Review for Midterm

SPAU 3343
Updated Spring, 2014

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IPA
• International Phonetic Alphabet.
• Each symbol represents a single
sound.
• We can transcribe any sound of
any language with IPA.

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Linguistics
• The scientific study of language.

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Phonetics
• Part of linguistics. The scientific study of
speech sound.
– Articulatory phonetics: How speech sounds
are articulated.  Description and classification
of speech sounds.
– Acoustic phonetics: How speech sounds are
generated and how they are transmitted.  The
relationship between articulation and acoustic
output.
– Auditory phonetics: How human ears
perceive speech sounds.
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Phonology
• How speech sounds are used in
languages.
• Study of systems of speech sounds and
the rules which govern them

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Speech sounds
• Sounds are not the same things as orthography.
• The IPA was created to represent actual speech
sounds.
• IPA was designed to consider grouping of
sounds.
– Voiced/voiceless
– Place of articulation
– Manner of articulation
• Sounds change based on speech context

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Phone
• An individual sound of speech; an
elementary sound unit.

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Phoneme
• The smallest sound unit in a language
that distinguishes word meanings.

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Minimal pair
• Two words that have exactly the same
phonemes except one.
• Minimal pairs are useful for determining
which sounds are phonemes in a
language.
• EXAMPLES: /pit/ - /bit/
• /pit/ - /pæt/

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Vowels – tense, lax
• Tense vowels - occur in words with a final
so-called silent “e” in the spelling (e.g.,
“mate”, “mete”, “kite”, and “cute”). These
vowels CAN occur in open syllables (V, CV,
CCV, etc.)
• Lax vowels - occur in the words without a
“silent e” such as “mat”, “met”, “kit” and “cut”.
These vowels CANNOT occur in open
syllables, but are only found in closed
syllables. 10
Vowels – tense, lax

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Allophone – [ ]
• A variant of a phoneme. The
allophones of a phoneme form a set of
sounds that:
– Do not change the meaning of a word,
– Are all very similar to one another, and
– Occur in phonetic contexts different from
one another (for example, syllable-initial as
opposed to syllable-final.
• The differences among allophones can
be stated in terms of phonological rules.
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Consonants of GAE

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GAE Vowel Quadrilateral

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Monophthongs vs. Diphthongs
Monophthongs
• A vowel in which there is no appreciable
change in quality during a syllable, as in
“father.”
Diphthongs
• A vowel in which there is a change in
quality during a single syllable, as in
“high.”
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Diphthongs

/aɪ/
/ɔɪ/
/aʊ/
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Tense vowels with a little bit of offglide
But these are not full diphthongs.

/e/ = /e/
/i/ = /ij/
/o/ = /oʊ/
/u/ = /uw/
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Diphthong /aɪ/
• As in “high, buy,” moves toward a high
front vowel, but in most forms of English
it does not go much beyond a mid front
vowel.

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Diphthong /aʊ/
• As in “how”
• Usually starts with a very similar quality
to that at the beginning of “high”

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Diphthong /ɔɪ/
• As in “boy”

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Connected speech
• The way we talk daily.
• Our talk is “connected” because we do
not separate each word as we talk.
• Connected speech is not like citation
form.

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Citation form
• Citation form is a teacher type of talk.
Each word is articulated separately.
• We rarely talk in citation form.

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Feature theory
Markedness – mark only unusual cases
• Voicing, place and manner 
Consonants are assumed to be:
– Central instead of lateral  Therefore,
“lateral” is a marked feature. You don’t have
to mark “central.”
– Oral instead of nasal  Therefore, “nasal”
is marked. You don’t have to mark “oral.”

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Binary vs. Graded Features
• Binary features:
– In a binary system, a state is either “on” or
“off.” For example, “voiced” or “voiceless”.
– Binary codes are used for computers.
Binary features are:
• Graspable
• Intuitive
• Graded features:
– Like prosody (the melody of language), it
cannot be explained by clear-cut binary
features.
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Coarticulation
• Coarticulation  Sounds before/after influence
the next/previous sounds.
– Anticipatory coarticulation  “look-ahead”
 future sounds influence the present sound.
When you say “I said ‘su’ again”, your mouth
prepares for articulation of /u/ before it finishes
producing /s/.
– Perseverative coarticulation  “carryover”
 previous sound still influences your present
sound.
• Coarticulation is language dependent.
• French speakers can anticipate 6 segments.
• English speakers anticipate 1-2 segments.25
Electropalatography (EPG)

• Subjects wear the unit

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Syllable
• A unit of speech consisting of either a single
vowel (or a syllabic consonant) or a vowel
and one or more consonants associated with
it.
• The syllable is often used to describe
patterns of stress and timing in speech.
– Open syllable  starts with one or more
consonants and ends with V
• CV
– Closed syllable  consonants at the end.
• CVC, CVCC (etc.)
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Diacritics
• A small mark that can be used to
distinguish different values of an IPA
symbol.
• For example, the addition of /~/
distinguishes a velarized from a non-
velarized sound
• Try saying “lemon” and “pull” to feel the
different locations for producing the
lateral sounds.
• For specific diacritics, refer to the pages
about 12 phonological rules. 28
Source Filter Theory
• A theory in which energy from a source
is modified by a set of filters.
• Source  The basic source of power
for speech is the respiratory system
pushing air out of the lungs.
• Filter  The larynx, pharynx, nasal
cavity, and oral cavity (= supralaryngeal
vocal tract)

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Geminate consonant
• Long consonants that can be analyzed
as double are called geminates.
• E.g. middle of Italian “folla”
• Careful: many English words are
spelled with two consonants, but these
are usually NOT geminates (e.g.,
“running”)

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homorganic
• Two sounds that have the same place
of articulation.
• For example, /d/ and /n/, as in English
“hand,” are homorganic. They are both
articulated on the alveolar ridge.

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Transcription methods
• Broad  a transcription that uses a simple set of
symbols.
• Narrow  Transcription that shows more phonetic
detail, either just by using more specific symbols or
by also representing some allophonic differences.
• Phonemic A transcription made by using letters of
the simplest possible shapes, and in the simplest
possible number (generally goes with “broad”)
• Systematic phonetic  A transcription that shows
the allophones in very detailed manners (generally
goes with “narrow”)
• Impressionistic A transcription that only indicates
general phonetic value, e.g. when transcribing
foreign, child, or disordered speech – the more
impressionistic, the more broad.
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Voice
• Breathy voice (murmur)  A type of
phonation in which the vocal folds are only
slightly apart so that they vibrate while
allowing a high rate of airflow through the
glottis, as in Hindi /bh/ or /a̤/.
• Creaky voice (laryngealization)  A type
of phonation in which the arytenoid
cartilages hold the posterior end of the
vocal folds together so that they can vibrate
only at the other end, as in Hausa /a̰ / 34
Airstream mechanism
• Airstream mechanism: The manner in
which an airstream is set in motion for
the purposes of speech.
• Airstream mechanisms may produce
ingressive (inward) or egressive
(outward) airflow.
• An airstream mechanism consists of the
movement of an initiator. Speech
sounds are produced with one of three
airstream mechanisms, or occasionally
by a combination of two of these. 35
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Pulmonic, Glottalic and Velaric airstreams

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Ejective vs. Implosive sounds
• Ejective  A stop made with an
egressive glottalic airstream, such as
Hausa /t’/.
• Implosive  A stop made with an
ingressive glottalic airstream, such as
Sindhi /ɓ/.

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Different Languages
• Review the examples of languages
discussed in class exemplary of
interesting phonetic and linguistic
features.
– Language with click sounds  !Xhosa
– Bilabial implosive  Sindhi
– Ejective (glottal egressive airstream
mechanism) stops  Lakhota, Hausa
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How to describe vowels
Main classification
• Tongue height  high, mid, or low.
• Tongue advancement  front, central,
or back.
Also, we talk about…
• Tenseness  tense or lax
• Lip rounding
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Describing the vowels…

/i/ is a (high, mid, low)

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Describing the vowels…

/i/ is a (high, mid, low)

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Describing the vowels…

/u/ is a (high, mid, low)

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Describing the vowels…

/u/ is a (high, mid, low)

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Basic Speech Anatomy

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Basic Speech Anatomy

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Vocal Cord

• Glottis is the space

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Stress placement
• The symbol /ˈ / is a stress mark that has
been placed before the syllable
carrying the main stress.
• Stress should always be marked in
words of more than one syllable.

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Tone
• A pitch that conveys part of the meaning
a word. In Chinese, for example, /ma/
pronounced with a high-level tone
means “mother” and with a high falling
tone means “scold.”
• Tones occur in relative balance of the
sounds.

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Two types of tone languages
1. Register tone: e.g., high/mid/low
2. Contour tone: include rising, falling,
dipping (with slopes)

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13 Phonological Rules
• Of English

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GOOD LUCK!!

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