3

Biological
Macromolecules:
Form
and
Function

Lecture Presentation by
Cindy S. Malone, PhD,
California State University Northridge

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The 4 Biological Macromolecules (Biomolecules)

• Proteins

• Nucleic Acids

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

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Constructing Macromolecules

• Macromolecule
• Large molecules made of smaller molecular subunits
called monomers (“one-part”)
• Polymer: many monomers bonded together
• Polymerization: the linking together of monomers

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Constructing Macromolecules
• Condensation Reactions (AKA Dehydration
Synthesis Reactions):
• Join monomers together
• Consume energy
• Remove water from between the monomers

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Constructing Macromolecules
• Hydrolysis (or Hydrolytic Reactions):
• Separates monomers (opposite of condensation)
• Releases energy
• Adds water to break the bond

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Proteins: The monomers

• The monomers of proteins are Amino Acids

• Amino acids are composed of a central carbon
atom bonded to:
• H—a hydrogen atom
• NH2—an amino functional group
• COOH—a carboxyl functional group
• R group —a variable “side chain”

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Proteins: The monomers
• There are 20 different amino
acids
• Chemically identical except for
the R group side chain,
• Amino acids properties are
determined by their R-groups
• Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic
• Polar (+/-) vs. Nonpolar (neutral)
• Sulphur containing

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Proteins - Polymerization

• A condensation reaction forming a bond between

carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino
group of another called a Peptide Bond

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Proteins - Polymerization

• Peptide: chain of < 50 amino acids

• Polypeptide: chain of more than 50 amino acids

• Proteins are the complete, functional form of the
molecule

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Protein - Shape
• The protein structural hierarchy has
4 levels:
1. Primary
- Single chain of amino acids
2. Secondary
β pleated sheets and α helices α-helix β-pleated sheet

held together by hydrogen bonds

3. Tertiary – 3D form
4. Quaternary – 2 or more separate
proteins bound together

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Protein - Shape
• Tertiary Structure :
Hemoglobin

• The unfolded protein is said to

be Denatured – loses its
functional abilities
Gone back to
primary structure

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Proteins – Functional examples

• Catalysts — e.g. Enzymes

• Defense — e.g. Antibodies
• Movement — e.g. Muscle protein and Motor proteins
• Signaling — e.g. Receptors on cells for hormones
• Structure — e.g. Collagen fibers
• Transport — e.g. Hemoglobin

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Nucleic Acids - Examples

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• Information storage
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• Information storage and a catalyst
• **Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)**
• Energy storage
• An “activated nucleotide” – ***not
a complete nucleic acid***
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Nucleic Acids - Monomers
• Nucleotides are the monomers of Nucleic
Acids
• A 5-carbon sugar bonded to a phophate
group and a nitrogeneous base
• Deoxyribonucleotides
• The monomers of DNA
• Ribonucleotides
• The monomers of RNA
• ATP – a nucleotide with 2 extra phosphate
groups
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Nucleic Acids - Polymerization
• Polymerization is achieved by the
formation of Phosphodiester
Linkages or Bonds between
nucleiotides
• A condensation/dehydration
synthesis reaction
• A bond between the 5’ phosphate
group of one and the 3’ sugar
group of another

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Nucleic Acids – DNA Structure
• DNA consists of double “backbone” strands
lined up in antiparallel
• One strand runs 3′ → 5′, the other runs 5′ → 3′
• The nitrogeneous bases of
deoxyribonucleotides are:
• Guanine
• Cytosine - G and C always pair up
• Adenine
• Thymine- A and T always pair up
• The 2 strands form a Double Helix
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Nucleic Acids – DNA Function

• DNA can store and transmit biological

information (from one generation to the next)
• DNA carries the genetic code required for the
organism’s growth and reproduction
• ***Can replicate/copy itself***

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Nucleic Acids – RNA Structure
• RNA consist of a single backbone strand that
forms a hairpin loop
• The nitrogeneous bases of Ribonucleotides are:
• Guanine
• Cytosine
• Adenine
• ***Uracil (instead of Thymine)***
• G and C, A and U always pair up

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Nucleic Acids – RNA Function

• RNA is highly versatile

• An information-containing molecule
• Capable of catalyzing reactions: ribozymes
• ***Also able to self-replicate (copy itself)***

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Lipids
• Lipids all possess long hydrophobic hydrocarbon
chains making them insoluble in water
• A hydrocarbon chain with a COOH(carboxyl) on one
is called a fatty acid

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Lipids - Monomers
• Fatty Acids and other hydrocarbon chains can be:
• Saturated – no double bonds between any of the Cs
• Unsaturated – presence of double bonds
• Monounsaturated – 1 double bond in the chain
• Polyunsaturated – more than 1 double bond

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Lipids - Examples

• 3 of the most important within cells

• Steroids

• Fats

• Phospholipids

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Steroids
• Structure
• Distinguished by a bulky, four-ring structure
• Function
• Hormones: like Testosterone and Estrogen are
steroids
• Cholesterol is a steroid – important part of cell
membrane

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Fats/Triglycerides – Monomers - Function

• Triglycerides are constructed

by bonding:
• 3 Fatty Acids to a
Glycerol via Ester
Linkages
• Function:
• Primarily energy storage
(also protection and
insulation)

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Phospholipids - structure

• A glycerol attached to 2 fatty

acids and a Phosphate Group
instead of a 3rd fatty acid
• The Phosphate group is polar
(carries a charge) and interacts
well with water (hydrophilic)
• Phosphlipids therefore have
“Head” that is attracted to
water (hydrophilic) and a
“Tail” that is repelled by water
(hyrdophobic fatty acids)
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Phospholipids - Function

• Form cell membranes

• In an aqueous solution (water) the heads faces the
water and the tails face eachother forming:
• Micelles or
• Lipid Bilayers
• Cell membranes

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Carbohydrates

• Contain just Carbon(C) and Water(H2O)

• Functions
• Play an important role in energy
• Contribute to cell structure
• Are involved with cell recognition and identity
• Monomers are monosaccharides which are
combined to form disaccharides and
polysaccharides

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Carbohydrates - Monomers

• Monosaccharides are known as “simple sugars”

• Can exist as 3 carbon linear forms or 5 and 6
carbon rings like the examples below

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Carbohydrates – Monomers - Polymerization

• 2 Monosaccharides combine to form Disaccharides

• Bonded by Glycosidic Linkages
• A condensation/dehydration reaction

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Carbohydrates - Structure

• Polysaccharides
• Linear strands – starch
• Highly branched – glycogen
• Parallel connected strands
• Cellulose
• Chitin
• Peptidoglycan

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Carbohydrates – Examples and Functions

• Energy storage (a source of fuel):

• Starch – energy storage in plant cells
• Glycogen – energy storage in animal cells
• Structural (provide shape and protection)
• Cellulose – forms the cell wall of plant cells
• Chitin – forms the cell walls of fungi and exoskeleton
of insects and crustaceans
• Peptidoglycan – forms the cell walls of bacteria

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Carbohydrates – Examples and Functions

• Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

• Attached to the outside of a cell membrane
• Allow cells to identify eachother and communicate
with eachother

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