TRANSITION

CURVE
6.1 INTRODUCTION

A transition curve is a horizontal curve of varying radius. The

transition curve provides a gradual change from the straight line to the
circular curve and again from the circular curve to the straight line. A
transition curve is also provided between two branches of a compound curve
or a reverse curve so that the changes in curvature are gradual.

Transition curves are required on roads and railways to lessen

discomfort at the sudden change in curvature at the junction of a straight line
and a curve. On railways, transition curves are used invariably. On highways,
they are seldom used because drivers are able to overcome abrupt directional
changes by steering along a spiralled path as the vehicles enter and leave the
curve. However, their use is increasing these days.
6.2 ADVANTAGES OF TRANSITION
CURVE
The transition curve has the following main advantages.

1. It reduces the chances of overturning of the vehicles at the junction

of straight and the curve.
The changes of side slipping of the vehicles and the
derailment of trains are also reduced.
2. It lessens the discomfort to the passengers traveling in the vehicles
while negotiating a curve.
3. The super-elevation can be introduced conveniently in proportion to
the rate of changes of curvature.
4. It allows higher speeds at curves.
5. The wear on the running gears is reduced.
6. It was lower rate of change of curvature which is an advantage for
heavy vehicles.
6.3 BASIC CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OF A
TRANSITION CURVE

A transition curve should satisfy the following basic criteria (Fig.6.1).

1. It should be tangential to the straight line, and meet the circular curve also
tangentially at the junction.
2. Its curvature should be zero (radius = infinity) at one end where it meets the
straight, and it should be equal to the radius of the circular curve at its
junction with the circular curve.
3. The rate of increase of curvature along the transition curve should be equal
to the rate increase of super-elevation.
4. The length of the transition curve should be fixed such that full super-
elevation is achieved at the junction with the circular curve.
Figure 6.1
6.4 SUPER-ELEVATION

To understand the various aspects of a transition curve, it is necessary

to have a clear idea of super-elevation.

When a vehicle moves on a curve, it is acted upon by a centrifugal

force (P) which acts in the horizontal direction radially outwards (i.e., away
from the centre of the curve). It has a tendency to push the vehicle off the road
or track in the outward direction. To counteract this tendency, the outer edge of
the road or the outer rails of a track is raised above the inner one. Super-
elevation (or cant) is the vertical distance by which the outer end is raised above
the inner end (Fig.6.2). Super-elevation is represented by e in this text.
Figure 6.2
The centrifugal force (P) acts through the centre of gravity (G) of the vehicle in
the horizontal direction. The weight (W) of the vehicle acts at the centre of
gravity (G) in the vertical direction. An expression for the super-elevation (e)
may be obtained as under.

From mechanics, centrifugal force,

W v2
P  …. (a)
g R

Where v = speed of the vehicle (m/sec),

R = radius of the curve (metres)
W = weight of the vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/sec2)
Eq. (a) can be expressed as

P v2
 …. (6.1)
W gR

The ratio P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio. The centrifugal ratio
increases if no transition curve is provided between the tangent (radius = R), the
centrifugal force increases instantaneously from zero to its maximum value.
When a transition curve is provided, the centrifugal force increases gradually.

For no slipping, the resultant S of the two forces P and W should be

perpendicular to the surface of the road. In that condition, the angle (θ) between
S and W will be equal to the inclination of the road surface with the horizontal.
P v2
Therefore, tan θ   .…. (c)
W gR

If B is the width of the road,

e
tan θ  …. (d)
B

From Eqs. (c) and (d),

Bv 2
e …. (6.2)
gR

If G' is the distance between two rails (i.e., the gauge of the track),

G 'v2 …. [6.2(a)]
e
gR
Equilibrium Cant.
If the super-elevation or cant provided in case of railway tracks is equal
to that given by Eq. 6.2 (a), it is known as the equilibrium cant. In that case, the
load carried by both the wheels will be equal. The laminated springs provided
will be compressed equally on both sides, and the passengers will not have
tendency to lean on one side.

If the cant provided is less that the equilibrium cant, the track has a cant
deficiency. In that case, more weight will be carried by the outer wheel on the
curve. The outer laminated spring will be compressed more than the inner one,
and the passengers will have a tendency to lean outwards.
Maximum Centrifugal ratio.
To excessive inconvenience to slow-moving vehicles on curves, the
maximum value of the centrifugal ratio is generally specified as 1/4 for roads and
as 1/8 for railways tracks.
P v2
For roads. From Eq. 6.1, 
W gR

1 v2
Or 
4 gR

gR
Or v …. [6.3]
4
For railways,
1 v2

8 gR

gR
Or v …. [6.3 (a)]
8
Eqs. 6.3 and 6.3 (a) give the maximum speed v for the vehicles to
pass safely over a curve with a given radius R. The velocity is expressed in
metres per second.

These equations can be expressed as under.

4v 2
For roads, R …. (6.4)
g

8v 2
For railways, R …. [6.4(a)]
g

Eqs. 6.4 and 6.4 (a) can be used to determine the minimum radius R of
the curve for the vehicle to pass safely with the given speed v on the curve.
For example if the speed is 50 km per hour,

50  1000
v  13.89 m/s
60  60

For roads, from Eq. 6.4,

4  13.89
2
R  78.67 m
9.81

For railways, from Eq. 6.4 (a)

8  13.89 
2
R  157.33 m
9.81
6.5 EFFECT OF FRICTION ON SUPER-
ELEVATION OF HIGHWAYS
The friction the tyre of the vehicle and the road surface plays an
important role on the super-elevation of highways. The amount of super-
elevation can be reduced because some sideways grid always exists between
the tyre and the road surface. The frictional force acts parallel to the pavement
of the highway.

The frictional force is expressed in terms of the side friction factor (f)
given by

T
f  …. (a)
N

Where N = sum of forces normal to the pavement,

T = sum of forces due to friction acting parallel to the
pavement.
In Fig. 6.2, resolving the forces in the direction normal to the pavement,

N = P sin θ + W cos θ …. (b)

Resolving the forces in the tangential direction,

T = P cos θ − W sin θ …. (c)

Substituting the values of N and T in Eq (a)

P cos θ − W sin θ = f (P sin θ + W cos θ)

Or P (cos θ − f sin θ) = W (sin θ + f cos θ)

P sin θ  f cos θ
Or 
W cos θ  f sin θ

P tan θ  f
Or  …. [6.5 (a)]
W 1  f tan θ
Substituting the value of P/W from Eq. 6.1,

v2 tan θ  f …. [6.5 (b)]


gR 1  f tan θ

For the safe design of highways,

tan θ  f v2 …. (6.6)

1  f tan θ gR

As the value of f tan θ is usually small, Eqs. 6.5 and 6.6 may be simplified as

v2
 tan θ  f …. [6.5 (c)]
gR

v2
And tan θ  f  …. [6.6 (d)]
gR
The value of f depends upon the type of pavement, its wetness and also
upon the speed of the vehicle. Its value generally varies from 0.12 to 0.35. Its
value is usually taken as 0.15 for speeds greater than 50 km per hour and as 0.18
for speeds less than 50 km per hour.

Eq. 6.5 (a) shows that the centrifugal force P is balanced partly by the
friction f and partly by the super-elevation θ. If the super-elevation is increased,
the contribution of the friction will be less significant. On The other hand, if the
super-elevation is decreased, the friction becomes more significant. The
following two extreme cases may occur.
Case I. Maximum Super-elevation
In this case, it is assumed that the entire centrifugal force is balanced only
by the super-elevation till the maximum super-elevation of 1/4 is provided. From
Eq. 6.5 (c), putting f = 0,
v2
 tan θ
gR

v2 …. (6.7)
Or R
g tan θ

v2 4v 2 …. [6.7 (a)]
Or R 
g  1/4 g

If the radius provided in the highway is less that given by Eq. 6.7 a, the
maximum super-elevation of 1/4 will not be able to balance the centrifugal
force, and the frictional forces should be considered. On the other hand, for the
radius greater that that given by Eq. 6.7 (a), the super-elevation provided will be
less that the maximum and it would balance the entire centrifugal force.
Case II. Maximum Friction.

In this case, it is assumed that the entire centrifugal force is balanced

only by the friction till the maximum value of friction is reached.

From Eq. 6.5 (c), putting θ = 0

v2
f
gR
v2
Or R …. (6.8)
gf

If the maximum value of f is taken as 0.25,

v2 4v 2
R  …. [6.8 (a)]
0.25 g gR

If the radius provided in the highway is less than that given by Eq. 6.8 (a),
super-elevation will have to be provided so that Eq. (b) is satisfied.
6.6 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FOR
SUPER-ELEVATION
There seems to be no universal agreement upon the most desirable proportion
between the contribution made by the super-elevation and that by the friction to
resist the centrifugal force P. The following design specifications are generally
followed.
1. Super-elevation should normally balance out 40% of the total centrifugal
force. Thus

0.4v 2
tan θ  …. (6.9)
gR

2. Super-elevation should not be normally steeper that7%. Moreover, it

should not be flatter that 2.5% which is the minimum crossfall of the
road for surface drainage.
3. Super-elevation should be such that the residual sideways friction does not
exceed 0.15.
According to the second and third requirements,

v2
 0.15  0.07
gR
v2
Or  0.22 …. (6.10)
gR
4. To provide additional safety, a minimum desirable radius is also sometimes
specified. This is obtained by adopting a value of 0.07 for f and a value of
4.8% for super-elevation. From Eq. 6.6 (a),
v2
 0.07  0.048
gR
v2
Or  0.118
gR
2
v
Or R min 
0.118g

Taking g = 9.81 m/s2, Rmin = 0.864v2 …. (6.11)

6.7 LENGTH OF A TRANSITION CURVE

There are three methods which are commonly used for the
determination of the length of a transition curve.

1. Method of a arbitrary gradient.

In this method, the length of the transition curve is determined from the
arbitrary rate at which the super-elevation is provided.
If e is the total super-elevation at the junction with the circular curve,
the length of the transition curve is given by
L = ne …. (6.12)

Where 1 in n is the rate at which the super-elevation is provided. The rate

normally used in practice varies from 1 in 300 to 1 in 1200.
Bv 2
From Eq,. 6.2, e …. [6.12 (a)]
gR

nBv 2
Therefore, L …. (6.13)
gR

If the speed is V km/hour,

nBV 2
L …. [6.13 (a)]
12.96gR
2. Method of time rate.

In this method, the super-elevation is applied at an arbitrary time fixed

by experience. The time rate (r) is usually specified in metres per second, i.e., a
super-elevation of r metres is provided in a distance covered by the vehicle in
one second.

If L is the length of the transition curve in metres and v is the speed of

the vehicle in m/sec, the time taken by the vehicle to pass over the transition
curve is given by
L
t  second
v
L
Therefore, e  rt  r 
v
ev
Or L …. (6.14)
r
Substituting the value of e from Eq. 6.12 (a),

 Bv 2  v
L    
 gR  r

Bv 3
Or L …. (6.15)
gRr

If the speed is V km/hour,

BV 3 …. [6.15 (a)]
L
46.66 gRr
3. Method of rate of change of radical acceleration.

In this method, the length of the transition curve is fixed considering

the rate of change of radial acceleration. This method is most commonly used in
practice.

If α is the rate of change of radial acceleration, the radial acceleration

(α) attained during the time the vehicle passes over the transition curve is given
by

L
α  αt  α  …. (a)
v

But the radial acceleration is also equal to

v2
α …. (b)
R
From Eqs. (a) and (b)

αL v 2

v R
v3 …. (6.16)
Or L
αR

If the speed is V km/hour,

v3
L …. [6.16 (a)]
46.66 αR

It has been found from experience that a rate of change of radial

acceleration of 0.3 m/sec2/sec passes quite unnoticed and no discomfort is
experienced by the passenger. Thus Eq. 6.16 reduces to

v3 3.33v 3
L  …. [6.16 (b)]
0.3R R
Illustrative Example 6.1.

A transition curve is required for a circular curve of radius 300 m. The

maximum super-elevation is restricted to 100 mm for a gauge of 1.0 m.
Determine the length of transition curve and the design speed if

a) The super-elevation is applied at a rate of 1 in 400.

b) The super-elevation of 4 cm is provided on the distance covered by the
vehicle in one second.
c) The rate of change of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/sec2/sec.

Take g = 9.81 sec2.

Bv 2
Solution: From Eq. 6.2, e
gR

1.0  v 2
Or 0.10 
9.81  300

Or v = 17.155 m/sec = 61.76 km/hr.

a) From Eq. 6.12, the length of transition curve

L = ne = 400 × 0.1
= 40 m

ev
b) From Eq. 6.14, L 
r

0.1 17.155
Or L  42.89 m
0.04

c) From Eq. 6.16,

v 3 17.155
3
L   56.1 m
αR 0.3  300
6.8 IDEAL TRANSITION CURVE
A curve of variable radius of the required length is inserted between the
straight and the circular curve so that the centrifugal force builds up gradually and
the lateral shock and discomfort is minimized. A centrifugal force P equal to
Wv2/(gR) acts on a vehicle when it passes over a curve of radius R with a speed v.
If the centrifugal force is required to increase at a constant rate, it should vary
with time t.

The distance l traveled by the vehicle along the transition curve as measured
from the junction of the straight and the transition curve is given by

l  v  t or t  l/v …. (a)

If r is the radius of the transition curve at that point, the centrifugal force
is given by
Wv 2 …. (b)
P
gr
For P to vary with time, p should be proportional to (l/v) because t = l/v from
Eq. (a). Thus
l …. (c)
P
v
But from Eq. (b)
Wv 2
P …. (d)
gr

l Wv 2
Therefore P 
v gr

As v, W and g are constant,

l
l
r

Or lr = constant …. (6.17)
Eq. 6.17 represents a curve called clothoid, the Glover spiral or the
Euler spiral. The curve is also known as the ideal transition curve. In this curve,
the radius of curvature (r) at any point is inversely proportional to its distance l
from the beginning of the transition curve.

At the end of the transition curve, l = L and r = R, where L is the length

of the transition curve and R is the radius of the circular curve at the end of the
transition curve.

Thus Eq. 6.17 becomes

LR = constant …. (6.18)
1
Intrinsic Equation of the ideal transition curve. The intrinsic equation of the
ideal transition curve (clothoid) can be derived as follows.

Fig. 6.3 shows a transition curve AC between a straight AD and a

circular curve of radius R. The line AD is tangent to the curve at the beginning
point A and is known as the initial tangent. Let us consider a point B on the curve
at a distance l from A. From Eqs. 6.17, and 6.18,

Figure 6.3
lr = constant = LR …. (a)

where r is the radius of the curve at B.

1 l
From (a),  or r  RL/ l …. (b)
r RL

If  is the inclination of the tangent at B to the initial tangent, the

curvature is given by
1 d

r dl

dl
Or d  …. (c)
r
From Eqs. (b) and (c),
l dl
d 
RL
Integrating, we get
l2
 C
2 RL

At point A where l  0,   0. Therefore, C = 0.0

l2
Hence  …. (6.19)
2 RL
Eq. 6.19 is the intrinsic equation of the ideal transition curve. It
represents a spiral curve.
Eq. 6.19 can be written as

l  2RL 

Or lK  …. (6.20)

Where K  2RL …. [6.20 (a)]

At the end C of the transition curve when l = L if  is equal to s ,

Eq. 6.19 gives
L2 L …. (6.21)
s  
2 RL 2 R

Where s is known as the spiral angle. It is the angle between the initial
tangent and the tangent to the curve at the junction C with the circular curve.
Eq. 6.21 gives the value in radians. If it is expressed in degrees

L 180 90 L
s    …. [6.21 (a)]
2R  R
6.9 EQUATION OF AN IDEAL TRANSITION
CURVE IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES
The intrinsic equation of the transition curve derived in the preceding
section is not convenient to use. The equation of an ideal transition curve in
cartesian coordinates can be derived as follows.

Let B be a point on the transition curve at a distance l from the

beginning T of the curve (Fig. 6.4). Let us take the origin at T. Thus the
coordinates of B are x and y. Let  be the angle which the tangent BB1 at B
makes with the initial tangent TD.

Let P be a point at a distance δl from the point B. Let (x + δx) and

(y + δy) be the coordinates of P. Let    be the angle which the tangent PP1
at P makes with the initial tangent.
Figure 6.4
δx
From Fig. 6.4,  cos 
δl
Or dx  dl cos 

 2 4 
Or dx  dl1    ........  …(a)
 2! 4! 

From Eq. 6.20, lK 

K
By differentiation, dl  d
2 1/ 2 …(b)

Substituting this value of dl in Eq. (a)

K  2 4 
dx  1 / 2 1    .......d
2  2! 4! 
K  1 / 2  3 / 2  7 / 2 
Or dx  
    .......d
2 2 24 
Integrating,
K  1/ 2 1 5 / 2 1 9/2 
x  2     .....
2 5 108 
 2 4 
Or x  K 1/ 2
1    ....... …[6.22 (a)]
 10 216 

 2 4 
Or x  l 1    ...... …(6.22)
 10 216 

Substituting the value of  from Eq. 6.20,

 l4 l8 
x  l 1  4
 8
 .....  …(6.23)
 10 K 216 K 

Substituting the value of K from Eq. 6.20 a,

 l4 l8 
x  l 1  2 2
 4 4
.....  …(6.24)
 40 R L 3456 R L 
An expression for y can be obtained using the same procedure.

y
 sin 
l

dy
Or  sin 
dl

Or dy  dl sin 

 3 5 
Or dy  dl     .......
 3! 5! 
Substituting the value of dl from Eq. (b),

Kd  3 5 
dy  1 / 2     ......
2  3! 5! 

K  1/ 2  5 / 2  9 / 2 
Or dy      ...... d
2  6 120 

  3 / 2  7 / 2  11/ 2 
Integrating y  K    ......
 3 42 1320 

 3/ 2  2 4

Or yK 1    ...... …(6.25)
3  14 440 
Substituting l2/K2 for  from Eq. 6.20,

l3  l4 l8 
yK 
3 
1  4
 8
 ......... 
3K  14K 440K 

l3  l4 l8 
Or y 1    ......  …(6.26)
3K 2  14K
4
440K 8


Substituting the value of K from Eq. [6.20 (a)],

l3  l4 l8 
y 1  2 2
 4 4
........  …(6.27)
6 RL  56 R L 7040 R L 
POLAR DEFLECTION ANGLE

Let α be the polar deflection angle which the chord TB makes with the
initial tangent TD. (Fig 6.4).
y
Tan α 
x

Substituting the values of x and y from Eqs. 6.22a and 6.25, respectively,

  3 / 2  7 / 2  11/ 2 
K    .....
Tan α   
3 42 1320
 1/ 2  5 / 2  9 / 2 
K      .....
 10 216 

 3 5
Or Tan α     .... …(6.28)
3 105 5997
1 2
We know Tan θ  θ  θ 3  θ 5  ........
3 15
φ 1 3 2
Therefore, Tan  /3   φ  φ 5  ..... …(6.29)
3 81 3645

From Eqs. 6.28 and 6.29 for small angles  ,

tan α  tan  / 3

Or α   /3 …(6.30)

l2 l2
Substituting the value of   2  ,
K 2 RL
l2
α radians
6RL
l 2  180 
   60  minutes
6RL  π 

573 l 2
Or α minutes …(6.31)
RL
It may be noted that l is the chord length measured from the
tangent point T. If the cords are of equal length c,

573c 2 …(6.32)
tan α1  α1  minutes
RL
573c 2
tan α 2  α 2  minutes
RL

For the nth chord,

573 n  c 2
2
tan a n 
RL
 n  tan α1
2

Or α n  n 2 α1 …(6.33)
It may be noted that the deflection angle in the case of a spiral curve is
proportional to the square of the distance from T whereas in the case of a circular
curve, it is proportional to the distance.
It is also worth noting that the deflection angle on the spiral is one-third of the
centre angle subtended by the chord from T to the point as against one-half the
centre angle in the case of a circular curve.
Eq. 6.30 is applicable for small values of  .
For φ =15˚, the error in α is about 10". For large values of  , the following
more exact equation is used.


α N …(6.34)
3
8 3 32 5
Where N  …[6.34(a)]
2835 467775

Where φ and N are in radians.

 …(6.35)
Alternatively, α M
3
Where M  3.095  10 3 φ 3  2.285  10 8 φ 5 …[6.35 (a)]

Where M is seconds, and  is in degrees.

For example, for φ = 45˚ = 0.7854 radians,

3 5
Eq. 6.34 (a) gives N  1.3671  10  2.044  10 rad

Or N = 281.98 + 4.22 = 286.20 sec.

Eq. 6.35 (a) gives M = 282.03 + 4.22 = 286.25 sec.

6.10 CUBIC SPIRAL

If all the terms in Eq. 6.27 are neglected except the first term, we get

l3
y …(6.36)
6 RL

Eq. 6.36 is the equation of a cubic spiral [Fig. 6.5 (a)]

Fig. 6.5
The equation of a cubic spiral may also be derived as under.

δy dy
From Fig. 6.4, sin φ  
δ l dl

l2
For small angles, sin φ   
2 RL

dy l2
Therefore, 
dl 2 RL

 l2 
Or dy   dl
 2 RL 

l3
Integrating y …(same as Eq.6.36)
6 RL
The cubic spiral can be set out in the field with chords l measured from
T and offsets y from the initial tangent [Fig. 6.5 (a)].
Alternatively, the cubic spiral is set out by deflection angle α.


l2
α  radians
3 6RL

l 2 180 9.55 l 2
   degrees
6RL π RL

573 l 2
Or α minutes …(same as Eq.6.31)
RL

It may be noted that for small angles, there is no difference between a

clothoid and cubic spiral.
6.11 CUBIC PARABOLA
If all terms in Eqs. 6.24 and 6.27 are neglected except the first term,

xl
l3
And y
6 RL
x3
Or y ….(6.37)
6 RL

Eq. 6.37 is the equation of a cubic parabola [Fig. 6.5 (b)]. It is also called
Froude’s transition curve.
It may be noted that in the derivation of the equation of a cubic parabola
from that of a clothoid, the following two assumptions have been made.

dx
1. cos φ  1
dl
2. sin φ  φ
In the case of a cubic spiral, only one assumption was made; vie.,

sin φ  φ

Consequently, a cubic spiral is superior to a cubic parabola, as it

represents the true transition curve more closely. However, a cubic parabola can
be set out more conveniently than a cubic spiral from the cartesian coordinates.
Therefore, a cubic parabola is more commonly used in practice as a transition
curve. However, with the availability of the electronic calculators, even a cubic
spirals or a clothoid can be easily set out, and there is no justification to use a
cubic parabola.

For deviation angles upto 12˚, there is not much difference between a
cubic parabola and a clothoid, and it can still be used. For larger deviation angles
the cubic parabola does not give accurate results, and it is advisable to use a
clothoid.
Minimum radius of curvature of a cubic parabola.
The cubic parabola has a special characteristics that its radius of curvature
decreases from a value of infinity at the junction with the straight when φ = 0 to
a minimum value of 1.39 RL at φ = 24˚ 5' 41". Beyond this point, the
radius of curvature starts increasing again, and, therefore, it does not serve its
purpose as a transition curve.

The expression for the minimum radius rmin can be derived as under.

x3
From Eq. 6.37, y
6 RL

Or y  Mx 3 …(a)

1
Where M 
6 RL
Differentiating Eq. (a) ,

dy …(b)
 3Mx 2
dx

But dy is also equal to tan φ.

dx

Therefore, tan φ  3 Mx 2

tan φ …(c)
Or x
3M
d2y
From Eq. (b),  6Mx
dx 2

d2y tan φ
Or  6 M  12 M tan φ …(d)
dx 2 3M
As the radius of curvature of a curve is given by

3/ 2
  dy  2 
1    
  dx  
r
d 2 y / dx 2

Therefore, r
1  tan φ  2 3/ 2

12M tan φ

sec 3 φ
Or r
12 M tan φ

1 …(e)
Or r
12 M sin φ cos φ 5
The radius r will be a minimum when the denominator is a maximum.
Thus

d
d
 
sin φ cos 5 φ  0

cos 6 φ  5 sin φ cos 4 φ sin φ  0

Or cos 2 φ  5 sin φ  0

Or 1  5 tan 2 φ  0
1
Or tan φ 
2

5
1
Or tan φ 
5

Or φ = 24˚ 5' 41"

Substituting this value of φ in Eq. (e),

1
rmin 
12 M  0.4082  0.91287
5

1
Or rmin 
1.762 M

1
Substituting M 
6 RL

1
rmin 
1
1.762
6RL

Or rmin  1.39 RL …(6.38)

In no case, a cubic parabola shall be used for the value of  greater than
24˚ 5' 41" as it will not serve the required purpose of a gradual decrease in radius
with an increase in length l.
6.12 INSERTION OF A TRANSITION CURVE

The transition curve are introduced between the straights TV and T'V by
shifting the circular curve slightly inwards (Fig. 6.6). The original circular curve
is from the point of curvature (P.C.) to the point of tangency (P.T.), with the
centre at O. The shiften position of the circular curve is from SC to CS, with
centre at O'. The transition curves are at the two ends from TS to SC and CS to
ST.

The following notations have been used.

TS = Tangent to spiral point

SC = Spiral to circular curve point
CS = Circular curve to spiral point
ST = Spiral to tangent point
Fig. 6.6
The distance AB through which the main circular curve is shifted inwards
to accommodate the transition curve is called shift (s) or throw.

The distance between the original centre O and the shifted centre O' in
Fig. 6.6 is usually small. It is conventional to represent both the points by one
point O. Fig. 6.7 is simplified diagram. The points T, C, C' and T' represent,
respectively, points TS, SC, CS and ST. The transition curve TC intersects the shift
AB at F.
Fig. 6.7
6.13 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
TRANSITION CURVE

Fig.6.8 shows the details of the transition curve TC. The angle between
the initial tangent TV and the common tangent CC1 at the junction C of the
transition curve and the circular curve is called the spiral angle s  .

Let us assume that the initial tangent TV is horizontal and the line
OA is perpendicular to it. Draw CE perpendicular to OA.
Fig. 6.8
In the triangle EOC,

Angle EOC = 90˚ − angle ECO

= angle ECC1 = angle CC1D

Or angle EOC   s

In other words, the angle subtended by one-half of the transition

curve at the centre is equal to  s .

In Figs. 6.6 and 6.7, the spiral angles are shown on both sides of the
circular curve. The angle subtended by the shifted circular curve CC' at the
centre is equal to I  2s  .

In Fig. 6.8, arc BC  R s

L
But from Eq. 6.21, s  …(a)
2R
L L
Therefore, arc BC  R  
2R 2

As the arc CF is approximately equal to BC,

L
CF 
2

Therefore, the shift AB bisects the transition curve TC.

Now shift, s = AB

= EA − EB

Or s = Y − (R − R cos φs)

Where Y is equal to the distance CC2.

Therefore, s  Y  R 1  cos φ s 


 Y  R 2 sin 2 φ s /2 
  
 
2
s
Or s  Y  2R  s / 4  Y  R 
2
 …(b)
 2 
Now from Eq. 6.36 for l = L,
L3 L2
Y  …(c)
6 RL 6 R

Therefore, from Eqs. (a), (b) and (c), we get


s  Y  R  s2 / 2 
2
L2 R  L 
   
6R 2  2R 
L2 L2
Or s 
6 R 8R
L2
Or s …(6.39)
24 R
From Eq. 6.36, for l = L/2,

FA  y  coordinate s of F


 L / 2
3

6 RL
L2 s
Or FA  
48R 2

Therefore, the transition curve TC bisects the shift AB at F.

Total tangent length (Tt)
The distance TV is known as the total tangent length. From Fig.
6.7,

TV = AV + AT

Or Tt = (R+s) tan I/2 + (X− R sin φs)

Where X is the x-coordinate of the point C.

L
Substituting s  , and X  L
2R

 L 
Tt  (R  s) tan I/2   L  R
 2R 

Tt  R  s  tan I/2 
L …(6.40)
Or
2
Alternatively, from Fig. 6.6,

Tt  R  s  tan I/2 
s
 X0
tan I/2

Where X 0  X  R sin  s …[6.40 (a)]

Total Length of the combined curve.

The total length lt of the combined curve is given by (Fig. 6.7),

lt  TC  CC 'C ' T '

R
 L I  2φ s   L
180
 R I  2φ s 
Or lt   2L …(6.41)
180
Alternative Expression.
An alternative expression for the total length lt can be found by considering the
circular arc BB' (Fig. 6.7),
lt  TB  BB ' B ' T
L RI L
  
2 180 2
RI
Or lt  L …(6.42)
180

Length of long chord of the transition curve.

The line joining the points T and C is called the long chord of the transition
curve. The length of the long chord is given by
Lc  X 2 Y 2
2
 L2
 …(6.43)
Lc  L  
2

 6R 
Lc  L2  4s 
2
Or …[6.43(a)]
6.14 COMPUTATIONS FOR A
COMBINED CURVE

Before computing the various quantities for setting out a combined

transition and circular curve, the following data should be obtained.

1. Deflection angle I between the tangents,

2. Radius R of the circular curve,
3. Length L of the transition curve,
4. Chainage of the point of intersection V.

The computations of the various quantities are done in the following steps.

1. Compute the spiral angle  s (Eq.6.21).

L
s  radians
2R
2. Compute the shift s (Eq. 6.39).
L2
s
24 R
3. Compute the total tangent length (Eq. 6.40).

Tt  R  s  tan I/2 
L
2
4. Calculate the length l of the circular curve.
R I  2φ s 
l
180
5. Determine the chainage of the salient points.

Chainage of T = Chainage of V − Tt
Chainage of C = Chainage of T + L
Chainage of C' = Chainage of C + l
Chainage of T' = Chainage of C + L
6. Select the lengths of the normal chords. Generally, the normal chords are kept
as 10 m for the transition curve and as 20 m for the circular curve.
Calculate the lengths of the sub-chords of the transition curve and
the circular curve.
Sometimes, through chainages are not maintained on the transition
curve, and, therefore, there are no-sub-chords. All chords are kept equal.

7. Compute the deflection angles.

a)Transition Curve

573 l 2
α min .Eq. 6.31
RL

The length l is measured from the tangent point T. The deflection angle
for each chord is the total angle referred to the initial tangents and not to
the previous chord.
573L2 573L
The final deflection angle when l = L is given by αn  
RL R
As a check, α n   s / 3

b) Circular curve

min Eq.5.16 
1718.87c
δ
R
Where c is the length of the chord.

δ is the tangential angle the tangent at C.

Compute ∆1 = δ1
∆2 = ∆1 + δ2
∆n = ∆n−1 + δn

As a check, total deflection angle  n 

1
 I  2φ s 
2
6.15 PROCEDURE FOR SETTING OUT
The following procedure is used for setting out a combined transition
and circular curve by the method of deflection angles.
1. Locate the tangent point by measuring back along the rear tangent the total
tangent length (Tt) from the point of intersection V.
Likewise, locate the tangent point T' by measuring along the forward
tangent the distances Tt from V.
Alternative method.

a) Locate the point A by measuring back a distance equal to (R + s) tan

I/2 from V.
1
b) Set a perpendicular AF  s on the tangent.
2
c) With F as the centre and L/2 as radius, swing an arc to intersect the
initial tangent at T.
Transition Curve

2. Set a theodolite over the point T. Set the vernier A to zero, and clamp the
upper plate.

3. Direct the line of sight to the intersection point V, and clamp the lower
plate.

4. Release the upper plate. Set the vernier A to the first deflection angle (α1).

The line of sight now points towards the first peg on the transition curve.

5. With the zero of the tape pinned at T and an arrow kept at the mark
corresponding to the first chord, the assistant will swing the tape till the
arrow is bisected by the line of sight.
Fix the first peg at the arrow point.
6. Set the vernier A on the second deflection angle (α2) to direct the line of sight
to the second peg.

7. With the zero of the tape pinned at T, and keeping an arrow at the mark
corresponding to the total length of the first and second chords, the assistant
will swing an arc till the arrow is bisected by the line of sight.

Fix the second peg at the arrow point. It should be remembered that the
distance is measured from the point T and not from the preceding point.

8. Repeat steps (6) and (7) till the last point C on the transition curve is reached.
Circular Curve.

9. For setting out the circular curve CC' , shift the theodolite to junction point
C.
Orient the theodolite with reference to the common tangent CC1 by
directing the line of sight towards CT with the vernier A set at a
reading equal to  360  s  , and swinging the telescope clockwise in
2
 3 
2
azimuth by s (Fig.6.9) .
3

Now the line of sight is directed along the common tangent CC1
and the vernier reads zero.
Fig. 6.9
10.Plunge the telescope. The line of sight is now direction along the tangent
C1C produced
The deflection angles ∆1, ∆2 etc. have been calculated with
reference to the tangent C1C produced at C.
The line of sight is now correctly oriented, and the reading of the
vernier A is zero.

11.Set the vernier A to the first deflection angle ∆1, and locate the first peg on
the circular curve at a distance of c' from C, where c' is length of the first
sub-chord.

12.Likewise, locate the second peg on the circular curve at the distance c equal
to the normal chord from the first peg with the deflection angle ∆2 at C.

13.Continue the above process till the junction point C' is reached.

14.Set out ther transition curve T' C' from T' using the same procedure as that
for the transition curve TC.
Illustrative Example 6.2.

A road bend which deflects 85˚ is to be designed for a maximum speed of 80

km per hour with a curve consisting of a circular arc combined with two cubic
spirals. If the maximum centrifugal ratio is 1/4 and the maximum rate of
changes of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/sec2/sec, calculate

a) The radius of the circular curve,

b) The length of the transition curve,
c) The total length of the combined curve,
d) The chainages of the salient points, if the chainage of the point of
intersection is 1550.42 m
Solution:
80  10 3
a) v  22.22 m/sec
60  60
2
P v
From Eq, 6.1, 
W gR
1 22.22
2
Or 
4 9.81  R

Or R  201.36 m, say 200m

b) From Eq, 6.16, length of the transition curve,

v3
L
αR


22.22
3
 182.84 m, say 183 m
0.3  200
c) From Eq, 6.21, spiral angle
L
s 
2R
183
  0.4575 radians
2  200
 26  12 ' 46 "

Central angle for the circular curve = I − 2φs

= 85˚ − 2 (26˚ 12' 46")
= 32˚ 34' 28“
From Eq. 6.41, total length of the combined curve,

R I  2 s 
lt   2L
180



  200 32  34' 28 " 
 2  183
180
 113.70  366  479.70 m
L2
d) From Eq. 6.39, shifts s 
24 R


1832  6.98 m
24  200

From Eq. 6.40, total tangent length,

Tt  R  s  tan I / 2 
L
2
 200  6.98 tan 85  / 2 
183
2
 189.66  91.50  281.16 m
Chainage of the beginning of transition curve (T)
= 1550.42 − 281.16 = 1269.26 m

Chainage of the beginning of circular curve (C)

= 1269.26 + 183= 1452.26 m

Chainage of the end of circular curve (C')

= 1452.26 + 113.70 = 1565.96 m

Chainage of the end transition curve (T')

= 1565.96 + 183 = 1748.96 m
Illustrative Example 6.3.

Two straights AB and BC intersect at the chainage of 1400.00 m, the

deflection angle being 40˚. It is proposed to insert a right-handed circular curve
400 m radius with a cubic parabola of 90 m length at each end. The circular
curve is to be set out with pegs at 20 m intervals and the transition curve with
pegs at 10 m intervals of through chainages. Find the chainages:

1. At the beginning and at the end of the combined curve.

2. At the junction of the transition curve with the circular curve.
3. Tangential angles for the first two points on the first transition curve.
4. Tangential angles for the first two points on the circular curve.

(A.M.I.E., Summer, 1975)

L
Solution: From Eq. 6.21, spiral angle  s 
2R
90
  0.1125 rad
2  400
 6  26 ' 45
Centre angle for the circular curve


 40   2 6  26 ' 45" 
 27  6 ' 30"
Length of the circular curve

  40027  6'30"

180
 189.25 m

From Eq. 6.39, shift s 

L2

90  0.844 m 2

24 R 24  400
From Eq. 6.40, total tangent length,

Tt  R  s  tan I / 2  L / 2

 400  0.844 tan 20   45.0  190.90 m

Chainage at the beginning of the transition = 1400.0 − 190.90

= 1209.10 m

Chainage at the junction of the transition curve with the circular curve
= 1209.10 + 90.0 = 1299.10 m

Chainage at the junction of the circular curve with the transition curve
= 1299.10 + 189.25 = 1488.35 m

Chainage at the end of combined curve

= 1488.35 + 90 = 1578.35 m
Tangential angles of the transition curve.

Length of the first sub-chord = 1210.0 − 1209.10

= 0.90 m
573l 2 573  0.90
2

From Eq. 6.31, 1  

RL 400  90

 0.013 min .  0.8 "

Length of the second chord = 10 m

57310.0  0.90
2
2   1.891'  1' 53.5 "
400  90
Tangential angles of the circular curve.

Length of the first sub-chord = 1300.0 − 1299.10

= 0.90 m

1718.87c 1718.87  0.90

From Eq. 6.16, 1    3.87'
R 400

 3 ' 52 "

Length of the second chord = 20 m

1718.87  20
2   85.94 '  1 25 ' 57 "
400

Deflection angles.
1   1  3' 52 "
 2  1   2  3' 52 "  1 25 ' 57 "  1 29 ' 49 "
Illustrative Example 6.4.
Two straights intersect at the chainage 4534.50 m with a deflection
angle of 38˚ (right). It is proposed to put in a circular curve of 350 m radius
with transition curves 70 m long at each end. Compute the data for setting out
the combined curve having pegs at 20 m interval for the circular curve and 10
m for the transition curve.
L
Solution: From Eq. 6.21, spiral angle  s 
2R
70
  0.1 rad  5  43 ' 46"
2  350

Central angle for the circular curve

 I  2 s
 
 38  2 5 43' 46 "
 26  32' 28 "
s
L2

70  0.583 m
2

From Eq. 6.39, shift

24 R 24  350

From Eq. 6.40, total tangent length.

Tt  R  s  tan I / 2  L / 2
 350  0.583 tan 19   35  155.72 m

RI  2 s 
Length of the circular curve 
180
  35026  32 ' 28"

180
 162.13 m
Chainages

Beginning of the transition curve = 4534.50 − 155.72

= 4378.78 m

Junction of the transition curve and the circular curve

= 4378.78 + 70 = 4448.78 m

Junction of the circular curve and the transition curve

= 4448.78 + 162.13 = 4610.91 m

End of the transition curve = 4610.91 + 70.0

= 4680.91 m
Data for setting out

573l 2
1. First transition curve. From Eq. 6.31,  
RL

573 l 2
Or   0.02339 l 2 min
350  70

l 1.22 11.22 21.22 31.22 41.22 51.22 61.22 70.0

α 0' 2" 2' 57" 10' 32" 22' 48" 39' 45" 61' 22" 87' 40" 114' 37"

Check.
1
 n  s 
3
1 
3
 
5 43 ' 46 "  114' 36" (O.K )
2. Circular Curve. From Eq. 6.16,   1718.87c
R

Or

c 11.20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10.91
δ 55' 6" 98' 13" 98' 13" 98' 13" 98' 13" 98' 13" 98' 13" 98' 13" 53' 35"
∆ 55' 6" 153' 19" 251' 32" 349' 45" 447' 58" 546' 11" 644' 24" 742' 37" 796'12"

Check. n 
1
2 2
 
I  2φ s   1 38  2  5 43' 46"  13 16 ' 14 "
= 796' 14" (OK.)
3. Second transition curve. The second transition curve is set out from the
point T' at the junction of the second transition and the straight.

From Eq. 6.31, α = 0.02339 l2

l 9.09 19.09 29.09 39.09 49.09 59.09 69.09 70.00

α 1' 56" 8' 31" 19' 48" 35' 44" 56' 22" 81' 40" 111' 39" 114' 37"
6.16 SETTING OUT WITH A TAPE

If a theodolite is not available, a combined curve can be set out

with a tape.

The tangent points T and T' are located as discussed in Sect. 6.14.
The chainages of the salient points T, C, C' and T' are also determined as
discussed earlier.

The transition curve and the circular curves are set out with a tape
after calculating the required offsets, as explained below.
1. Transition Curve. The transition curve can be a cubic parabola or a cubic
spiral.
a) Cubic parabola.
• Choose convenient values of the x-distances measured along the
initial tangent TV, and compute the offsets y from Eq. 6.37,
x3
y
6 RL
• Measure the distances x1, x2, etc. along the line TV and locate the
pegs by setting out the respective perpendicular offsets y1, y2, etc

b) Cubic spiral
• Choose convenient values of the chord distances l1, l2, etc. and
compute the offsets y from Eq. 6.36,
l3
y
6 RL
• Locate the pegs by swinging the chord lengths l1, l2, etc. from the
point T till the required offsets y1, y2, etc. are found.
2. Circular curve. The circular curve can be set out by the method discussed
in Set. 5.10.
cn
From Eq. 5.14 (c), On  cn1  cn 
2R

Where On is the nth offset from the chord produced,

cn = length of the nth chord,
cn−1 = length of the (n − 1) th chor

3. Second transition curve. The second transition curve can be set out from
the tangent point T' using the data calculated for the first transition.
6.17 COMPUTATIONS FOR TRUE
SPIRAL AND CUBIC SPIRAL

In Section 6.14, it was assumed that the transition curve was a cubic
parabola because this curve is normally used in practice. For more accurate
setting out, the transition curve is assumed to be a true spiral (clothoid) or a
cubic spiral.

The following changes are made in the computations already made in

Sect. 6.14.
1. True spiral (clothoid).

From Eq. 6.22, taking only the first two terms,

 2 
x  l 1  
 10 
 l4   l4 
 l 1    l 
 10 K
4



1
10 4 R 
2 2 
L 

 l4 
Or x  l 1  
2 2 
…(6.44)
 40R L 

Alternatively, directly from eq. 6.24,

 l4 
x  l 1  
2 2 
 40R L 
Likewise, from Eq. 6.27,
l3  l4 
y 1  
2 2 
…(6.45)
6 RL  56 R L 

The coordinates of the junction point C of the transition curve and

the circular curves are given by

 L4   L2 
X  L 1    L 1 
2 2 

2 
…(6.46)
 40 R L   40 R 

L3  L4  L2  L2 
Y 1  
2 2 
1  
2 
6 RL  56 R L  6 R  56 R  …(6.47)

For setting out the curve, choose the values of l1, l2, etc. and
calculate the coordinates x1, x2, etc. from Eq. 6.44 and y1, y2, etc. from
Eq. 6.45.
Set out y1, y2, etc at right angles to the tangent at distances x1,
x2, etc.
Tangential angles.

From Eq. 6.35,   M
3
l2 1719 l 2
But  radius  minutes
2 RL RL
573 l 3
Therefore  minutes  M …(6.48)
RL

Where M is the correction in seconds [Eq. 6.35 (a)].

M  3.095  10 3 φ 3  2.285  10 8 φ 5

where  is in degrees.

 5˚ 10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚ 30˚ 35˚ 40˚ 45˚

M 0.4" 3.1" 10.46" 24.83" 48.58" 84.11" 144.70" 221.48" 286.25"

Total tangent length,

Tt = TV = AV + TA

Where AV = (R+S) tan I/2

From Fig. 6.8, TA = TC2 − AC2

Or TA  X  R sin φ s

 L2  L
But X  L 1  
2 
and  s 
 40R  2R
 L2    3

Therefore, TA  L 1  
  R s  3 
2  
 40 R   3 ! 

L3  L L3 
 L 2
 R  
3 
40 R  2 R 48R 
L L2 
 1  
2 
2  120 R 
L2
As s ,
24 R

L  s 
TA   1   …(6.49)
2  5 R 

L s 
Therefore, Tt  R  s  tan I / 2  1   …(6.50)
2  5R 
2. Cubic spiral.

From Eq. 6.36,

l3
y
6 RL

For the junction point C, l = L

L3 L2
And Y 
6 RL 6 R

Tangential angle
573 l 2
  minutes
3 RL
The equation is the same as that for a cubic parabola.
Total tangent length,

L s 
Tt  R  s  tan I / 2   1  
2  5R 
s
Generally, the term is very small as compared with unity, and is neglected.
5R

Tt  R  s  tan I / 2 
L
2

The equation is the same as that for a cubic parabola.

 
For  s below 12   n  4  , there is not difference between a clothoid
and a cubic parabola.
6.18 SETTING OUT BY FIXED ANGLES OF
EQUAL CHORDS METHOD

In this method, the pegs of the transition curve are not set out at even
chainages. Instead, a fixed set of angles is used in setting out. The
corresponding lengths of the chords are computed from the angles. The
calculations are considerably simplified in this method.
2
From Eq. 6.19,  
l
… (a)
2 RL

At the junction point C, l  L and   s .

L2
Therefore, s  … (b)
2 RL
From Eqs. (a) and (b),

 l2
 2
s L


Or lL … (6.51)
s

Let the deviation angle  be equal to 1 corresponding to the value of

chord length equal to c. If the deviation angle after setting out n such
chords is  n , we have

l  nc  L n /  s

s n 2 c 2
Or n  … (6.52)
L2
For the first chord, n = 1.

s c 2
1  2
… (6.53)
L

Therefore,  n  n 21 … (6.54)

 2  22 1  41
3  32 1  91 . etc

As the tangential angle    / 3,

 1  1 / 3
 2  4 1 / 3  4  1
 2  9 1 / 3  9  1
A table can be prepared giving the values of tangential angles for
equal chords. Generally, α1 is taken equal to 1'. Therefore, α2, α3, etc. are 4', 9',
etc.

For α1  1' , 1  3'.

For example, for L  100 m, s  10   600' ; and 1  3' , Eq. 6.53 gives

1
cL
s
3
 100  7.07 m
600

There would be 14 equal chords.

The length of the last chord c" in this case will be 100 − 14 × 7.07
= 1.02 m.
6.19 SPIRALLING A COMPOUND CURVE
In a compound curve, the radius of curvature changes abruptly at the
point of compound curvature (P.C.C.) from one radius R1 to the other radius
R2. Transition curves are introduced between two branches of the compound
curve at P.C.C. This is known as the spiraling a compound curve.

The following procedure is used (Fig. 6.10).

1. Calculate the required super-elevation for the two radii of the

compound curve.
Bv 2
e1 
gR1

Bv 2
And e2 
gR2

Where v is the design speed,

B is the width (gauge) of the track.
Fig. 6.10
2. Calculate the length L1 and L2 of the transition curves from the rate of
application of the super elevation (Sect. 6.7) or by the method of the rate of
change of radial acceleration.

Let L1 = ne1 and L2 = ne2

3. Determine the shift for both the branches.

2 2
L L
s1  1 and s2  2
24 R1 24 R2

4. Determine the distance D1D3 between the tangents of the shifted curve.

D1 D3  s1  s 2

The point D2 is midway between D1 and D3

5. Determine the length L' of the transition curve at the common point D2.

L '  n e1  e2  … (6.55)

6. Obtain the chainages of the salient points.

Chainage of A = Chainage of V − distance VA

Chainage of T = Chainage of A − L1/2
Chainage of C = Chainage of T + L1
Chainage of G = Chainage of C + length of the 1st curve − L'/2
Chainage of D2 = Chainage of G + L'/2
Chainage of G' = Chainage of D2 + L'/2
Chainage of C' = Chainage of G' + length of the second curve − L'/2
Chainage of T' = Chainage of C' + L2
7. Set out the first and last transition curves and two circular curves as
discussed earlier.

8. Set out the intermediate transition curve GG' by taking the offsets from the
common tangent.

Offsets,

4 s1  s 2  x 3
y …(6.56)
 L '
3

9. Locate the points G and G' where the intermediate transition curve meets
the two arcs by setting out a distance L'/2 from D2 on both sides.
Illustrative Example 6.5.

Two straights AV and VC are intersected by a third MN, the angles

AMN and MNC are respectively 130˚ and 145˚. It is proposed to introduce a
compound curve tangential to three lines AV, MN and VC. The radii of the two
branches are 300 m and 400 m, respectively.

Compute the necessary data for the location of the curves if the
transition curves are to be inserted between the two branches and at the junction
with the straights AV and VC.

Take the design speed 60km/hour, and the distance between the
centres of the rail as 1.60 m.

The chainage of V is 1210.00 m.

Solution: (See Fig. 6.10)

60  10 3
v  16.67 m/sec
60  60

Super-elevation of the first branch (Eq. 6.2)

Bv 2 1.60  16.67 
2
e1    0.151 m
gR1 9.81  300

Bv 2 1.60  16.67 
2

Likewise, e2    0.113 m
gR2 9.81  300

Assuming that the rate of application of the super-elevation is

1 in 300.

L1  ne1  300  0.151  45.3 m , say 45 m

L2  ne2  300  0.113  33.9 m , say 34 m
Length of the second transition curve at the junction,

L '  n e1  e2   300 0.151  0.113  11.4 m, say 12 m

Shift, s1 
L1
2


45.0
2
 0.281 m
24 R1 24  300

s2 
L2
2


34.0
2
 0.120 m
24 R2 24  400

D1D3  s1  s2  0.281  0.120  0.161 m

I1  180  130  50 
I 2  180  145  35
Length of the tangent,

AM  T1  R1  s1  tan I 1 / 2
 300  0.281 tan 50  / 2  140.03 m
A' N  T2  R2  s 2  tan I 2 / 2
 400  0.120 tan 35  / 2  126.16 m

Therefore, MN = MD + DN
= 140.03 + 126.16 = 266.19

In the triangle VMN, by sine rule,

MN sin 35  0.574
VM   266.19   153.38 m
sin 95  0.996
MN sin 50  266.19  0.766
VN    204.72 m
sin 95  0.996
Now chainage of v = 1210.0 m
Distance VA = VM + MA
= 153.38 + 140.03 = 293.41 m

Chainage of A  1210.0  293.41  916.59 m

45
Chainage of T  Chainage of A  L1 / 2  916.59   894.09 m
2
Chainage of C  Chainages of T  L1  894.09  45.0  939.09 m

Spiral angle for the first transition curve,

s 1  L1

45
 0.075 rad
2 R1 2  300
 4 17 ' 50 "
For the third transition curve,
L2
 s 2  
34
 0.0425 rad
2 R2 2  400
 2  26 ' 6"

Length of the first circular curve

  300
l1 
180
50 
 8 35 ' 40 " 
  300
  41.4056  216.80 m
180

Length of the second circular curve

  400
l2 
180
35 
 4  52 '12" 
  400  30.13
  210.35 m
180
Chainages of G = Chainage of C + l1 − L'/2
= 939.09 + 216.80 − 6 = 1149.89

Chainage of D2 = Chainage of G + L'/2 = 1149.89 + 6 = 1155.89

Chainage of G' = Chainage of G + L'

= 1149.89 + 12.0 = 1161.89 m

Chainage of C' = Chainage of G' + l2 − L'/2

= 1161.89 + 210.35 − 6.0 = 1366.24 m

Chainage of T' = Chainage of C' + L2

= 1366.24 + 34.0 = 1400.24 m
6.20 SPIRALLING A REVERSE CURVE
In a reverse curve, at the point of reverse curvature (P.R.C.), the
curvature changes from one side to the other. A transition curve is generally
provided between the two branches to provide a gradual change. This is called
spiraling of a reverse curve.

The following procedure may be used (Fig. 6.11).

Fig. 6.11
1) Determine the required super-elevation for the two branches.
Bv 2
e1 
gR1
Bv 2
e2 
gR2

2) Determine the change of super-elevation = e1 + e2

3) Determine the length L´ of the transition curve from the rate of application
of the super-elevation or by the method of rate of change of radial
acceleration.

L '  n e1  e2  … (6.57)

4) Provide half the length of the transition curve on either side of the point of
reverse curvature F.

5) Determine the distance EG between the tangents of the shifted curve.

EG = GF + FE
Or EG = s1 + s2 … (6.58)

6) Set out the transition curve CC´ by taking the offsets from the common
tangent.

4 s1  s 2 
y x3 … (6.59)
 L '
3
6.21 BERNOULLI’S LEMNISCATE

A Bernoulli’s lemniscate is a special type of transition curve used in

modern highways. It is specially suited when the angle of deflection of the
straights is large.

As the curve is symmetrical, it can be used when the curve is

transitional throughout without a circular curve between the two transition
curves. In that case, the super-elevation continuously increases till the apex is
reached and then it decreases. This may be objectionable in railways but on
highways there is no problem.

The curve closely resembles a clothoid for a polar angle upto 5˚.
A Bernoulli’s lemniscate is preferred to a spiral in case of highways because of
the following reasons:

1. The shape of the lemniscate corresponds to the actual path traced by a

vehicle when turning freely on the curve.
2. The rate of change of curvature is less than that of s spiral.
3. The rate of increase of curvature decreases near the junction with the
circular curve.
Properties of a lemniscate. (Fig. 6.12)

Fig. 6.12
The polar equation of Bernoilli’s lemniscate is

pK sin 2 … (6.20)

Where p = polar distance, which is equal to the length of the polar ray OP,
α = polar deflection angle.

In Fig. 6.12,

  deviation angle, which is the angle between the initial

tangent OV and the tangent PP1 at P.
θ = angle between the polar ray PO and the tangent PP1.
Let Q be another point on the curve near P.

Let the angle between rays OQ and OP be δα. Draw a perpendicular PR on

OQ from P. Let RQ = dp.

PR  p. 
OQP  OPP1  
PR p. 
tan θ  
RQ p
p d
Or tan θ  … (a)
dp

From Eq. 6.60, by differentiation,

dp 1
K  cos 2 … (b)
d sin 2
From Eqs. (a) and (b),

p sin 2 1
tan   
K cos 2


K 
sin 2 sin 2
K cos 2α

Or tan θ  tan 2α

Or θ  2α

Hence,         2

Or   3

Therefore, for the lemniscate curve, deviation angle   is exactly equal to

three times the polar deflection angle α. It may be remembered that it is
approximately equal to 3α in case of a clothoid or a cubic parabola.
Radius of curvature (r),

The radius of curvature (r) at any point of the lemniscate can be obtained from
the formula

3/ 2
 2  dp  2 
p   
  d  
r … (c)
 2  dp  d2 p
p  2   p 
  d   d 2 

dp K cos 2
 K cos 2 sin 2 
1 / 2
From Eq. (b), 
d sin 2

d2p
 K cos 2   
1
sin 2 3 / 2
2 cos 2 
d 2
2
 K sin 2    2sin 2
1 / 2

  K cos 2 2 sin 2   2 K sin 2 

3 / 2 1/ 2
2
dp d p in Eq. (c),
Substituting the values of and
d d 2

r
K sin 2  K cos 2  sin 2  
2 2 2 1 3 / 2

K sin 2  2  K cos 2 sin 2 

2 1 / 2


 K sin 2  K cos 2  sin 2 
3 / 2

 2 K sin 2 
1/ 2

Simplifying the above equation, we get

K
r … (6.61)
3 sin 2

p
Substituting K from Eq. 6.60,
sin 2

p p
r 
3 sin 2  sin 2  3 sin 2 
From Eq. 6.61, K  3r sin 2 … (6.62)

p
Or K  3r 
K

Or K 3rp … (6.63)

Length of the curve. The relation between the length of the curve and deviation
angle can be obtained as under.

dl … (d)
We have dl  rd or r 
d
K
From Eq. 6.61, r
3 sin 2
K K
Therefore, dl  d  d
3 sin 2 sin 2
Integrating Eq. (d), it can be shown that

K  1 1 5 
l  2 tan 1/ 2
  tan 5/ 2
  tan 9/2
  tan 13 / 2
  ......  … (6.64)
2 5 2 104 

The series of Eq. 6.64 does not coverge rapidly unless α is very small.
Prof. F.G. Royal Dawson suggested an alternative empirical formula for the
length of the lemniscate used for the transition curves on roads.

2 K
l  cos k
sin 

Where k is another coefficient. It can be shown that

l  6 r cos  cos k  … (6.65)

The values of coefficient k varies with the angle α. Its value is 0.190
for α = 5˚ and 0.159 for α = 45º.
For small angles, Eq. 6.65 is simplified as

l  6 r

Where α is in degrees.
r
Or l … (6.66)
9.55

Where α is in degrees.
Major and Minor Axes. In Fig. 6.13, the line MOM' is the major axis of
the curve. It is the polar ray making a polar deflection angle (α) of 45˚ with the
initial tangent. The point M is at the pole O.

Fig. 6.13
NN' is the minor axis of the curve.
For locating the minor axis, draw a polar ray ON making an angle of
15˚ with the initial tangent MV to cut the curve at N.
Draw a perpendicular NN' to MM' to obtain the minor axis. The point
C is at the intersection of two axes. At N, draw a tangent NN1 such that the
angle NN1X is 45˚(= 3 × 15˚). Hence the lines NN1 and MM' are parallel. The
triangle ONN' is equilateral.
From the equilateral triangle ONN',

NN '  ON  K sin 2  15    K

2

But 
OM '  K sin 2  45   K 
OM ' MM '
Therefore, NN '  
2 2
NN ' Minor axis 1
or  
MM ' Major axis 2
From Eq. 6.61, the radius r at M' is given by
K K OM '
r  
3 sin 2  45   3 3

The radius is minimum at M',

Major axis
Or rmin 
3
K  3 rmin … (6.67)

It may be noted that the radius of curvature decreases gradually from

O'M
infinity at O to a minimum at M '.
3
The length l of the lemniscate ONM' can be found by integrating of
the equation
2
  dr 
dl   r2    d
0
 d 
Length l = 1.31115 (OM') = 1.31115 K … (6.68)
6.22 LEMNISCATE USED AS A
TRANSITION CURVE THROUGHOUT
Fig. 6.14 shows a lemniscate curve used as a transition curve
throughout, with no circular curve in between. The line PMQ is the common
tangent to be two branches of the lemniscate. αn Is the polar deflection angle of
the line T1M. The two branches of the transition curve T1M and MT2 are
symmetrical about M.

Fig. 6.14
PVQ  180  1
1
 
PVM  180  I  90  I / 2
2
…(a)

 
VPM  90  90  I / 2  I / 2 …(b)
VPM  n  3 n
I
Fom Eqs. (a) and (b),  n  …(6.69)
6
Therefore, for the curve to be transitional throughout, the maximum
polar deflection (αn) must be equal to one-sixth of the deflection angle I of the
curve.
From the triangle T1VM,

 T1VM   PVM  90   I / 2
 T1 MV  90   2 n  90   I / 3
 VT1 M   n  I / 6
Thus all the angles are expressed in terms of I. These can be
determined if I is given.
Setting out.
The following procedure is used for setting out.
1. Determine the lengths of the sides T1V and T1M by applying the sine rule
to the triangle T1VM.
T1V  VM 

sin 90   I / 3
sin I / 6

T1 M  VM 

sin 90   I / 2 
sin I / 6

2. Locate the point T1 by measuring back the distance T1V from V.

Likewise, locate the point T2.
3. Set out the curve T1M from T1.

Prepare a table of polar distances p1, p2, etc. for successive

values of polar deflection angles α1, α2 … etc. from the equation
p  K sin 2
For the point m, the polar ray T1M,

p n  K sin 2  n 

4. Likewise, set out the curve T2M from T2.

Alternative Method when radius at M is given

From Eqs. 6.60 and 6.67, the length of the polar ray T1M

T  3rmin sin 2 n … (6.70)

Where tmin is the radius at M.

1) From the known length T1M, the lengths T1V and VM can be calculated by
the sine rule applied to the triangle T1V

T1V 

T1 M  sin 90   I / 3 

sin 90   I / 2 
T1 M  sin I / 6
VM 
sin 90   I / 2
And

2) Locate the point T1 by measuring back the distance T1V from V.

3) The curve T1M can be set out by the deflection angles, as explained above.
6.23 LEMNISCATE AS A TRANSITION
CURVE AT THE END OF A CIRCULAR
CURVE

For the lemniscate to be transitional throughout, the polar deflection

angle (αn) should be  / 6.
It αn is less than  / 6, it is necessary to introduce a circular curve between two
lemniscate transition curves.

Fig. 6.15 shows a lemniscate curve TC used as a transition between

the circular curve CC' and the tangent point T. Because of symmetry, the line
OV bisects the angle TVT' at the vertex V, where TV and VT are the tangents
of the curve.
Fig. 6.15

Draw CA1 parallel to the tangent TV, cutting OV at A1. Draw CC2 and
A1A2 perpendicular to TV.

Let αs be the total polar deflection angle, and  s be the total deviation
angle at the junction C.

Therefore, CTV   S and CC1V  s

Tangent length.

Tangent length, TV  TC 2  C2 A 2  A 2 V

Let the chord TC be equal to B. it is equal to the length of the extreme

polar ray when  s  s / 3.

Therefore, TC2  B cos  s … (a)

Or TC 2  p n cos  s

 TVO 
1
2
 
180   I  90   I / 2

 OAC   AC1V  C1VA


  S  90   I / 2 
Therefore,  
 AOC  90    s  90   I / 2 
I
Or   s
2
From the triangle OCA1,

CA1 sin I / 2   s 

CO sin 90   I / 2
R sin I / 2   s 
Or CA1 
cos I / 2

Or CA1 
R
sin I / 2 cos  s  cos I / 2 sin  s 
cos I / 2
Or CA1  C2 A2  R cos  s tan I / 2  sin s  … (b)

Also A2V  A1 A2 cot 90  I / 2


 CC2 cot 90   I / 2 
Or A2V  pn sin  s tan I / 2 … (c)
Adding Eqs. (a), (b) and (c),

TV  TC2  C2 A2  A2V

Or TV  pn cos  s  R cos s tan I / 2  sin  s 

 pn sin  s tan I / 2 … (6.71)

Locate the tangent point T by measuring back a distance TV from

the intersection point V. Set out the curve from T, as explained earlier.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 6.6
A Bernoulli’s lemniscate is used as a transitional curve throughout
between two straights having a deflection angle of 102˚. Compute the data for
setting out the curve if the apex distance is 25 m.

Solution: (See Fig. 6.14)

I  102  ,  n  I / 2  51

From Eq. 6.69,

 h   n / 3  51 / 3  17   I / 6
In the triangle VPM,

T1V  VM 

sin 90  I / 3 
sin I / 6

 25 

sin 90  34 
 70.89 m

sin 17

T1M 

VM sin 90  I / 2 
sin I / 6

 25 

sin 90  51 
 53.80 m

sin 17
From Eq. 6.60,
p n  K sin 2 n

Or 53.80  K sin 2  17   
53.80
Or K  71.95

sin 34
Therefore, p  71.95 sin 2
The values of p for different values of α can be calculated as under.

α 0.25˚ 0.50˚ 1.0˚ 2.0˚ 4.0˚ 6.0˚ 8.0˚ 10.0˚ 12.0˚ 14.0˚ 17.0˚

p 6.72 9.51 13.44 19.00 26.84 32.81 37.77 42.08 45.89 49.30 53.80 m

Locate the tangent points T1 and T2 by measuring distances VT1 = VT2

= 70.89 m from V.

Set out the transition curve T1M from T1 and the curve T2M from T2
using the tabulated values of p and α.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 6.7.
A bernoulli’s lemniscate is used as a transitional curve throughout
between two straights having a deflection angle of 72˚. If the minimum radius
of curvature is 120 m, make necessary calculations for setting out the curve.

Solution:  n  I / 6  72  / 6  12 

From Eq. 6.70,

K  3 r min sin 2 n

Or K  3  120 sin 2  12   229.59 m

Therefore, Eq. 6.60 becomes p  229.59 sin 2

For    n , p n  229.59 sin 24   146.42 m  T1 M

From the triangle T1VM,

T1V 

T1 M sin 90   I / 3 

sin 90   I / 2 
sin 114 
Or T1V  146.42 
 165.34 m
sin 54

Locate the points T1 and T2 by measuring a distance of 165.34 from V.

Determine the values of p for various values of α.

α 0.25˚ 0.50˚ 1.0˚ 2.0˚ 4.0˚ 6.0˚ 8.0˚ 10.0˚ 12.0˚

p 21.45 30.33 42.89 60.64 85.65 104.69 120.54 134.27 146.42m

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

Illustrative Example 6.8.

Calculate the tangential offsets for setting out a transition curve of 100
m length with 20 m peg interval if the radius of the circular curve is 250 m.
Assume the transition curve to be (a) cubic, parabola, (b) cubic spiral.

Solution; (a) Cubic parabola From Eq. 6.37,

x3 x3 x3
y  
6 RL 6  250  100 150,000

The offsets are calculated for various values of x.

x 20.0 m 40.0 m 60.0 m 80.0 m 100.0 m

y 0.053 m 0.427 m 1.440 m 3.413 m 6.667 m
Check. Y = 4s

 L2  4  1002
Or 6.667  4      6.667 O.K
 24R  24  250

l3 l3
(b) Cubic spiral. From Eq. 6.36, y  
6RL 150,000

l 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
y 0.053 m 0.427 m 1.440 m 1.500 m 6.667 m
Check. Y = 4s

 L2  4  1002
Or 6.667  4      6.667 O.K
 24R  24  250

(b) Cubic spiral. From Eq. 6.36,

l3 l3
y 
6RL 150,000

l 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
y 0.053 m 0.427 m 1.440 m 1.500 m 6.667 m
Illustrative Example 6.9.
It is proposed to insert a transition curve of 100 m length between a
straight and circular curve 250 m. Determine the deflection angles for setting
out the transition curve if the peg interval is 20 m. The chainage at the point of
beginning of the transition curve is 1530.64 m.
Solution: The distances of various pegs from the beginning of the
transition curve are
9.36 m, 29.36 m, 49.36 m, 69.36 m, 89.36 m, 100.0 m

573l 2 573  l 2
From Eq, 6.31,     0.02292l 2 minutes
RL 250  100

l 9.36 m 29.36 m 49.36 m 69.36 m 89.36 m 100 m

α 2' 20" 19' 45" 55' 51" 110' 16" 183' 1" 229' 12"
Check. Spiral angle,
L
s  rad
2R
100 180  60
   687 ' 33 "
2  250 
s 687 ' 33"
n    229 ' 11" (O.K)
3 3
Illustrative Example 6.10.

Determine the length of transition curve to be inserted between a

straight and curve such that a super-elevation of 120 mm is attained over a
circular curve. The rate of attaining a super-elevation is 20 mm per second, and
the design speed is 80 km per hour. What would be the length if the rate of
change of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/sec3? Take R = 300 m.

80  10 3
Solution : v  22.22 m /sec
60  60

ev
From Eq. 6.14, L
r

0.120  22.22
  133.32 m
0.020

From Eq. 6.16, L

v3

22.22  129.90 m
3

R 0.3  300
Illustrative Example 6.11.
Two clothoid spirals for a road transition between two straights meet at
a common tangent point. If the deflection angle between the straight is 40˚, and
the chainage of the point of intersection is 4530.40 m, calculate the chainages of
the tangent points and the point of compound curvature.

Take design speed of 100 km/hour, the rate of change of radial

acceleration as 0.3 m/sec3, and the maximum centrifugal ratio of 0.25.

Solution: From Eq. 6.16,

v3
L
R
3
 100  10 3

 
60  60
Or L   71445 … (a)
0.3  R R
From Eq. 6.21, L  2 R s

But 2 s  40   0.6981 radians

Therefore, L  0.6981R … (b)

From Eqs. (a) and (b),

L2  0.6981  71445.51

Or L  223.33 m

223.33
From Eq. (b) R  319.91 m
0.6981
100  10 3
v  27.78 m/sec
60  60

4v 2 4  27.78
2
From Eq.6.7 (a), R   314.62 m
g 9.81
Adopt a radius, R = 320 m

And L = 0.6981 R = 223.39 m

 L2

From Eq. 6.46, X  L 1 
 40R 2 
 

 223.39 1 

223.39 2  
 220.67 m
2
 40  320 
L2  L2 
From Eq. 6.47, Y  1  
2 
6 R  56 R 


223.39
2
 
223.39 2  
1  2
 25.77 m
6  320  56  320 
Total tangent length (See Fig. 6.14),

T1V  X  T  Y tan I / 2

 220.64  25.77 tan 40  / 2 
 230.02 m

Chainage of the first tangent point T1 = 4530.40 − 230.02 = 4300.38

Chainage of the point of compound curvature M = 4300.38 + 223.39 = 4523.77

Chainage of the second tangent point T2 = 4523.77 + 223.39 = 4747.16 m

Illustrative Example 6.12.

Three straights AB, BC and CD have whole circle bearing of 40˚, 90˚
and 30˚, respectively. The straight AB is to be connected to CD by a continuous
reverse curve formed of two circular curves of equal radius together with four
transition curves. The straight BC is the common tangent to the two inner
transition curves, and is 900 m long. Calculate the radius of the circular curves if
the maximum speed limit is 100 km per hour, and the rate of change of radial
acceleration is 0.3 m/sec3.

Also calculate the offset and the deflection angle with respect to BC to
locate the intersection of the third transition curve with its circular curve.
Solution : (See Fig. 6.16)

Fig. 6.16
100  10 3
v  27.778 m/sec
60  60
v 3 27.778
3
71445
L  
R 0.3  R R

s
L2

71445 / R 

2.13  10 8
2

Shift,
24 R 24 R R3
Now total tangent length,
Tt  R  s  tan I / 2  L / 2
 2.13  108 
Therefore, 900   R  3

 tan 50 

/ 2  
71445 1

 R  R 2
 2.13  108 
  R  3

 tan 
60 
/ 2
71445 1

 R  R 2

 2.13  108 
Or 900   R  
 0.4663  0.5774  
71445
 R3  R
Or 900 R 3  1.0437 R 4  2.223  10 8  71445R 2

Or R 4  862.317 R 3  68453.58R 2  2.13  10 8  0

Solving by trial and error,

R  780 m
71445
L  91.6 m
780
l3 L3 L2
Now offset, Y  
6 RL 6 RL 6 R


91.6
2
 1.793 m
6  780
L 91.6
Spiral angle, s    0.0587 rad
2 R 2  780

 201' 48 "  3 21' 48 "

Deflection angle ,  s  s / 3
201' 48 " 
  1 7 ' 16 "
3