
– Suppress weaker information in their boundaries
• Effective removal of outliers
– Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order
• Multi-resolution
– Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different scales
• Efficient
– Complexity O(N)
• Only applicable to low dimensional data
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
• Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
• The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting
in dimensionality reduction. We find the eigenvectors of the
covariance matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

x1
Principal Component Analysis (Steps)
• Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data
– Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
– Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
– Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors
– The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
– Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be reduced
by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low variance
(i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is possible to
reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
• Works for numeric data only
Attribute Subset Selection
• Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
• Redundant attributes
– Duplicate much or all of the information contained in
one or more other attributes
– E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of
sales tax paid
• Irrelevant attributes
– Contain no information that is useful for the data
mining task at hand
– E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of
predicting students' GPA
Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection
• There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes
• Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
– Best single attribute under the attribute independence
assumption: choose by significance tests
– Best step-wise feature selection:
• The best single-attribute is picked first
• Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...
– Step-wise attribute elimination:
• Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute
– Best combined attribute selection and elimination
– Optimal branch and bound:
• Use attribute elimination and backtracking
Attribute Creation (Feature Generation)
• Create new attributes (features) that can capture the
important information in a data set more effectively than
the original ones
• Three general methodologies
– Attribute extraction
• Domain-specific
– Mapping data to new space (see: data reduction)
• E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet
transformation, manifold approaches
– Attribute construction
• Combining features Data discretization
Data Reduction 2: Numerosity Reduction
• Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller
forms of data representation
• Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
– Assume the data fits some model, estimate model
parameters, store only the parameters, and discard
the data (except possible outliers)
– Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-
D space as the product on appropriate marginal
subspaces
• Non-parametric methods
– Do not assume models
– Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …
Parametric Data Reduction: Regression
and Log-Linear Models
• Linear regression
– Data modeled to fit a straight line
– Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
• Multiple regression
– Allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a
linear function of multidimensional feature vector
• Log-linear model
– Approximates discrete multidimensional probability
distributions
y
Regression Analysis
Y1

• Regression analysis: A collective name for

techniques for the modeling and analysis Y1’
y=x+1
of numerical data consisting of values of a
dependent variable (also called
response variable or measurement) and X1 x
of one or more independent variables (aka.
explanatory variables or predictors)
• Used for prediction
• The parameters are estimated so as to (including forecasting of
give a "best fit" of the data time-series data),
inference, hypothesis
• Most commonly the best fit is evaluated by
testing, and modeling of
using the least squares method, but causal relationships
other criteria have also been used
Regress Analysis and Log-Linear Models
• Linear regression: Y = w X + b
– Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and are to be
estimated by using the data at hand
– Using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2,
….
• Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2
– Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above
• Log-linear models:
– Approximate discrete multidimensional probability distributions
– Estimate the probability of each point (tuple) in a multi-dimensional
space for a set of discretized attributes, based on a smaller subset of
dimensional combinations
– Useful for dimensionality reduction and data smoothing
Histogram Analysis

• Divide data into buckets and 40

store average (sum) for each35
bucket
30
• Partitioning rules:
25
– Equal-width: equal bucket
20
range
15
– Equal-frequency (or equal-
depth) 10
5
0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
Clustering

• Partition data set into clusters based on similarity, and

store cluster representation (e.g., centroid and diameter)
only
• Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data
is “smeared”
• Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-
dimensional index tree structures
• There are many choices of clustering definitions and
clustering algorithms
Sampling
• Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the whole
data set N
• Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
• Key principle: Choose a representative subset of the data
– Simple random sampling may have very poor performance
in the presence of skew
– Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g., stratified
sampling:
• Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a
time)
Types of Sampling
• Simple random sampling
– There is an equal probability of selecting any particular
item
• Sampling without replacement
– Once an object is selected, it is removed from the
population
• Sampling with replacement
– A selected object is not removed from the population
• Stratified sampling:
– Partition the data set, and draw samples from each
partition (proportionally, i.e., approximately the same
percentage of the data)
– Used in conjunction with skewed data
Sampling: With or without Replacement

W O R
SRS le random
i m p h ou t
( s e wi t
l
samp ment)
pl a c e
re

SRSW
R

Raw Data
Sampling: Cluster or Stratified Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

Data Cube Aggregation

• The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)

– The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
– E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
• Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
– Further reduce the size of data to deal with
• Reference appropriate levels
– Use the smallest representation which is enough to
solve the task
• Queries regarding aggregated information should be
answered using data cube, when possible
Data Reduction 3: Data Compression
• String compression
– There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
– Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is
possible without expansion
• Audio/video compression
– Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
– Sometimes small fragments of signal can be
reconstructed without reconstructing the whole
• Time sequence is not audio
– Typically short and vary slowly with time
• Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also be
considered as forms of data compression
Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

ss y
lo
Original Data
Approximated
Data Preprocessing

• Data Preprocessing: An Overview

– Data Quality

– Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

• Data Cleaning

• Data Integration

• Data Reduction

• Data Transformation and Data Discretization

Data Transformation
• A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a
new set of replacement values s.t. each old value can be identified with
one of the new values
• Methods
– Smoothing: Remove noise from data
– Attribute/feature construction
• New attributes constructed from the given ones
– Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
– Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
• min-max normalization
• z-score normalization
• normalization by decimal scaling
– Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing
Normalization
• Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
– Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 1.0].
73,600  12,000
(1.0  0)  0  0.716
Then $73,000 is mapped to 98,000  12,000

• Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):

v  A
v' 
 A

73,600  54,000
 1.225
16,000
– Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then
• Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
Discretization
• Three types of attributes
– Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
– Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
– Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
• Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
– Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
– Reduce data size by discretization
– Supervised vs. unsupervised
– Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
– Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute
– Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification
Data Discretization Methods
• Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively
– Binning
• Top-down split, unsupervised
– Histogram analysis
• Top-down split, unsupervised
– Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or
bottom-up merge)
– Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down split)
– Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up
merge)
105
Simple Discretization: Binning

• Equal-width (distance) partitioning

– Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
– if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the
width of intervals will be: W = (B –A)/N.
– The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
– Skewed data is not handled well

• Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

– Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately
same number of samples
– Good data scaling
– Managing categorical attributes can be tricky
Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
 Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
Discretization Without Using Class Labels
(Binning vs. Clustering)

Data Equal interval width

(binning)

Equal frequency (binning) K-means clustering leads to better

results
Discretization by Classification &
Correlation Analysis
• Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)

– Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign

– Using entropy to determine split point (discretization point)

– Top-down, recursive split

– Details to be covered in Chapter 7

• Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)

– Supervised: use class information

– Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals (those having

similar distributions of classes, i.e., low χ2 values) to merge

– Merge performed recursively, until a predefined stopping condition

Concept Hierarchy Generation
• Concept hierarchy organizes concepts (i.e., attribute values)
hierarchically and is usually associated with each dimension in a data
warehouse
• Concept hierarchies facilitate drilling and rolling in data warehouses to
view data in multiple granularity
• Concept hierarchy formation: Recursively reduce the data by collecting
and replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for age) by
higher level concepts (such as youth, adult, or senior)
• Concept hierarchies can be explicitly specified by domain experts
and/or data warehouse designers
• Concept hierarchy can be automatically formed for both numeric and
nominal data. For numeric data, use discretization methods shown.
Concept Hierarchy Generation for Nominal Data
• Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes
explicitly at the schema level by users or experts
– street < city < state < country
• Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by explicit
data grouping
– {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
• Specification of only a partial set of attributes
– E.g., only street < city, not others
• Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute levels) by
the analysis of the number of distinct values
– E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, country}
Automatic Concept Hierarchy Generation
• Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based on
the analysis of the number of distinct values per attribute in
the data set
– The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at
the lowest level of the hierarchy
– Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

TEXT BOOKS
T1: HanJiawei, Micheline Kamber and Jian Pei “Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques”, Morgan Kaufmann, 2011.

T2: Shawkat Ali A B M, Saleh A. Wasimi, “Data Mining: Methods

and Techniques”, Fifth Indian Reprint, Cengage Learning,
2011.
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Thank you