MODULE 1

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you will be able to:

 Describe the importance of fire safety awareness and its role in saving lives and
preventing financial damages.
 Explain the fire elements using the concepts of the fire triangle and fire
tetrahedron.
 Identify the factors that influence the behavior and spread of fire.
 Recognize various fire hazards and methods to control them e ectively.
 State the function and operation of fire detection and alarm systems.
 Explain the principles of fire prevention and techniques for managing fuel,
oxygen, and heat sources.
 Discuss various types of fire suppression systems and their appropriate use.
 Distinguish between di erent fire classes and the appropriate fire extinguishing
techniques for each class.
 Describe fire emergency response and evacuation procedures.

Introduction

Dangerous Aspects of Fire

Fire is one of the most destructive hazards facing any workplace or home.

— It can start unexpectedly at any place.

— It can spread quickly, making it challenging to extinguish.

— It generates intense heat, leading to severe burn injuries and fatalities.

— It produces smoke and toxic gases, which can be deadly when inhaled.

— It can destroy property and other valuable assets.

— It can harm the environment by polluting the air, water, and soil.

— It can disrupt businesses and result in regulatory fines.

Need for Fire Safety Awareness

Fire incidents are a significant concern worldwide, even in developed countries. In the
United States alone, fire incidents happen so frequently that fire departments, on
average, respond to a fire every 21 seconds.

According to statistics from the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),

approximately 15,000 people get injured, and about 3,500 people lose their lives in fires
each year in the United States. The root cause behind most of these tragic incidents is
the lack of fire safety awareness.

Fire safety awareness means knowing how to prevent unexpected fires and minimize
the potential damages. It includes the understanding of five fundamental aspects of fire
safety, which are:

1. Fire Behaviour

Understanding fire behaviour involves knowing how fires start, how they spread, and
under what conditions they become dangerous. This knowledge is essential in
recognizing fire hazards and assessing their risk levels.

2. Fire Prevention

This involves understanding how to prevent fires from starting in the first place by
implementing appropriate control measures.

3. Fire Detection

This pertains to the knowledge of fire detection equipment, which allows for early
warning and faster response to fires.

4. Fire Suppression

This involves understanding how to suppress a fire at its source and prevent it from
spreading using various fire extinguishing agents, techniques, and equipment.

5. Emergency Response

This involves knowing what to do during a fire emergency, including how to quickly and
systematically evacuate to a designated safe area.

Objectives of Fire Safety Awareness

Fire safety awareness plays a critical role in achieving three essential objectives:

Life Safety

This is the primary objective of fire safety awareness. The knowledge and skills to
e ectively respond to fire emergencies and evacuate buildings safely can save lives.
This is particularly important for vulnerable groups, such as the elderly or people with
disabilities.

Property Conservation

Fire safety awareness can help minimize damage to property and assets caused by
fires. Promptly extinguishing small fires or containing their spread can prevent
significant property loss.
Business Continuity

For businesses, fire safety awareness is not only a legal obligation but also essential for
avoiding costly downtimes and penalties. Identifying fire hazards, assessing their risk
levels, and implementing appropriate control measures can significantly minimize the
impact of fires on business operations.

Importance of Fire Safety Awareness

Fire safety awareness prevents most fire incidents and minimizes the associated
losses. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), there has been a
significant decrease in both fire incidents and associated losses in the United States
over the past 40 years. This can largely be attributed to the increased focus on fire safety
awareness.

Year 1980 2020

No. of Fire Incidents in 2,988,000 1,388,500

US

Deaths 6,505 3,500

Injuries 30,200 15,200

Despite this progress, the toll of fire loss is still alarmingly high, emphasizing the need
for continued fire safety awareness.

MODULE 2
Introduction to Fire
What Is Fire?

Fire is the outcome of a chemical reaction in which a fuel (such as

wood, paper, gasoline, etc.) rapidly reacts with oxygen. The reaction is
called combustion, and it produces heat, flames, and smoke.
Heat is a form of energy, whereas flames and smoke are the visible
components of fire, consisting mainly of carbon dioxide, water vapors,
and unburned particles.
What Is Fire?

How Does a Fire Start?

For a fire to start, three elements must be present in the right

proportions. These elements are fuel, oxygen, and heat, commonly
referred to as the "fire triangle."
If any of these elements is missing, the fire will not start.
Elements of Fire - Fuel
The most essential element for a fire to start is fuel. A fuel is any
substance that burns to release energy in the form of heat. Most fuels
around us are organic, meaning they were once living things and are
made up of carbon and hydrogen. These fuels may exist in a solid,
liquid, or gas state.
Solid Fuels

Solid fuels are materials that are generally in a solid state at room temperature.
Examples include wood, paper, cloth, and plastics.
Combustion of solid fuels usually occurs when the fuel has been converted to a vapor or
gaseous state. When heated, solid fuels undergo chemical decomposition to release vapors that
are ultimately ignited. The rate at which the fuel transforms into vapors is the primary factor that
determines how combustible a solid fuel is
Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels are flammable substances that are in a liquid state at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. Examples include gasoline, diesel, alcohol, and various industrial
solvents.

Like solid fuels, liquid fuels must be converted into vapors to support combustion. The
flammability of a liquid is determined by how easily it can turn into vapors, as well as the
temperature at which it will give off sufficient vapors to support combustion.

Gaseous fuels

Gaseous fuels exist in a gaseous state at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Examples include natural gas, propane, hydrogen, and methane.
Gaseous fuels can ignite instantly when mixed with oxygen and exposed to an ignition source.
However, for combustion to occur, the gas concentration in the mixture must be within a specific
limit, known as the flammability range.

Elements of Fire - Oxygen

The second element necessary for a fire to start is oxygen, which can come from three different
sources.
Ambient Air

Most fires require a minimum of 16% oxygen to ignite. Since the

Earth's atmosphere consists of approximately 21% oxygen, ambient
air is a constant and ever-present oxygen source for any potential fire

Oxygen Cylinders
In certain workplaces, oxygen is often utilized in compressed form
and stored within cylinders. Any leaks from these cylinders can be a
potential oxygen source for a fire.
Oxidizing Materials

Oxidizing materials are chemicals that can produce oxygen at

normal temperatures or when exposed to heat. These materials are
commonly found in everyday items such as fertilizers, bleach, hair
dyes, and pool chemicals. If oxidizing materials come into contact
with fire, they can make the fire worse by increasing the amount of
oxygen available to it.

Elements of Fire - Heat

The third element required for a fire to start is heat. It can be generated
by various ignition sources, which can be grouped into four categories.
Thermal Ignition Sources

A thermal ignition source is anything that gives off heat through

a burning material or hot surface. These are the most common
ignition sources in any workplace or home.
Some examples of thermal ignition sources include candles,
stoves, burning cigarettes, ovens, heating elements, welding
torches, engine exhausts, etc.

Electrical Ignition Sources

Electrical ignition sources generate heat through sparking,

resistance, and static electricity. Some examples include:
— Electrical equipment such as motors and switches
— Overloaded electrical circuits
— Electrical short circuits
— Static discharges
— Lightning

Mechanical Ignition Sources

Mechanical ignition sources generate heat through friction caused by two
surfaces rubbing together.
Some examples of mechanical ignition sources are:
— Metal grinding and cutting equipment
— Jammed bearings in rotating equipment
— Brake pads rubbing against a rotor

Chemical Ignition Sources

Chemical ignition sources generate heat through chemical

reactions. An example is the spontaneous ignition of oily
rags. When rags are soaked with oil-based paints, stains, or
varnishes, they can undergo an oxidation reaction, generating
heat. If the heat is not allowed to escape, the rags can self-
ignite.

Another example is pyrophoric substances that can catch fire

by themselves when they come into contact with the air. Some
common pyrophoric substances include sodium, potassium,
and cesium

How Does a Fire Spread?

Fire spreads by transferring heat energy to nearby materials. There are three heat transfer
mechanisms, and they often work together to facilitate the spread of the fire.

Conduction

Conduction is the process of heat transfer through solid materials. This

process can be observed when we cook food in a pan. The heat energy
from the fire is transferred to food inside the pan through conduction.

Similarly, conduction can explain the spread of fire through walls,

where the heat is conducted through the wall to the materials on the
other side.

Convection

Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of

fluids such as liquids or gases. In the event of a fire, the
smoke and heated gases rise because of convection. These
gases take away heat from the fire and transfer it to other
materials.
Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves,

specifically infrared radiation. When a fire occurs, the flames emit
electromagnetic radiation that spreads in all directions. They can raise
the temperature of nearby objects and potentially cause them to ignite.

Fire Stages
Fires typically progress through four stages. These stages describe the
various phases a fire goes through as it develops and spreads. These
stages are:
Incipient

This is the initial stage of a fire where the three

essential elements - fuel, oxygen, and heat -
have just combined. This results in the ignition
of a small and localized fire.
At this stage, the smoke is light, and the heat is
low. The fire can be extinguished easily.

Growth
During this stage, the fire starts to spread and intensify, producing
more smoke and flames. The fire can ignite other objects
through typical mechanisms of heat transfer (conduction, convection,
or radiation).
The fire is harder to control at this stage.
Fully Developed

The fire reaches its peak intensity at this

stage. It rapidly consumes fuel and
causes flames to grow large and fierce.
The environment surrounding the fire
becomes extremely hazardous due to the
high temperatures, intense radiant heat,
and toxic smoke produced.
The fire can only be controlled by professional firefighters at this
stage.
Decay
This is the final stage of a fire. The intensity of flames decreases as the
available fuel or oxygen is consumed. This results in lower
temperatures and less smoke production.
However, even at this stage, the fire can still pose a risk of re-ignition.
E ects of Oxygen Concentration
Changes in oxygen concentration significantly impact fire behavior
Increase in Oxygen Concentration

When the amount of oxygen available to a fire

increases, the fire becomes more intense and
destructive, with higher flame temperature.
For example, when conditions are windy, the extra
oxygen supplied by the wind helps a fire burn more intensely. Also,
higher oxygen levels increase fire risk. Even fire-resistant materials
can burn vigorously in an oxygen-enriched environment.
Decrease in Oxygen Concentration
When the oxygen concentration in the air decreases, a
fire gradually slows down until it reaches the Limiting
Oxygen Concentration (LOC) - the point where the fire
can no longer continue to burn.
This is one of the techniques used to prevent or extinguish fires. For
example, a carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguisher works by reducing
the oxygen level around the fire to below the LOC, thus putting out the
fire.
Fuel Characteristics
Each physical state of a fuel has its unique characteristics. Those
characteristics determine how quickly the fuel ignites, how fast it
burns, how easily it spreads, and how it can be extinguished. The three
most important characteristics of fuels that a ect fire behavior are:
Fuel Configuration of Solid Fuels
Fuel configuration refers to the arrangement, distribution, and
structure of solid fuels in an area. It a ects how a fire behaves and
spreads, as well as how di icult it is to control and extinguish. Some
of the factors that determine fuel configuration are:

Size: Larger solids are more di icult to ignite than smaller ones, such
as paper or twigs.
Quantity: Higher fuel quantity means more intensity of a fire.
Fuel continuity: The closer the fuel pieces are to each other, the
easier the fire will spread.
Fuel composition: Solids with low moisture content and high
volatility, such as synthetic foams and plastics, burn more quickly.
Flash Point of Liquid Fuels
The flashpoint of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it
produces enough vapors to form an ignitable mixture with air at the
liquid's surface.
Liquids with lower flashpoints pose a higher risk of fire or explosion.
For example, gasoline has a flashpoint of –43°C and can release
enough vapors to form a flammable mixture at ambient temperature.
In contrast, diesel fuel has a considerably higher flashpoint than
gasoline, typically around 52°C making it less flammable than
gasoline.
Flammability Limits of Gases and Vapours
Mixtures of flammable gases or vapours in the air are ignitable only
over a restricted range of concentrations, whose limits are termed the
lower and upper flammability limits (LFL and UFL).
Any concentration below this range is too "lean" to support
combustion, while any concentration above this range is too "rich" in
fuel to sustain a fire.
The concentration of flammable gas or vapours in the air can be
measured using specialized gas meters.
Fire Prevention
Fire Prevention Concept
The best approach to fire safety is to prevent fires from starting in the
first place. By preventing fires, we can avoid the need to combat them
and minimize the harmful consequences. Since fire needs three
elements to start (fuel, oxygen, and heat), keeping these elements
away from each other is the main concept behind fire prevention.
Fire Prevention Process
Anything that increases the likelihood of the three elements of fire
coming together is a fire hazard. The fire prevention process involves
identifying these fire hazards, assessing the risk level presented by
each hazard, and implementing suitable control measures to reduce
the risk. This process is repeated until the risk is deemed acceptable.
Process Diagram
Identifying Fire Hazards
A fire hazard is any material, equipment, or action that increases the
likelihood of a fire occurring. Identifying fire hazards is a crucial step in
fire prevention. If a fire hazard is not recognized, it cannot be managed
and thus can cause a fire.

Identifying fire hazards is a comprehensive task that involves

analyzing three key aspects.
Analysis of the Area
This involves a thorough examination of an area to identify potential
fuel, oxygen, and ignition sources, including:
— Flammable or combustible materials in the area.
— Building materials that can contribute to fire occurrence and
spread.
— Oxidizing materials, oxygen cylinders, and oxygen supply systems.
— Equipment and machinery that can overheat or create sparks.
— Electrical issues such as overloaded circuits and exposed wires.
— Hazardous chemicals that can lead to a chemical reaction.
Analysis of the Activities
This involves examining routine and non-routine activities that may
introduce fire hazards. Some examples include:
— Activities involving hot work, such as welding, cutting, and grinding.
— Activities like cooking or heating that involve open flames.
— Handling flammable materials, such as dispensing and filling.
— Painting activities that use flammable solvents and aerosol sprays.
— Use of power tools that can create ignition sources.
Analysis of the Behaviors

This involves identifying possible unsafe behaviors of people that can

lead to a fire. Some examples of such behaviors are:
— Deliberate acts of arson or intentionally setting fires.
— Smoking in prohibited areas or ignoring designated smoking zones.
— Leaving cooking unattended, particularly on stovetops or ovens.
— Unsafe storage of flammable materials near heat sources.
— Overloading electrical outlets by plugging in too many devices at
once.
— Misusing heating appliances like space heaters, radiators, etc.
Risk Assessment
Every fire hazard has a distinct level of risk associated with it. For
example, performing hot work in a flammable materials store poses a
higher risk of fire than doing the same job in an open area. That's why
it is essential to assess each fire hazard to determine its risk level. This
helps prioritize which fire hazard must be addressed first and what
level of controls should be implemented. The assessment process
involves two steps:
1. Estimating the Severity and Probability

In this step, each fire hazard is

evaluated to identify:
Severity of Harm: This is an estimate
of potential harm to people, rated
from 1 (minimal) to 5 (catastrophic).
Probability of Occurrence: This is an
estimate of the likelihood of a fire
incident. A rating of 1 indicates a rare
chance, while 5 suggests a certain
occurrence.
The overall risk level of a hazard is
obtained by multiplying the
estimated values of severity and
probability.
Overall Risk Level = Severity x
Probability

If the resulting score is 10 or

above, the risk is unacceptable. A
score between 5 and 9 should be
lowered with control measures,
while a score between 1 and 4 is
generally acceptable.

Control Measures
After risk assessment, the next crucial step in the fire prevention
process is to reduce the risk level of each fire hazard to an acceptable
level by implementing appropriate control measures.
The preferred approach is to follow a hierarchy of controls, starting
with the most e ective controls and moving down to the least
e ective ones. There are five levels in the hierarchy of controls.
1. Elimination

Elimination involves physically removing a

hazard from the area and is the most
effective way to control fire
hazards. However, it is usually the most
challenging to implement.
For example, removing the need to store
flammable materials altogether.
2. Substitution
Substitution involves replacing flammable materials or ignition
sources with safer alternatives.
For example, using water-based paints instead of solvent-based
paints, opting for concrete over wood as a construction material,
and switching from electric to pneumatic power tools in
hazardous areas.
3. Engineering Controls
Engineering controls involve making adjustments to the work
environment or equipment to prevent fires from starting or
spreading.
Some examples include:
— Using ventilation to prevent the buildup of flammable
atmosphere.
— Using circuit breakers to prevent overloading electrical
outlets.
— Installing fire doors to prevent fires from spreading.
4. Administrative Controls
Administrative controls involve changing work practices to
reduce the likelihood of a fire occurring.
Examples include implementing a no-smoking policy, employee
training on fire safety, having a permit-to-work system for hot
work activities, and putting safety labels on flammable material
containers.
5.Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) does not prevent fires, but it can
slightly reduce the risk level by minimizing the consequences in
certain cases.
For example, using fire-resistant clothing while handling flammable
materials will not prevent any fire from occurring but can reduce the
risk of injury. PPE is the least e ective control measure and should be
used in conjunction with other controls.
Smoke Alarms
If prevention measures are inadequate, fires can start anytime and
anywhere, even while people sleep or no one is around. In such cases,
by the time the fire is noticed, it may be too late to escape or
extinguish it.

Therefore, early detection of fires is crucial to ensure people's safety

and prevent fires from spreading. Smoke alarms are the most
common devices used for early detection and warning of fires.
What Are Smoke Alarms?

Smoke alarms are small devices that

detect fires by sensing smoke in the
air. Once they detect smoke, they
produce an audible or visual alarm to
alert people in the vicinity about the
potential fire.
Smoke alarms are usually mounted on
ceilings or walls, and their installation is legally required in most
countries.
Types of Smoke Alarms
There are two main types of smoke alarms: ionization and
photoelectric.
Ionization smoke alarms are more sensitive to flaming fires, such as
an ignited gasoline spill, while photoelectric smoke alarms are more
sensitive to smoldering fires, like a smoldering cigarette left on a
couch.
For maximum protection, experts recommend using both types or a
combination of both, known as dual-sensor smoke alarms.
Alternate Fire Detectors
Most fire-related deaths are not caused by flames but by smoke
inhalation, especially when people are asleep at night. That's why
smoke alarms are typically installed to detect fires. However, they are
not the only devices that are used to detect fires. Other common
types of detectors include:
Flame Detectors

Flame detectors work by sensing the infrared or

ultraviolet radiation that fire emits and require an
unobstructed view of the flame to detect a fire.

Heat Detectors
They are mainly installed to protect areas where fires are expected to
develop rapidly with less smoke production or where ignition is nearly
instantaneous, such as flammable liquids and gases fires, explosions,
and flash fires.
Heat detectors work by sensing
temperature changes caused by a fire.
They either respond to a sudden
increase in temperature or a
predetermined fixed temperature.
Heat detectors are less sensitive than
smoke or flame detectors and may not
detect a fire in its early stages. They are
usually installed in areas where other detectors may produce false
alarms, such as kitchens.
Carbon Monoxide Detectors

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless,

odorless, and poisonous gas that is
produced when fuels burn incompletely.
Exposure to high levels of CO can lead
to carbon monoxide poisoning, which is
a serious and potentially life-threatening
condition.
CO detectors detect and warn about any
abnormal build-up of CO in an area. Similar to smoke alarms, CO
alarms are also legally required to be installed in buildings in many
countries.
Fire Alarm System
Larger buildings, such as schools, hospitals, and factories, require a
comprehensive fire alarm system to alert everyone in the building in
case of a fire. This system is made up of multiple interconnected
devices that work together to detect fires, operate alerting devices,
and even activate fire protection systems.

A fire alarm system is usually made up of three main categories of

devices.
Initiating Devices

These are small appliances that send signals to

a central control panel about the occurrence of
a fire.
Some examples of initiating devices include:
— Fire detectors (such as smoke, flame, heat,
and CO detectors)
— Sprinkler water flow sensors (devices that detect the activation of
sprinklers)
— Manual pull stations (used for manual activation of the alarm
system)
Control Panel

This acts as the brain of a fire alarm

system. It receives signals from the
initiating devices, activates alarms, and
operates fire protection devices.
Depending on the fire hazards and
building layout, di erent types of control
panels exist, each with varying functions.
Some control panels can even notify the relevant authorities and the
fire brigade in the event of a fire.
Notification Devices

These are the devices that alert the

occupants and emergency responders in
case of a fire. They can be sounders, strobes,
speakers, or a combination of these.
There are also specialized textual and tactile
devices (such as a pillow or bed shaker) that
provide additional means of alerting occupants with hearing, vision, or
mobility impairments.
The Fire Tetrahedron
We have learned about the fire triangle, which explains how a fire
starts. Now, to understand how a fire extinguishes, it is essential to
grasp the concept of fire tetrahedron.
What Is Fire Tetrahedron?

The fire triangle explains the three

essential elements required for a fire
to start: fuel, heat, and oxygen. However,
once a fire is ignited, it can only continue
burning if there is a chemical chain
reaction. This adds a fourth component to
the fire triangle, making it a "fire
tetrahedron."
The chemical chain reaction generates the necessary heat to sustain
the fuel's burning process, allowing the fire to persist without requiring
an external heat source.
FIRE TETRAHEDRON; is the 3 fire essential elements that are
required for a fire to start.
What Is the Significance of Fire Tetrahedron?
While the fire triangle helps understand how to prevent fires from
starting, the fire tetrahedron plays a vital role in understanding how to
extinguish fires.
A fire will no longer sustain itself if we disrupt the chemical chain
reaction. This can be accomplished by removing fuel, oxygen, or heat
or by introducing another substance that interferes with the chemical
chain reaction.
Fire Extinguishing Mechanisms
A fire can be extinguished by using one or more of the following
mechanisms.
Remove the Fuel
This method involves physically separating the fuel from the flames
and is known as starvation. Examples include turning o the gas
supply of a burning stove or relocating combustible materials from the
fire to a safe distance.

Remove the Oxygen Supply

This technique is known as smothering. It involves allowing the fire to
consume all the available oxygen while preventing any more from
entering. Alternatively, oxygen can be replaced with an inert gas.

Examples include covering a small pan fire with a fire blanket or using
a CO2 fire extinguisher to replace oxygen with carbon dioxide.
Remove the Heat
This technique involves cooling down the burning material to prevent
flammable vapor production. Once the material is not producing
enough vapors, the fire will be extinguished. A common example is
using water to put out a campfire.
Break the Chemical Chain Reaction
This technique involves introducing a chemical agent into a fire that
can interrupt the chain reaction. Dry chemical extinguishing agents,
commonly found in portable fire extinguishers, e ectively interfere
with the combustion reaction, thereby extinguishing the fire.

Fire Extinguishing Agents

Fire extinguishing agents are substances or materials used to
extinguish fires by employing one or a combination of several fire-
extinguishing mechanisms. The most frequently used fire
extinguishing agents include:
Water
Water is the most widely used extinguishing agent because of its low
cost and easy availability.

When applied to a fire, it reduces the fire's intensity by cooling down

the burning material. Additionally, steam is generated, which can
prevent oxygen from reaching the fire, especially in confined
conditions.
Firefighting Foam
Firefighting foam is a mixture of foam concentrate, water, and air
blended in specific ratios to create tiny bubbles.
When applied to a fire, the foam blankets the burning fuel with a layer
of bubbles that extinguishes the fire by smothering and cooling
mechanisms.
Inert Gases
Inert gases extinguish fires primarily by smothering them. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is the most commonly used inert gas, although nitrogen
and steam are also used.
While CO2 extinguishes fires by reducing oxygen concentration, it also
has a cooling e ect.
Dry Chemical Powder
Dry chemicals work by spraying a fine chemical powder projected by
an inert gas on a fire.

The powder interrupts the chemical reaction of the fire and coats the
fuel, separating it from the oxygen. This dual action helps to extinguish
the fire.
Wet Chemical
Wet chemical fire extinguishing agents are solutions of water and
alkali salts.
They work by forming a soapy film on the surface of the fire, which
smothers the flames. They also create a cooling e ect by producing a
mist of water droplets.
Fire Classification
Not all fire extinguishing agents are e ective or safe for every type of
fire. For instance, using water on electrical fires can be hazardous
because it conducts electricity. Similarly, using CO2 to put out a
campfire will not work as the wood will still be hot enough to reignite
once the CO2 disperses. Therefore, fires are classified based on the
appropriate method for extinguishing them. According to NFPA
10:2022, fires can be categorized into five groups.
Class A
Class A fires involve solid fuels such as
wood, paper, plastics, and cloth. The most
e ective method to extinguish Class A
fires is to remove the heat.
Water, firefighting foam, and wet
chemicals are commonly used to
extinguish Class A fires. In addition, dry
chemical powder can be used to coat the fuel and break the chain
reaction. However, the powder cannot e ectively cool down the fire,
so there may be a risk of re-ignition.
Class B
Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gases such as diesel fuel,
gasoline, natural gas, and propane. The most e ective method to
extinguish class B fires is by cutting o the supply of fuel or by
reducing the oxygen available to the fire.
Firefighting foam, dry chemical powder, and CO2 can be used to
reduce the oxygen supply to the fuel. Water is not e ective in
extinguishing class B fires since it can spread flammable liquids and
fails to create a barrier between the fuel and the oxygen.
Class C
Fires involving live electrical equipment are
classified as Class C fires. To extinguish such
fires, it is important to use a non-conductive
extinguishing agent, such as dry chemicals or
inert gases.
It is worth noting that live electrical equipment can also act as an
ignition source for other types of fires, including Class A or Class B
fires. In such cases, the fire should be treated as a Class C fire until
the source of electricity has been disconnected.
Class D
Fires involving combustible metals such as sodium, magnesium,
zirconium, lithium, potassium, and titanium are classified as Class D
fires.
The extinguishing agents and techniques used on A, B, or C fires do
not work on class D fires. In fact, many common agents, such as
water, can actually make the fire more intense in a violent manner.
These fires require special techniques and agents to be extinguished.
However, it is rare to encounter metal fires in everyday life.
Class K
Fires involving cooking oils and fats are classified as Class K fires. The
most appropriate extinguishers for class K fires are wet chemicals, as
they produce a soap-like layer on the surface of the oil, which cuts o
oxygen and absorbs heat from the flames.
It is important to note that pouring water on Class K fires can possibly
spread the fire. This is because the water will penetrate the hot oil and
turn into steam below the surface, causing an eruption of oil.
Fire Suppression Equipment
Fire suppression is the act of extinguishing or controlling a fire at its
source to prevent it from spreading. This can significantly reduce
property damage and ensure life safety.

The equipment for fire suppression can be broadly categorized into

two groups:
 Fixed Fire Suppression Systems
 Portable Fire Suppression Equipment
It is important to understand that fire suppression equipment is the
first line of defense against fires. There are various other tools and
equipment that can be used to fight fires. However, those are
intended for use only by professional firefighters and are not covered
in this course.
Fixed Fire Suppression Systems
These systems are typically installed in a building or structure on a
permanent basis. Common types are:
Sprinkler Systems
A sprinkler system is a network of small water sprinkling devices,
known as sprinkler heads, connected to a reliable water supply
source through fixed piping. The sprinkler heads keep the system
sealed and automatically release water when exposed to heat. They
operate at a predetermined temperature, so the sprinkler head closest
to the fire activates first. Since sprinkler systems use water to
extinguish fires, they are suitable for Class A fires, which are common
in buildings such as hotels, schools, hospitals, and o ices.
Deluge Systems

Deluge systems are similar to sprinkler systems, except they employ

sprinkler heads that are always open. The water supply is controlled
by a specialized valve known as a deluge valve. The deluge valve can
be opened either automatically by a fire-detection device or manually
by a trained person. Depending on the fire hazards present, water or a
foam mixture discharges through all the open sprinklers at
once. Deluge systems are especially e ective in suppressing rapidly
spreading fires such as those caused by flammable liquids.

Total Flood Systems

Total flood systems are installed in areas where there is a need to

quickly suppress fires and protect high-value and sensitive items such
as record rooms, data centers, and equipment control panels. They
work by discharging an inert gas, usually CO2 or nitrogen, throughout
an entire space to suppress the fire. The inert gas is stored in
compressed gas cylinders and is discharged into the area through
fixed piping and nozzles. It is important to note that total flood
systems are unsuitable for protecting normally occupied areas as
they reduce the oxygen concentration to fatal levels.
Standpipe and Hose Systems

A standpipe and hose system is an arrangement of pipes, valves, and

hose connections installed in a building to provide a reliable source of
water for manual fire suppression. These systems are for use only by
trained individuals or professional firefighters. In high-rise buildings,
the fixed piping of a standpipe system allows firefighters to connect
their hose lines to a pressurized water source near the fire floor. This
eliminates the need for firefighters to extend hoses into the building
from the ground level to the fire floor, making the firefighting process
more e icient and e ective.
Portable Fire Suppression Equipment
These are portable devices designed to be used manually to
extinguish small fires and require minimal training to operate. The
most common portable fire suppression equipment include:
Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers are among the most commonly found fire

suppression equipment in workplaces and residential settings. They
come in various types and sizes, each designed to extinguish specific
classes of fire. Fire extinguishers typically have labels or color coding
on them to indicate the fire extinguishing agent they contain and the
classes of fire they are suitable for. For instance, in the UK, water
extinguishers are marked with a red label, dry chemical powder
extinguishers have a blue label, foam extinguishers feature a cream
band, and CO2 extinguishers are identified with a black label.
Fire Blankets
A fire blanket is a small sheet made of fire-
resistant and electrically insulated fabric
designed to cover small fires. It works by cutting
o the oxygen supply to the fire, thereby
extinguishing it. Fire blankets are typically stored
in quick-release pouches and placed near areas
where the risk of fire is high, such as kitchens.
When used correctly, fire blankets can
e ectively put out any type of small fire.
Fire Emergency Procedure
In fire emergencies, taking swift action and following the correct
procedures are crucial for survival and reducing damages. Upon
noticing an incipient stage fire, you can use portable fire suppression
equipment to extinguish it at its source. However, if the fire has grown
significantly, attempting to extinguish it is not advisable. Instead, you
must adhere to the emergency protocols provided by an authority. As
a general guide, you can use the R.A.C.E. protocol.
R.A.C.E. is an easy-to-remember acronym for 'Remove, Alert, Confine,
and Evacuate.'
1. Remove

The first step to take during a fire emergency is to remove yourself and
others from the immediate danger. Stop all activities and proceed
towards the nearest safe exit. Never waste time collecting your
valuables. In smoke-filled environments, use a damp cloth to cover your
mouth and nose, and stay low to the ground.

2. Alert
Activate the fire alarm or alert others about the fire by
shouting 'fire, fire' or using available communication methods
to ensure everyone in the vicinity is aware of the danger
.

Confine
After ensuring everyone is safely out of immediate danger, try to
contain the fire by closing doors and windows (without locking
them) near the fire. This can limit the oxygen entry and reduce fire
intensity. If it is safe, turn off electrical and gas appliances to
reduce further fire risks.

4.Evacuate
Leave the building via the nearest emergency exit to the
designated assembly area. Assist others in exiting the
building without endangering yourself.
Never use elevators during evacuation. Wait for an
authority to declare the building safe before re-entering.

How to Operate a Fire Extinguisher?

Every fire extinguisher is designed to extinguish particular classes of fires. For example, if an
extinguisher is only rated for Class A fires, it would not be suitable for putting out Class B, C,
D, or K fires. In fact, using the wrong type of extinguisher might not only be ineffective but
could also spread the fire or create additional safety hazards.
Therefore, before using a fire extinguisher, assess the fire class and confirm the fire
extinguisher type from its label. It is also important to remember that fire extinguishers are
only effective against small fires. If the fire is large, spreading rapidly, or you cannot
extinguish it safely, evacuate immediately following the R.A.C.E. protocol.
To operate the extinguisher, remember the acronym P.A.S.S., which stands for:
1. Pull the Pin

Start by removing the safety pin or ring located at the top of

the extinguisher. This action breaks the tamper seal,
allowing you to discharge the extinguisher.

2. Aim at Base

Aim the fire extinguisher nozzle or hose at

the base of the flames to target the source
of the fire. Stand at a safe distance from the
fire, opposite to flames and smoke.

3. Squeeze the Handle

Squeeze the handle or lever on the extinguisher to

release the extinguishing agent while maintaining a
firm grip on the extinguisher.
If the extinguisher fails to operate when the handle is
squeezed, release the handle and try again.

4. Sweep
Move the nozzle or hose from side to side in a
sweeping motion. Continue sweeping until the
fire is completely out or the extinguisher is
empty.

Extinguishing Clothing Fires

When someone's clothing catches fire, taking immediate action can
significantly reduce the risk of severe burns. The quickest method to
put out clothing fires is by covering the person with a fire
blanket. Alternatively, the individual should follow the "Stop, Drop,
and Roll" technique.
1. Stop

As soon as you notice that your clothes have caught fire, stop moving
immediately. Avoid running, as this could worsen the situation by
supplying more oxygen to the fire.

2. Drop
Cover your face with your hands and drop to the
ground as quickly as possible. This will prevent the
flames from reaching your face or head.

3. Roll

Start rolling on the ground from side to side

over the flames. This will help to smother the
fire and extinguish it.

LEssOn sUMMary
In this module, you have learned the following:
 Fire is one of the most destructive hazards that can result in fatalities, injuries, extensive
property damage, and business disruptions. To avoid these dangerous outcomes, it is
essential to have knowledge and understanding of fire behavior, fire prevention process,
fire detection equipment, fire suppression techniques, and emergency procedures.
This is referred to as fire safety awareness.
 Fire is mainly dangerous because of the intense heat, flames, and smoke produced as a
result of a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen. This reaction is known as
combustion, and it initiates only when three essential elements of fire are present: fuel,
oxygen, and heat.
 A fuel is anything that burns, like wood, paper, gasoline, or LPG. It can be in solid, liquid,
and gaseous states. Each physical state of a fuel has its unique characteristics (e.g., fuel
composition, quantity, size, flash point, flammability limits, etc.) that determine how
quickly the fuel ignites, how fast it burns, how easily it spreads, and how it can be
extinguished.
 Oxygen for a fire can come from ambient air, oxygen cylinders, or oxidizing materials.
The higher the amount of oxygen available to fire, the more intense the fire will be.
Conversely, if the oxygen concentration decreases, the fire will begin to extinguish.
For a fire to start, the fuel and oxygen mixture must receive heat from
an ignition source. Ignition sources can be thermal, such as a burning
candle; mechanical, like a metal grinding process; electrical, such as
a short circuit; or chemical, like an oxidation reaction in oily rags.
Once a fire has started, it generates its own heat and spreads through
heat transfer via conduction, convection, and radiation.
Fires can be prevented by keeping fuel, oxygen, and heat away from
each other. Anything that increases the likelihood of bringing these
elements together is a fire hazard. Fire prevention involves identifying
these hazards, assessing their risk levels, and prioritizing appropriate
control measures accordingly.
Early detection of fires enables people to respond promptly, saving
lives and limiting the spread of fires. The most common devices used
for early detection and fire warnings include smoke alarms and fire
alarm systems. Other detection devices include heat, flame, and
carbon monoxide detectors.
Di erent fire extinguishing agents are used to extinguish a fire. The
most common ones are water, firefighting foam, inert gases, dry
chemical powders, and wet chemicals. These agents either remove
the fuel, oxygen, or heat or break the chemical chain reaction that
sustains the fire.
 Fires are classified into five di erent classes based on the type
of fuel burning and the appropriate method for
extinguishing them. To put out a fire at its source, a suitable
extinguishing agent is applied using fixed and portable fire
suppression equipment.
 In a fire emergency, the appropriate response is
to remove yourself and others from immediate
danger, alert others about the fire, contain the fire by closing
doors and windows, and evacuate the building via the nearest
emergency exit. If your clothes catch
fire, stop immediately, drop to the ground, and roll from side to
side to extinguish the flames.
Learning Outcomes
You will be assessed on the following learning outcomes: - Describe the importance of
fire safety awareness and its role in saving lives and preventing financial damages. -
Explain the fire elements using the concepts of the fire triangle and fire tetrahedron. -
Identify the factors that influence the behavior and spread of fire. - Recognize various
fire hazards and methods to control them effectively. - State the function and
operation of fire detection and alarm systems. - Explain the principles of fire
prevention and techniques for managing fuel, oxygen, and heat sources. - Discuss
various types of fire suppression systems and their appropriate use. - Distinguish
between different fire classes and the appropriate fire extinguishing techniques for
each class. - Describe fire emergency response and evacuation procedures.