OBJECT BEING MEASURED

RATCHET SCEW

ROTATING BARREL

INNER CYLINDER

Key Features

✓ All-in one Study Material (for Boards/IIT/Medical/Olympiads)

✓ Multiple Choice Solved Questions for Boards & Entrance Examinations
✓ Concise, conceptual & trick – based theory
3 USE OF VECTOR ANALYSIS
Suppose a block of mass M is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. There are two forces F1 and F2
acting on the block as shown in the figure.

F2 = 10 N F1 = 5 N

Now the question is in which direction will the block move? And what will be the net force on the
block?
You can answer it easily. The block will move towards left and net force will be
(10 – 5) = 5 N towards left.
Now think of the situation when these forces are neighter in the same direction nor opposite to each-
other.
Suppose F1 and F2 are perpendicular to each other acting on the same block as shown in figure.

F1 = 5 N

F2 = 10 N
We repeat the same question. In which direction will the block move and what will be the net force?
It will be difficult to answer. Why? Since you do not know about vectors.
Similar problems will be faced in other physical relations. We will now discuss vectors in detail.
4 SCALARS AND VECTORS
In the last lesson we have already discussed about physical quantities. All physical quantities have
been categorised into two parts.

Physical Quantities

Scalars Vectors
Scalars: Scalars are those physical quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction.
Examples: density, time, temperature, energy, mass, distance, speed etc.
Vectors: Vectors are those physical quantities, which have both magnitude and direction and obey
the vector law of addition.
Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
 A vector must obey the vector law of addition otherwise it will not be a vector although having both
magnitude as well as direction.
Example: current has both magnitude and direction, but it is not a vector. It is a scalar quantity
because it does not obey the vector law of addition, which we will learn in this lesson.
4.1 REPRESENTATION OF VECTOR
(i) Geometrical Method: Geometrically a vector is represented by the directed line segment i.e., by
a line to which a direction has been assigned with an arrow-head in the direction of the vector and whose
length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector.
To represent a vector geometrically, a line is drawn parallel
to the direction of the vector and put an arrow on the line along the P
direction of the vector. Now this directed line segment, namely, OP
→
as shown in figure represents the vector in magnitude and direction.
r
→
It is written as OP . ‘O’ is called the ‘initial point’ of the vector and
→ →
O
P, the ‘terminal point’ of it. The vector OP is also written as r i.e.,
→ →
we also write r = OP .
To represent a physical quantity in a vector form, we put an arrow above the symbol of the physical
→
quantity. For example, velocity is denoted by v but in vector form it is represented as v which is read as
velocity vector.
→
Magnitude of vector is called absolute value indicated by | v | (modulus of velocity vector)
(ii) Analytical Method: In this method vector is represented in terms of unit vector
( iˆ, ˆj and k̂ ), which we will see in details later on.
4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VECTOR
(i) Like Vectors: Two parallel vectors having the same sense of direction are called like vectors and
opposite sense of direction are called unlike vectors.
Example: Let body A is moving toward east and another body B is also moving in the same direction,
then these two velocity vectors are called like vectors.
(ii) Collinear/Parallel Vectors: Vectors having the same line of action or having lines of action
parallel to the same line are called collinear vectors.
They may have the same sense or opposite sense of direction.
(iii) Coplanar Vectors: Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or they are
parallel to the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar vectors.
(iv) Zero Vector/Null Vector: Vectors having zero magnitude are called zero or null vectors. It is
→
denoted by O .
In case of a zero vector, its initial and the final point coincide and its direction is indeterminate.
In this case initial and terminal points coincide.
→ →
OO , AA are zero vectors
Examples: The velocity vector of a stationary particle, the acceleration vector of an object moving
with uniform velocity are zero vector.
(v) Unit Vector: A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. It is
used to specify the direction only. Unit vector is represented by putting a cap (^) over the quantity unit vector
is unit less and dimension less.
→
The unit vector in the direction of F is denoted by F̂ and defined by

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→
→ →
F
F̂ = →
,  F = | F | Fˆ … (1)
|F |
To represent any value of force in this direction, we can use this unit vector. Like  is magnitude of
force and we multiply  with F̂ , it will give force along the direction of F.
→
F =  F̂
→
(vi) Negative of a Vector: The vector whose magnitude is same as that of a but the direction is
→ → →
opposite to that of a is called the negative of a and is written as – a .
→ → →
a b =− a
(vii) Position Vectors: Position vector represents the position of an object in a plane with respect to
a fixed-point that is origin of a coordinate system.
→
Let O be the origin and P be any point then OP is called the position vector of P with respect to the
origin O.
→ y
It can be represented by a single letter r .
→ → → P
OP = r . The length of the vector r represents the
magnitude of vector and its direction is the direction in which P lies
as seen from O. r
O x

(viii) Equal Vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if

(i) their magnitudes are equal
(ii) they are parallel
(iii) they have the same sense of direction. They needn’t have the same initial point.
In the figure shown length of AB equal to length of CD A B
and AB and CD have same sense of direction.
→ → C D
 AB = CD
→ →
So here AB & CD are two equal vectors.
4.3 PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
(i) Vectors can be bound: The vectors in which point of A
application and direction both are fixed.
Such type of vector’s position is fixed and it is called O
bound vectors.
(ii) Vectors can be sliding: In sliding the point of A
application is shifted along the original line of action without any O
change in magnitude and direction.
→
Shifted position of OA is shown in the figure. A
O

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(iii) Vectors can be moved freely: In free movement of A
vector its point of application can be changed without any change
in magnitude and direction of the vector and is always parallel to A O
the original line of action.
→
As OA has been shifted in a new position as shown in O
figure.
 It is worth noting that in this lesson all vectors has been used as free vector.
(iv) Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are
placed tail to tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e., 0    ).
→ →
→
B B B
or
  
→ → →
A A A
(1) (2) (3)
→ →
Here  represents the angle between A and B .
(v) Angle between collinear vectors is always zero or 180°.
→ →
B B
→ →
A or A
 = 0°  = 180°
(A) (B)

5 ADDITION OF VECTORS
5.1 GRAPHICAL METHOD
(i) Triangle Law of Vector Addition: Let us
→
→ →
b
consider two vectors a and b as shown.
Now to get the sum of these two vectors 
→ → →
( a + b ), shift any two vectors parallel to itself until the tail a
of one vector is at the head of another vector (using the sliding head
and free vector properties).
→
→
Here we place the vector b in such a way that its tail b
→ tail head
→
touch the head of vector a , which is shown in figure. tail
a
→ → → → C
Let AB = a and BC = b
→
→
c
Then the line joining the tail of a and head of vector  →
→ → → → c b
b , AC gives the sum of vector a and b →
→ →
A B
a
Let AC = c
→ → → → → →
a+b = c  AB + BC = AC
This is known as triangle law of vector addition.

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We can define in this way. “If two vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in
order, then their resultant or vector sum is represented by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite
order”.
→ →
(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition: Let there are two vectors P and Q in such a way that
they have common initial point and different direction as shown in figure.
→ →
Let us complete a parallelogram with P and Q as its adjacent sides.

→ →
→
Q Q R
 
→
→
P P
Then, the diagonal of parallelogram passing through their common point will represent in magnitude
→ →
and direction the resultant of the vectors P and Q .
→ → →
R = P +Q

Magnitude of vector R is given by the length of diagonal of the parallelogram which can be
calculated in this way
 
Let the two vectors P and Q be represented in magnitude and direction C
B
by OA and OB respectively. Considering OA and OB as two adjacent 
sides, parallelogram OACB is constructed. R
→
We drop a perpendicular CD on OA produced. Q
 
In right angled triangle ACD. 
→
O A D
AD P
cos  =  AD = AC cos 
AC
or, AD = Q cos 
Also, CD = Q sin 

Now in right angle triangle ODC

OC2 = OD2 + DC2
2
R = (P + Q cos)2 + (Q sin )2

= P2 + Q2cos2 + 2PQcos + Q2 sin2

R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos  … (2)

→ →
Let  be the angle, which the resultant R makes with P .
DC Q sin   Q sin  
tan  = = ,  = tan −1   … (3)
OD P + Q cos   P + Q cos  
Some special case
Case I:

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→ →
When P and Q are in same direction, it means  = 0°
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos 0
R = (P + Q ) 2 = P + Q
In this case resultant is maximum
Q sin 0
tan  = =0
P + Q cos 0

Case II:
→ →
When P and Q are perpendicular to each other, it means  = 90°
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos 90
R = P 2 + Q2
Q Q 
tan  =   = tan −1  
P P 
Case III:
→ →
When P and Q are in opposite direction, it means  = 

R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos  = P 2 + Q 2 − 2PQ

= (P − Q ) 2
= (P – Q)
In this case resultant will be minimum.
Qsin
tan  = =0 =0
P + Qcos
Case IV:
→ →
When two vectors are of same magnitude (| P | = | Q |)
R = P 2 + P 2 + 2P 2 cos 

= 2P 2 (1 + cos )


= 2P 2 (2 cos2 )
2

= 2P cos
2
 
2sin cos
P sin  sinθ 2 2
tan = = =
P + P cos  θ 
2cos2 2 cos2
2 2

tan  = tan
2
  = /2
 If two vectors are of equal magnitude then the resultant of vectors bisects the angle between them.

EXPLORING PHYSICS WITH PARAGON CLASSES, PHONE NO. 9927245352 7

5.2 PROPERTIES OF VECTOR ADDITION
(i) It Obeys Commutative law
→ → →
If a and b are any two vectors, C a B
→ → → →
then a + b = b + a →
→
→ → → →
b c
Proof: Let OA = CB = a b
→ → → O A
→
AB = OC = b
a
→ →
OB =C
→ → →
In OAB , OA + AB = OB (from triangle law of vector addition).
→ → →
 a+b = c … (i)
→ → →
In OCB , OC + CB = OB
→ → →
 b +a =c … (ii)
from equation (i) & (ii)
→ → → →
a+b = b+a
(ii) It obeys associative law
→ → → →
If a, b, and c are any three vectors then A b B
→ → → → → →
a + (b + c ) = (a + b ) + c → →
→ → a → → c
Proof : Let OA = a (a +b )
→ → →
AB = b , BC = c O → → → C
( a + b) + c
→ → → → →
In OAB, OB = OA + AB = a + b
→ → → → → →
In OBC , OC = OB + BC = ( a + b ) + c …(i)
→ → → → → →
In ABC AC = AB + BC = b + c A b B
→ → → → → →
→ →
In OAC, OC = OA + AC = a + ( b + c ) … (ii) → b+ c →
from equation (i) and (ii) a c
→ → → → → → O C
(a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) → → →
a + (b+ c )

6 SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
Subtraction of vector can be defined in terms of addition of two
→
vectors. Q
→ → → →
P − Q = P + (− Q) 
→
P

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→ →
Let P and Q are at an angle  as shown in the figure.
→ → →
To get ( P − Q ), first we will draw a vector − Q as shown below.
→ →
Then angle between P and − Q will be ( - ).
→ →
| P + ( − Q ) | = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos( − )
→
→ → Q
| P − Q | = P + Q − 2PQ cos  2 2
… (4) 
→
 Subtraction is not commutative, i.e., -Q –
→
P
→ → → →
P −Q  Q − P

Illustration 8
Question: There are two vectors having magnitude 3 units and 4 units respectively
(a) What should be the resultant if angle between them is 60°
(b) What should be the angle between them if the magnitude of resultant is
(i) 1 unit (ii) 5 units?
Solution:
→ →
(a) | a | = 3 units, | b | = 4 units and  = 60°
→ → →
R = a + b

R = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab cos 

= 9 + 16 + 2.3.4 cos 60 = 25 + 12 = 37 units

(b) (i) | R | = a 2 + b 2 + 2.3.4 cos 

1= 9 + 16 + 2.3.4 cos 

1 = 25 + 24 cos
−24
cos  = = -1 = cos   = 
24
(ii) (5)2 = 25 + 24 cos 

25 = 25 + 24 cos
0 = 24cos  cos  = 0
  = /2

Important formulae/points
• Vectors: Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction
   C
• Triangle law of vector addition R = P + Q B
| R |= P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos  , 
R
Q sin  →
tan  = Q
P + Q cos   
→ →

→
• | P − Q | = P + Q − 2PQ cos 
2 2 O
P A D

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7 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
It is the process of splitting a single vector into two or more vectors in different directions which
together produce the same effect as is produced by the single vector alone. The vectors into which the given
single vector is splitted are called component of vectors. In fact, the resolution of a vector is just opposite
to composition of vectors.
Let there is force acting on a block, which is on a F
frictionless surface, at an angle  with the horizontal as shown
in figure. 
M
Now due to this force it will move towards right and go some distance.
We want to know the force, which is cause of rightward motion.
It can be known by the components of the force F. The cause of horizontal motion is horizontal
component which will be F cos .
We can understand these things in this way
Let force F is acting from P to Q Q
S
We want to know the force in the direction PR →
and PS. → F
In right angle  PQR F sin
PR FPR
cos  = =  →
PQ FPQ P R
F cos
 PR = PQ cos 
→ →
 F PR = F cos 
So, horizontal component = F cos θ
In right angle  PQR
→ →
RQ FRQ
sin = →
= →
PQ FPQ
→ →
F RQ = F sin 
→ → →
F PS = F RQ = F PQ sin 
So, vertical component = F sin 
In this way we resolve the vector in two perpendicular directions.
 We can remember it in this way, towards  the component will be a factor of cos and other
component perpendicular to it will be a factor of sin.
7.1 RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR IN A PLANE
When a vector is resolved along the two axes of a rectangular co-ordinate system (i.e.,
x and y axis), the components of the vector are called rectangular components of a vector.
→
Let there is a vector a from O to P at an angle  from the x-axis.
y-axis

→ P
Magnitude of component of a along x-axis (ax) = a cos  →
→ a
Magnitude of component of a along y-axis (ay) = a sin 
These two components are called rectangular components of 
→
O x-axis
the vector a .
Representation of Rectangular components

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y-axis
These components are represented in terms of unit
vector.
Unit vector along x, and y-axis are represented by iˆ and
→
ĵ respectively as shown in figure. j
| iˆ | = | ˆj | = | kˆ | = 1
O → x-axis
these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other. i
→
Rectangular components of vector a in terms of unit vector can be written as
→
a = a x iˆ + a y ˆj
→
a = a cos  iˆ + a sin  ĵ

7.2 RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Components, which we get on resolving a vector, lie in space along three mutually perpendicular
directions (i.e., x, y and z axes) are called rectangular components or orthogonal components.

The vector is called non-coplanar (three-dimensional) vector.

→
y-axis
Let there be a non-coplanar vector P from O to A as
shown in figure. Taking O as origin and a rectangular →
Py
parallelopiped with its three edges along the three rectangular
axes i.e., x, y and z axes, is constructed. → A
P
→
  Px
→
Here P represent the diagonal of the parallelopiped O x-axis
→
→ → → Pz
whose intercepts along these axes are P x , P y and P z
→ z-axis
respectively which are three orthogonal components of P .

P2 = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2

or, P = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2 … (i)

→
Let ,  and  are the angles between P and x, y and z-axis, respectively, then we can get the
components in this way
P
cos  = x  Px = P cos 
P
Py
cos  =  Py = P cos 
P
P
cos  = z  Pz = P cos 
P

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→
Here cos , cos  and cos  are called the direction cosines of the vector P .
Putting the values of Px, Py and Pz in (i), we get
P2 = P2 cos2  + P2 cos2  + P2 cos2 
or, P2 = P2 (cos2  + cos2  + cos2 )
or, (cos2  + cos2  + cos2 ) = 1
It means that the sum of the squares of the direction cosines of a vector is always unity.
Representation of Rectangular Components or

y-axis
Orthogonal Components
These components are represented in terms of unit vector.
Unit vectors along x, y, and z-axis are represented by iˆ, ˆj
ĵ
and k̂ respectively as shown in figure.
iˆ x-axis
| iˆ | = | ˆj | = | kˆ | = 1
these unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.
kˆ
z-axis
Orthogonal components in terms of unit vector can be written as
→
P = Px iˆ + Py ˆj + Pz kˆ
→
P = P cos  iˆ + P cos  ˆj + P cos  kˆ
→
|P | = (Px )2 + (Py ) 2 + (Pz ) 2 … (5)

Illustration 9
Question: A mass of 2 kg lies on a plane making an angle 30° to the horizontal. Resolve its weight along
and perpendicular to the plane. Assume g = 10 m/s2.
Solution: As shown in the figure, the component of weight along
the plane = mg sin
= 2 × 10 × sin 30 = 10 N.
The component of weight perpendicular to plane mg cos 
= mg cos 30° mg sin

= 2 × 10 × 3 /2 = 17.3 N. mg 

Illustration 10
→ → →
Question: If P = 2iˆ + 4 jˆ − 5kˆ , find (i) | P | and (ii) the direction cosines of the vector P .
Solution:
(i) P = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2

= ( 2) 2 + ( 4) 2 + ( −5) 2 = 45
Px 2
(ii) cos  = =
P 45
Py 4
cos  = =
P 45

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Pz −5
cos  = =
P 45

Important formulae/points
• Orthogonal components in terms of unit vector

P = Px iˆ + Py ˆj + Pz kˆ = P cos iˆ + P cos ˆj + P cos kˆ
→
• |P | = (Px )2 + (Py ) 2 + (Pz ) 2

8 ADDITION OF VECTORS BY ANALYTICAL METHOD

In this method, vectors are added when it is represented in terms of unit vector. At first coplanar
vectors are resolved in two components and non-coplanar vectors are resolved in three components, which
are perpendicular to each other, and all components in one direction are added together.
→ →
Let there are two co-planer vectors P and Q making
y-axis

angles  and  respectively with x-axis as shown in the figure.

→ →
P = Px iˆ + Py ˆj Q
→
P
= P cos iˆ + P sin ˆj  
→
Q = Q x iˆ + Q y ˆj x-axis
= Q cos iˆ + Q sin ˆj
→ →
P +Q = (Px iˆ + Py ˆj ) + (Q x iˆ + Q y ˆj )
= (Px + Q x ) iˆ + (Py + Q y ) ˆj
→ →
|P +Q | = (Px + Q x ) 2 + (Py + Q y ) 2
→
Let R be their sum
→
 R = (Px + Q x ) iˆ + (Py + Q y ) ˆj
→
R = R x iˆ + R y ˆj where
Rx = (Px + Qx) and Ry = (Py + Qy)
 This method can be used in addition and subtraction for any number of vectors.

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Illustration 11
→ →
Question: If P = 2 iˆ + 3jˆ -2 k̂ and Q = 4iˆ − 2jˆ + kˆ , then calculate the magnitude of
→ → → → → →
(a) P + Q (b) P − Q (c) 2 P + Q
Solution:
→ →
(a) P +Q = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ ) + (4iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ )
= 6iˆ + ˆj − kˆ
Magnitude = 36 + 1 + 1 = 38
→ →
(b) P −Q = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ ) − (4iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ )

= 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 2kˆ − 4iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ

= − 2iˆ + 5 ˆj − 3kˆ

Magnitude = 4 + 25 + 9 = 38
→ →
(c) 2 P + Q = ( 4iˆ + 6 ˆj − 4kˆ ) + (4iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ )

= 8iˆ + 4 ˆj − 3kˆ
magnitude = 64 + 16 + 9 = 89

Illustration 12
→
Question: If the position vectors of P and Q be respectively ( iˆ + 3jˆ − 7kˆ ) and ( 5iˆ − 2jˆ + 4kˆ ), find PQ
Solution: Let O be the origin
→ y-axis
Given OP = iˆ + 3 ˆj − 7kˆ
→
OQ = 5iˆ − 2 ˆj + 4kˆ P
By triangle law of vector addition, Q
→ → →
OP + PQ = OQ
→ → → O x-axis
PQ = OQ − OP
= (5iˆ − 2 ˆj + 4kˆ ) − (iˆ + 3 ˆj − 7kˆ )
= (4iˆ − 5 jˆ + 11kˆ )

Important formulae/points
• Analytical method of vector addition
Rx = (Px + Qx ) , Ry = Py + Qy ( )

9 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
9.1 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTOR BY SCALAR
When any vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity like with any real number, it is just multiplied
like an algebraic product.

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→
Example: Let there be a vector V and a scalar quantity . After multiplication product will be
→ →
V  = V
→ →
 If  is + ve, then V  and V will have same direction.
→ →
 If  is –ve then V  and V will have opposite direction.

9.2 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS

(i) Scalar Product (Dot Product)

(ii) Vector Product (Cross Product)

(i) Scalar Product (Dot Product): Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of smaller angle between them.
It is always a scalar, so it is called as scalar product.
→ →
Thus if A and B are two vectors having angle  between them, then their scalar (Dot) product
→ → → →
written as A. B and read as A dot B is defined as
→ → → →
A. B = | A | | B | cos  …. (6)

Geometrical Meaning
→ → → B
Let OA = a and OB = b as shown in figure and
AOB =  →

From B, we drop a perpendicular BL on OA. b

OL
cos  = 
OB O →
L A
a
OL = OB cos 
By definition
→ →
a.b = ab cos 
= (OA).(OB) cos 
= (OA).( OL)
→ → → → →
a . b = (Mod of a ) (Projection of b on a )
Properties
(i) It is always a scalar and it will be positive if angle between them is acute, negative if angle
between them is obtuse and zero if angle between them is 90°
→ → → →
(ii) It obeys commutative law A . B = B . A

EXPLORING PHYSICS WITH PARAGON CLASSES, PHONE NO. 9927245352 15

→ → → → → → →
(iii) It obeys distributive law A . (B + C ) = A . B + A .C
→ → → →
(iv) By definition A. B = | A | | B | cos 
→ →
A .B
cos  = → →
| A| |B|

 → → 
−1  A.B 
 = cos  → → 
| A | | B |
 
where  is angle between two vectors.
(v) Scalar (Dot) product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero i.e.,
→ →
( A . B ) = AB cos 90° = 0

(vi) Scalar (Dot) product will be maximum when  = 0° i.e.,

→ →
vectors are parallel to each other. ( A. B )max = |A| |B|
→ → → → → →
(vii) It a and b are unit vectors then | a | = | b | = 1 and a . b = 1.1 cos  = cos 

(viii) Dot product of unit vectors iˆ, ˆj , kˆ

iˆ. iˆ = ˆj . ˆj = kˆ . kˆ = 1

iˆ . ˆj = ˆj . kˆ = kˆ . iˆ = 0
→ →
(ix) Square of a vector a . a = | a | | a | cos 0 0 = a 2
→ →
(x) If the two vectors A and B , in terms of their rectangular components, are
→ →
A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ and B = B x iˆ + B y ˆj + B z kˆ , then,
→ →
A. B = (Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ ). (B x iˆ + B y ˆj + B z kˆ )

→ →
A . B = A x B x + A y B y + Az B z

Example of Dot Product

Work: Work is the dot product of force and displacement vector. →
F
→
Let F be the force acting on block at angle  with the horizontal and
the block is displaced by this force from O to O.
→ →
Let OO  = S 
O O
→ →
Work = F .S s

EXPLORING PHYSICS WITH PARAGON CLASSES, PHONE NO. 9927245352 16

→ →
= | F | | S | cos 

Illustration 13
→ →
Question: Find the angle between two vectors A = 2iˆ + jˆ − kˆ and B = iˆ – kˆ .
→
Solution: A =| A | = (2) 2 + (1) 2 ( −1) 2 = 6
→
B = | B | = (1) 2 + ( −1) 2 = 2
→ →
A . B = (2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ ) . (iˆ − kˆ ) = (2) (1) + (-1) (-1) = 3
→ →
A.B 3 3 3
Now, cos  = = = =
AB 6. 2 12 2

  = 30°

  Important formulae/points
• Scalar product A.B =| A || B | cos  • iˆ.iˆ = ˆj . ˆj = kˆ.kˆ = 1 and iˆ. ˆj = ˆj .kˆ = kˆ.iˆ = 0

(ii) Vector Product/Cross Product: Vector Product of two vectors is defined as a vector having
magnitude equal to product of the magnitude of two vectors with sine of smaller angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors and in the sense of advancement of a right
handed screw rotated from first vector to the second vector through smaller angle between them.
→ → → →
If A and B are two vectors, then their vector product is written AB
→ → → →
as A  B is vector and is read as A cross B . It is defined as
→
→ → → →
A  B = | A | | B | sin  n̂
B
… (7) n̂
→ →

where n̂ is unit vector along the direction of A  B

→
A

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Geometrical meaning B C
→ → → →
Let OACB be a parallelogram having side OA = a and OB = b
and  AOB = . →
Area of parallelogram OACB b b sin
= 2 area of triangle OAB  →
a
 ab sin   O
=2  A
 2 
→ →
= ab sin  = | a  b |
→ →
Thus, a  b is a vector whose modulus is the area of the parallelogram formed by the two vectors
→ →
as the adjacent sides and direction is perpendicular to both a and b .
Properties
(i) Cross product of two vectors is not commutative
→ → → →
ab  b  a
→ → → →
ab = − ba
(ii) cross product is not associative
→ → → → → →
a  (b  c )  (a  b )  c
(iii) cross product obey distributive law
→ → → → → → →
a (b + c ) = a  b + a  c

(iv) If  = 0 or  it means two vectors are collinear.

→ →
a  b =0
→ →   → →
and conversely, if a  b = 0 then the vector a and b are parallel provided a and b are non-zero
vectors.
 This may be regarded as a test to decide whether the given two vectors are parallel or not.
(v) If  = 90°, then
→ →
a  b = | a | | b | sin 90 = | a | | b | nˆ

→
(vi) The vector product of any vector with itself is 0
→ → →
a a =0
→ →
(vii) If a  b = 0 , then
→ → → →
a = 0 or b = 0 or a || b
→ → → →
(viii) If a and b are unit vectors, then a  b = 1.1 sin  nˆ = sin  n̂
(ix) Cross product of unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and k̂
iˆ  iˆ = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 0
iˆ  ˆj = k = − ˆj  iˆ

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ˆj  kˆ = iˆ = − kˆ  ˆj
kˆ  iˆ = ˆj = − iˆ  kˆ
These result can be remembered easily with the help of following method
Around a circle placed iˆ, ˆj and k̂ in anticlockwise
direction as shown in figure. ĵ
Now cross product of any two unit vectors will give third k̂
unit vectors and it will be +ve if on this circle given two vectors
are in anticlockwise direction otherwise it will be –ve
iˆ  ˆj = kˆ , ˆj  iˆ = − kˆ
iˆ
ˆj  kˆ = iˆ, kˆ  ˆj = − iˆ

kˆ  iˆ = ˆj , iˆ  kˆ = − ˆj
→ →
(x) If the two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular component are
→
A = a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ
→
B = a2 iˆ + b2 ˆj + c 2 kˆ
→ →
AB = (a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ )  (a2 iˆ + b2 ˆj + c 2 kˆ )
It can be found by the determinant method
iˆ ĵ k̂
→ →
i.e., A  B = a1 b1 c1

a2 b2 c2

= iˆ (b1c 2 − b2 c1 ) – ˆj (a1c 2 − a2 c1 ) + kˆ (a1b2 − a2 b1 )

Application and example
Torque: Torque about a point is the cross product of vector joining the point to the point of
application of force and the force.
→ →
Torque () = r  F
→ →
When r is vector joining the point to the point of application of force and F is force vector.

Illustration 14
→ →
Question: Find a unit vector perpendicular to A = 2iˆ + 3 jˆ + kˆ and B = iˆ − jˆ + kˆ both

Solution: As we have read,

→ → → → → →
C = A  B is a vector perpendicular to both A and B . Hence, a unit vector n̂ perpendicular to A
→
and B can be written as

EXPLORING PHYSICS WITH PARAGON CLASSES, PHONE NO. 9927245352 19

→ → →
C A B
nˆ = = → →
C
| A B |

→ →
iˆ ˆj kˆ
Here, AB = 2 3 1
1 −1 1

= iˆ (3 + 1) + ˆj (1 − 2) + kˆ (−2 − 3) = 4 iˆ − ˆj − 5kˆ
→ →
Further, | A  B | = ( 4) 2 + ( −1) 2 + ( −5) 2 = 42

 The desired unit vector is

→ →
A B 1
nˆ = or, nˆ = (4iˆ − jˆ − 5kˆ)
→ →
| A B | 42

Important formulae/points
 
• A  B =| A | | B | sin n ˆ
iˆ  iˆ = ˆj  ˆj = kˆ  kˆ = 0 and iˆ  ˆj = kˆ = – ˆj  iˆ , ˆj  kˆ = iˆ = – kˆ  ˆj , kˆ  iˆ = ˆj = –iˆ  kˆ

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