ELECTROSTATICS

This is a branch of science that deals with electrical phenomena that arises
from the stationary electric charges.

Electrostatics means “Static electricity”.

There are two kind of charges, namely;

i) Positive charge (+)

ii) Negative charge (-)

When a rod is rubbed vigorously with another material by charging it. It

does not create electricity instead there is a transfer of either a positive or
negative charge through the removal or addition of electron.

For example, a plastic rubber rubbed with a fur to charge it and then
suspended by a non metallic thread will attract a glass rod that has been
rubbed with silk.

For instance, if two rubber rods (or two glass rods) rubbed and brought near
each other, the two will repel each other. This is because the two rubber
and two glass rods are in two different states of electrification. The charge
on the two plastic rods being negative and that on the glass rods being
positive.

Schematic diagrams of the positive and negative charge.

+ -

Positive Positive
charge charge

N/B:

Like charges repel

Unlike charges attract

+ - +
+

Unlike charges attract like charges repel

Experimentally, when a plastic ruler is rubbed with a fur, it acquires a

negative charge while the fur acquires equal amount of positive charge.

Similarly, a glass rod rubbed with silk acquires a positive charge while the
silk will posses negative charge. The net amount produced in this process
is zero. (i.e. no net amount of charge is created or destroyed).

Thus, the law of conservation of electric charge states that the net amount
of electric charge produced in any process is zero.

Any material (such as a metal) that conduct charges from one point of
another is called conductors while materials (such as wood or paper) that
do not conduct charges or allow electric charges to flow freely are called
insulators.

ELECTRIC FIELD

A region or space around an electrical charge where the electric force is felt
or experienced. This is an example of force field. It is a vector field.

ELECTRIC FORCE, F: This is a force that exist in free space oppositely

charge bodies that attract each other and similarly charged bodies that
repel each other which is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

This is called coulomb’s law. It is an inverse square law. It is both attractive

and repulsive force.

It can be expressed mathematically as;

- (1)

- (2)

Where K is called constant of proportionality and is given by

- (3)

Where – permittivity of free space or vacuum

12 -1 2 -1 -2
It has a value = 8.85 x 10- FM or C N m

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Electrical forces are attenuated faster through matter than through

vacuum. This is because the charge distribution of matter becomes
distorted (polarized) by the presence of a charge.

Although, the force obey coulomb’s law but the constant of proportionality
is altered (i.e. is replaced by ).

- (4)

Where the permittivity of the medium , indicating that the force falls-off
more rapidly with increasing distance in matter than in a vacuum.
In order to measure how much faster, the force falls with increasing
distance in matter than in a vacuum, the scaling factor is introduced called
the dielectric constant or relative permittivity,.

This is given by

- (5)

- (6)

Relative permittivity has no unit. This is because the permittivity of the

medium has the same unit as that of the vacuum. Some dielectric constant
with the medium.

Medium Value of

vacuum 1.
air 1.006
cyclohexane (l) 1.89
ethanol (l) 24
dimethyl sulphide (l) 47
water (l) 78
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Consider a stationary charge, q, the electric field intensity is defined as the

force per unit charge experienced by a point (or stationary) charge in space.

This is expressed as
- (7)
- (8)
It is a force produced by a point (or source) charge, q exerted on every
coulomb of charge of a test charge at a distance r away from the source of
the field.
- (9)

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, V
This is the amount of electric potential energy that a unitary point charge
would have when located at a point.
It is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from infinity to that
point.
The electric potential, V at a point is equal to the electric potential energy
measured in joules of any charged particle at that point divided by the
charge, q of the particle.
- (10)

- (11)

N/B: Since the work done is against the electrostatic force, then the
potential is negative.
- (12)
OR

The electric potenial of a point charge at a distance r from the charge

(relative to the potential at infinity) is given by

RADIAL LINES OF FORCE OF A POINT CHARGE

These are imaginary lines used in visualizing fields such as electric field,
where the lines emanate from positive charge and terminate on a negative
charge. The density of the lines in a region indicate the strength of the field.
The direction of the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would
exert on a positive test charge.

The field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially inward (or
in) toward a negative charge.

EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
These are lines on a point charge that show lines of equal electric potential.
Consider a positive point charge with radial lines emanating outward,
having concentric circles drawn across the lines at different positions
(distances).
+q

The circles represent spherical equipotential surfaces.

The electric potential of a point charge is given by
- (1)
The radius, r determines the potential.
The equipotential lines are therefore circles and a sphere centered on the
charge, q in an equipotential surface.
N/B: As the radius, r increases, the equipotential lines get further apart.

EXERCISES IV
1.What is the magnitude of a point charge that would create an electric field of
-1
1.0Nc at a point 2.0m away?

2.What must be the distance between point charge and point charge for an
electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70N?

3.Compute the ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force exerted by a
proton on an electron.

4.State the results of the following observations

i) Glass rod is rubbed with dry silk
ii) Glass rod is rubbed with wet silk
iii) Ebonite rod rubbed with fur.

5.Three positive point charges lie on the x-axis, q1 = + 25nC is at origin, q2 = + 10nC
is at x = 2m ad q3 = +20nC is at x = 3m. Calculate the resultant force due to
the three point charges.

SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES IV

Using the equation;

2.
Using the equation;

3.

The Electric force,

The Gravitational force,
Ratio of electric force to gravitational force is given by
4. (i) When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk (dry or wet), the

(ii) 4 glass will be positively charged while the silk will be negatively
charged.

(iii) An ebonite rod rubbed with fur will be negatively charged while
the fur will be positively charged.

5. g(m)

25

The force on q3 which is 3m away is in the positive x – direction.

Its magnitude is

The force on q3 which is 1m away, is in the positive x – direction and has the
magnitude given by

Since both forces are in the positive x-direction the resultant force is also in
the positive x –direction and the magnitude is the sum of the magnitude of
individual force exerted on the charge by all other charges.
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric field, E at a point can be represented by the number of lines per
unit area or flux density through a surface perpendicular to the lines of
force.

Consider a sphere of radius r drawn in space concentric with a point

charge, q.
Flux
charged
+q sphere
r radius

Fig (i) Flux from a point charge

The electric field E at a point (isolated charge, q) is given by
- (1) ; where is the permittivity of the medium.
The total normal flux through the sphere is given by
Flux = E x Area of sphere
- (2)
where area of sphere, A = 4
Electric flux, Φ = E x Area =
- (3)

N/B: Total flux crossing any sphere drawn outside and concentrically
around a point charge is constant (i.e. it does not depend on the distance
from the charged sphere).
ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE A CHARGED EMPTY SPHERE

Consider a spherical surface A drawn inside a sphere as shown below:

+ +
+ inside + Charged sphere
A
+ +
outside
Surface
+
+ R, radius

Fig (ii) An empty charged sphere.

i) Outside a charged sphere:
Consider the flux across a spherical surface of radius, r concentric
with a small sphere carrying a charge, q.
Then,
Electric flux Φ =

- (1)

This shows that outside the sphere, the field behaves as if all the charge on
the sphere were concentrated at the centre.

ii) Inside the charged empty sphere:

Since charge q is not inside, the flux is zero.

Then, electric field x Area of sphere =

- (2)
N/B: This is independent of the radius drawn provided, it is less than that of
the charged sphere.

Thus, the electric field E is zero from r = 0 to r = ro but beyond r = ro, Electric
field .

ro r

Fig (iii) Electric field E as a function of r.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL NEAR A SPHERE (CHARGED)

Consider a charge, q on a spherical conductor to be positive and the radius

of the sphere, r. Since the lines of force spread out radially from the
surface. Imagine the charge, +q to be concentrated at the centre, o.

+q A
r

ro

S
Fig (iv) A charged sphere
Recall that potential, V at a distance, r from a point charge, q is given by
- (1)
(i) Outside the sphere:
The potential at a point A distance, r from the centre O is given by
- (2) ; (r > ro)
(ii) At the surface, S where r = ro
The potential V is given by
- (3) ; (r = ro)
(iii) Inside the sphere:

Since the electric field, E is zero (i.e. E = o) inside. There is no work

done when the hate is moved from any point inside the sphere of a
point on the surface, S. as such there is no potential between any
point inside and S.

But potential V at surface, S =

Thus, potential V, at any point inside the sphere is same

- (3) ;

(i.e the potential V remains constant, since the whole charged sphere is at
same potential) the sphere is an equipotential volume, since all points
inside the sphere have the same potential value because E = o for all points
inside.
V

V
Fig (v) Electric potential, V as a function of r.

GAUSS’S LAW

The electric flux, is defined as the product of electric field intensity and the
area A perpendicular to the field.

It is proportional to the number of electric field lines penetrating a surface.

For an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and direction, the
electric flux is defined as

- (1)

Where E Cos is the component of along perpendicular to the area.

A I to
area

Ɵ
E

Electric field Fig (1) Electric flux through a uniform electric field

Consider a Gaussian surface immersed in a non-uniform electric field.

Dividing the surface into small squares of area A.
Fig (ii) Electric flux through a curved surface

From the diagram, the electric field may vary over a surface. Since the
surface is divided into small elements, each of area A. if the element of
area is crossed by an electric field in the direction which makes an angle Ɵ
with the normal to the area, then the electric flux crossing the area is given
by

- (2)

N/B: Each element is represented as element of area with an area vector

perpendicular to the guassian surface and directed away from the interior
of the surface.

Recall that the definition of a scalar product of two vectors is A.B = AB Cos Ɵ

The net flux

- (3)

Equation (3) shows the scalar product and summing the result
algebraically for all the squares that make up the surface.

Thus, the exact definition of the electric flux of the electric field through a
closed surface is found by allowing the area of the square to become
smaller and smaller approaching a differential limit dA.

- (4)

Gauss’s Law states that the net flux through any closed surface is equal to
the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.
This is given by

- (5)

The equation (5) shows that the Gauss’s Law relates to the net flux of an
electric field through a closed surface (guassian surface) to the net charge,
Q that is enclosed by the surface.

N/B: Q inside is the charge inside the surface, represent the electric field at
any point on the surface and is the same constant (permittivity of
free space) that appears in Coulomb’s Law.

- (6)

The charge inside, Qinside =

- (7)

Equation (7) holds when Q is located in a vacuum, which is same for most
practical purposes. However equation (7) can be modify to include
situations in which a material such as mica, oil or glass is present.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GUASS’S LAW AND COULOMB’S LAW

Consider a single isolated point charge Q in a guassian surface sphere of

radius, r centered on the charge.

Q
Fig (iii) point charge Q at the centre

Since the imaginary sphere is symmetrical about the charge at its cnetre.
The electric field must have the same magnitude at any point on the
surface and points radially outward parallel to , an element of the surface
area.

If varies radially with distance from Q and has the same value everywhere
on the spherical surface (guassian surface). Then is constant in the
integration given by

- (8)

N/B: The surface area of a sphere of radius r is dA = and the magnitude of

is the same at all points on the guassian spherical surface.

Solving for E in equation (8)

=Q

- (8)

Equation (9) is the electric field form of Conlomb’s Law.

This is exactly the electric field due to an isolated charge using Coulomb’s
Law. Thus, Gauss’s Law is equivalent to Coulomb's Law.

POTENTIAL V BETWEEN TO POINTS

I __________________ b

k ________a

+q A K B
From the diagram above, the work done in moving a unit positive charge, q
from B to A against a force, f over a small distance is given by

- (1)

Integrating the equation

- (2)

But V = - (3)

- (4)

Substituting into equation (2)

- (5)

The equation (5) gives the potential, V between two points A and B in the
field of an isolated point charge, q.

N/B: If B is at infinity, then B is very much greater than a, then I/b is

negligible compared to I/a.

Hence, potential at A is

- (6) (a = r )
EXERCISES V
-10
1. Given a positive charge 2.23 x 10 c in air. Calculate the potential at
the distance 10cm and 40cm from the point charge and the potential
difference between the two points A and B.

2. A charged oil drop remains stationary when situated between two

pararrel horizontal metal plates 25mm appoint and a p.d of 1000V is
applied to the plates. Find the charge, q on the oil drop, if its mass is
-15 -1
5x 10 kg (g = 10Nkg ).

-14 -18
3. An oil drop of mass 2 x 10 kg carries a charge of 8 x 10 C. the drop
is stationary between two parallel plates 20mm apart with a p.d. of V
between them.

4. Two charges q1 = 10C and q2 = 12C are with a spherical surface of

radius 10cm. what is the total flux through the surface?

EXERCISES V SOLUTION

r =10cm = 0.1m\

.07Volts

At r = 40cm = 0.4m

The potential difference between the two points at r = 10cm and at r=40cm
is given by

-1
2. g = 10Nkg
mg
25M
m =1000
-15
5.0 x 10 kg
V
-3
x =25mm = 25 x 10 m
Electric field, E = - (1)
but Electric field, E = - (2) where is the potential gradient
Equating;
- (3)
Since the charge is stationary (at rest)
The force, F = mg - (4)
substituting into equations (3) and making q the subject

+V
3. q q=8x
20M
m=2x
x = 20mm = 20 x
V=?
Since the charge is stationary
Fe = Fg
Using the equation, - (1)
The potential, V =

V = 500 Volts

Total flux is given by

ɸ=

ɸ=