THE PURANAS

The Puranas are ancient Hindu texts that tell stories of the creation of the world, legends of the
gods, and explanations of how to perform religious rituals.
Purana is a Sanskrit word that means ancient or old. Puranas are encyclopaedic texts that cover
various topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine,
astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, theology and philosophy as well as the genealogies of gods,
goddesses, kings and sages.
The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths taught in the Vedas by
presenting them in relation to specific personages and to the events of their lives. The main
value of the Puranas consists in amplifying, enforcing and illustrating the spiritual truths stated
in the Vedas in the form of injunctions and commands.
Puranas are traditionally defined as comprising five main topics –
1. Sarga (Creation)
2. Pratisarga (Dissolution and recreation)
3. Vamsa (Divine genealogies)
4. Manvantara (ages of Manus)
5. Vasmanuchari (Genealogies of Kings).

The purpose of the puranas was to bring people closer to the gods. All of the purana texts are
sectarian, dedicated to certain deities - some to gods, some to goddesses. Puranas also served
to give the common people access to and understanding of the essential teachings and complex
yogic philosophies of the ancient Vedic texts. Traditionally, there are 18 main puranas
(Mahapuranas) and 18 minor puranas (Upapuranas), which contain over 400,000 verses.

The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahapuraṇas. These are
always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six.
1) Agni Purana (15,400 verses)
2) Bhagavata Purana (18,000 verses). One of the most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,
telling of Vishnu’s ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna,
introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
3) Bhavishya Purana (14,500 verses)
4) Brahma Purana (24,000 verses)
5) Brahmanda Purana (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite
as prayer)
6) Brahma Vaivarta Purana (18,000 verses)
7) Garuda Purana (19,000 verses)
8) Kurma Purana (17,000 verses)
9) Linga Purana (11,000 verses)
10) Markandeya Purana (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
11) Matsya Purana (14,000 verses)
12) Narada Purana (25,000 verses)
13) Padma Purana (55,000 verses)
14) Shiva Purana (24,000 verses)
15) Skanda Purana (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous
pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related
legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
16) Vamana Purana (10,000 verses)
17) Varaha Purana (10,000 verses)
18) Vishnu Purana (23,000 verses)

The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,
1) Brahma Puranas - Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, The Brahma Purana is one of the eighteen major
Puranas, genre of Hindu texts in Sanskrit language. It is listed as the first Maha-Purana in all
the anthologies, and therefore also called Adi Purana. Another title for this text is Saura
Purana, because it includes many chapters related to Surya or the Sun god. The Brahma Purana
dedicates a majority of its chapter to describing the geography, temples and scenes around the
Godavari River.
2) Vishnu Puranas - Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana,
Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana. The Vishnu
Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism.
It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus. Vishnu Purana, like
all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa.
3) Shiva Puranas - Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Vayu Purana.
Shiva Purana is one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and
part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Shiva and
goddess Parvati, but references and reveres all gods.

According to the Padma Purana, the texts may be classified in accordance with the three
gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance:
1) Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda
Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
2) Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya
Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
3) Tamas ("darkness; ignorance"): Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Shiva
Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

The Upapuranas
The Upapuraṇas are lesser or supplementary texts. These are sometimes also said to be
eighteen in number. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya,
Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara,
Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesha and Mudgala
Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga,
has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi
worshipers. There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.

Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular temples or shrines—the word
sthala means "spot" in Sanskrit. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in
vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the
Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean
Shulman.
Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means
"family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually
contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain
oral. These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the
British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASHTRA
The Arthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics, military strategy, the function
of the state, and social organization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya
(also known as Chanakya, Vishnugupta) who was instrumental in establishing the reign of the
great king. Much of our knowledge about state policy under the Maurya comes from the
Arthashastra written by Kautilya, who was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya.
The book, written in Sanskrit, discusses theories and principles of governing a state. The title,
Arthashastra, which means the Science of Material Gain or Science of Polity, does not leave
any doubts about its ends. Kautilya's philosophy is based on the principles of "Saam, Daam,
Dand, Bhed" (persuasion, temptation, punishment, and division) as various, different, and
sequential means to achieve an end. According to Kautilya, the ruler should use any means to
attain his goal and his actions required no moral sanction. Though the kings were allowed a
free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set of rules.
Arthashastra remains unique in all of Indian literature because of its total absence of specious
reasoning, or its unabashed advocacy of real politic, and scholars continued to study it for its
clear-cut arguments and formal prose till the twelfth century.
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. Kautilya helped the
young Chandragupta Maurya, who was a Vaishya, to ascend to the Nanda throne in 321 BC.
Kautilya’s counsel is particularly remarkable because the young Maurya’s supporters were not
as well armed as the Nandas. Kautilya continued to help Chandragupta Maurya in his
campaigns and his influence was crucial in consolidating the great Mauryan empire. It reflects
the state of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
HISTORY OF BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE: PALI, PRAKRIT AND
SANSKRIT
Buddhist Literature
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South
Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into parts Tripitakas and Jatakas.
Tripitakas, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues
and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with
philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics,
psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
Jatakas - Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was
believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed
through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is
called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental
reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.

Sanskrit Buddhist literature

It refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit , or a mixture of the two. Several non-Mahayana Nikayas appear to
have kept their canons in Sanskrit, most prominent among which was the Sarvastivada. The
Mahayana Sutras are also in Sanskrit, with less classical registers prevalent in the gatha
portions. Buddhist Tantras too are written in Sanskrit, sometimes interspersed with
Apabhramsa, and often containing notable irregularities in grammar and meter (traditionally
ascribed to the esoteric nature of the texts)
Before the modern derivatives of Sanskrit existed, a group of languages known as the Prakrits
or Middle Indo Aryan languages evolved from India’s classical language. These were the
vernacular dialects of ancient times, and several of them became important literary vehicles in
their own right. The best known of this group is Pali, which still serves as the canonical
language of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Other Prakrit languages such as
Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and Gandhari embody various facets of the literatures of both
the Brahmanical/Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Besides texts considered "Word of the Buddha" (Buddhavacana) by the traditions that
transmitted them, Buddhist authors have composed treatises and literary works in Sanskrit
dealing with Buddhist philosophy, logic, etc., but also with more worldly topics such as
gemology, erotics, literary aesthetics, etc
Sanskrit Buddhist literature is therefore vast and varied, despite the loss of a significant amount
of texts. A large number of works survive only in Tibetan and Chinese translations.

Rise of Sanskrit in Buddhism

While some hypotheses say that Buddhism was originally written in Prakrits, Sanskrit
gradually became the main language of Buddhist scriptures. It began with the north-western
Indian Buddhists of the Kushan empire (BC 375). The Sarvastivadin Piṭakas were mostly
transmitted in Sanskrit and many Mahayana sutras such as the Prajnaparamita sutra were
composed in different registers of Sanskrit. The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit for literary
purposes possibly began with Asvaghoṣa (c. 100 CE), author of the Buddhacarita and one of
the earliest Sanskrit dramatists. Buddhist thinkers like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,
Dharmakīrti, Bhaviveka, Candrakīrti, etc., also wrote in Sanskrit
Jainism Literature
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century
AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a rich
literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain
texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Jain literature begins with the last of the Tirthankara, Mahavir, who reorganized the old
Nirgrantha sect and revitalized its moral and religious zeal and activities. He preached his faith
of ahimsa (non-violence or harmlessness) and self-purification to the people in their own
language which was not Sanskrit, but Prakrit. The form of Prakrit which he is said to have
used was Ardha-Magadhi, by which was meant a language that was not pure Magadhi but
partook of its nature.
Twelve Angas
Mahavira’s teachings were arranged in twelve Angas (parts) by his disciples. These Angas
formed the earliest literature on Jainism
1) Acaranga laid down rules of discipline for the monks.
2) Sutrakrtanga contained further injunctions for the monks regarding what was suitable or
unsuitable for them and how they should safeguard their vows. It also gave an exposition of
the tenets and dogmas of other faiths
3) Sthananga listed in numerical order, categories of knowledge pertaining to the realities of
nature.
4) Samavayanga classified objects in accordance with similarities of time, place, number, and so
on
5) Vyakhya-prajnapti or Bkagavat explained the realities of life and nature in the form of a
catechism
6) Jnatrdhamakatha contained hints regarding religious preaching as well as stories and
anecdotes calculated to carry moral conviction
7) Upasakadhyayana or Upasaka-dasaka was meant to serve as a religious code for householders
8) Antakrddasaka gave accounts of ten saints who attained salvation after immense suffering
9) Anuttaraupapatika contained accounts of ten saints who had gone to the highest heaven after
enduring intense persecution
10) Prsnna-vyakarana contained accounts and episodes for the refutation of opposite views,
establishment of one’s own faith, promotion of holy deeds, and prevention of evil.
11) Vipaka-Sutra explained how virtue was rewarded and evil punished
12) Drstivada included the five sections namely Parikarmani contained tracts describing the
moon, the sun, Jambudvipa, other islands and seas, as well as living beings and nonliving
matter, Sutra gave an account of various tenets and philosophies numbering no less than 363,
Prathamanuyoga recounted ancient history and narratedthe lives of great kings and saints.
Purvagata dealt with the problems of birth, death, and continuity.

Jain literature in Sanskrit

The language of Jain literature was primarily the Prakrits which were prevalent amongst the
people at one time or the other in different parts of the country. But Sanskrit was not altogether
shunned. Amongst the Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious writing is the
Tattvarthadhigama - Sutra of Umasvamin which epitomizes the whole Jain creed in about 375
sutras arranged in ten chapters. The work occupies a unique position in Jain literature as it is
recognized as authoritative equally by the Digambaras and the Svetambaras with a few
variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both. It has been commented upon by
the most eminent authors of both the sects.