EE 206: PROGRAMME PLANNING AND EVALUATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHAT IS EXTENSION

Although the term has a variety of meanings to different people, but their interpretation bear
several common features.

Extension is an on-going process of getting useful information to people (communication

dimension), assisting them to acquire the necessary:
Knowledge (cognitive domain),
Skills and (psychomotor domain), educational dimension
Attitudes (Affective domain),
to enable them improve their quality of life.

In other words Agricultural extension is an educational process with a goal of communicating

useful information to people, then helping them to learn how to use that information to build a
better life for themselves or their community.

We can also systematically describe extension as a process which:

• Helps farmers to analyze their present and expected future situations.
• Helps farmers to become aware of problems that arise in such an analysis.
• Increases knowledge and develops insights into problems, and helps to structure farmer’s
existing knowledge.
• Helps farmers acquire specific knowledge related to certain problem solutions and their
consequences so they can act on possible alternatives.
• Helps farmers to make a responsible choice, which, in their opinion is optimal for their
situation.
• Increases farmers’ motivation to implement their choices.
• Helps farmers to evaluate and improve their own opinion forming and decision making
skills.

NOTE: Extension does not necessarily attend all the above points!
And actually it shouldn’t.

Sometimes it is important to help the farmer in only one or few aspects of his problem and he/she
will be able to proceed with other aspects by himself.

For example, in some cases extension might only need to help the farmer define the problem
clearly and systematically and he/she will proceed with other stages alone.

In other cases extension might be needed only to supply the missing information that the farmer
lacks, in order to proceed smoothly.

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Extension agents must first analyze their farmers’ situations before deciding the best avenue for
providing help.

Since extension is an educational process then it needs to be coordinated, implemented

systematically and monitored and hence the need for planning.

1.2 WHAT IS PLANNING

The word “planning” is used in many different senses in various literatures.

For example the zoning of houses (geographical zoning) or factories is termed as planning e.g.
Town planning or country planning etc.

Setting out programmes of public expenditure extending over two, four or five years etc., is also
referred to as planning.

Setting of production targets by the government, whether for private or public enterprise is also
considered to be planning.

Setting targets for the economy as a whole, purporting to allocate all the country’s labour,
foreign exchange, raw materials and other resources between the various branches of the
economy is also planning.

The word “planning” comes from the word plan, and according to various dictionaries “plan”
means:
i) A way of doing something, thought out in advance.
ii) A drawing showing the arrangement of parts of something
iii) A map of a town or district etc.

Despite the slight differences in the outlook about the word “planning” from the above
descriptions two important features emerge and those are:
i) Something to be done in advance or thought of before implementation
ii) Something showing the expected arrangement, relationships of the various
components of “something” under plan, or the “thing” to be implemented.

Therefore whether it is a map or a programme or a budget etc. it basically shows what will
transpire in future under which arrangements.
Thus, “planning” – implies that managers (planners) think through their goals and
actions in advance. Their actions are usually based on some method, plan or logic,
rather than on a hunch.

For that matter even farmers are planners in their own right. They normally think through their
goals and action in advance; hence they are planners.
Actually one of the reasons why agricultural planning has often been disappointing in
many developing countries is because there is a wide gap which frequently exists
between planning done by farmers and by central government planners.

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1.2.1 Why plan?

All serious political thinkers, and not least the laisser-faire philosophers, start with the
proposition that production and distribution must be controlled to the service of social ends.

The point at issue is simply how much of this control may be invisible and how much must be
visible.

The invisible control is that which the market exercises (In free economy, production is
controlled by demand).

The visible control, favoured by planners, is that which is organised by the state. Therefore it
doesn’t matter whether production is controlled by demand (under free market economy) or by
state; still the need for planning is there.

Thus, the real choice we have to make is between planning by inducement and planning by
direction.
For example:
i) Ordering people to produce more is planning by direction. Or when you ask them
to consume more of a particular product.
ii) Making the product cheap is planning by inducement or when you pay subsidies
for the product is an inducement to extra production.

We thus plan for agricultural development because of the following reasons:

a) Agricultural development is taken to be an intra-sectoral activity that includes all services

necessary to its promotion (e.g. Extension, marketing, research etc). Thus, you need
planning for the intra-sectoral relationship to take place properly.

b) Agricultural planning provides for improved management of agricultural development by

thinking through the problems and strategies in advance before implementation and the
resources available.

c) Planning also improves decision making in the various aspects of management for
agricultural development. For example which problems should be given attention.

d) The major aim of agricultural development among many is improved production. To

attain improved production you need to go through or to take various actions such as
utilization of science-based knowledge. Those actions need to be undertaken in a
systematic sequence and hence the need for planning.

e) Thus, planning gives chance to deal with things according to priority.

f) Planning also helps to avoid discrimination, since without planning the tendency has been
to go for progressive areas where farmers are responsive to government directives due to
various endowments (such as roads, good rainfall, a good cash crop etc.) and forgetting

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the poorer areas which actually need such help. Such discrimination can be avoided by
planning (prior setting of objectives).

g) Planning facilitates the evaluation of agricultural development efforts. With a plan in

hand it is possible to tell whether the developmental work was a success or a failure.
Since it contains objectives or targets that can be used as criteria for evaluation.

h) Planning will give an opportunity for the most effective combinations or developmental
strategies to be used.

1.3 THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Since we have understood what agricultural extension is; it is better to also understand what we
mean with the concept DEVELOPMENT, so that the link between the two can be clearly seen.

What is development?

Although there is no single accepted definition of development, however, most people accept
that development in any country (including agricultural and rural development) consists of much
more than just economic growth.

Yet, surprisingly most countries set development targets in terms of increases in output or
increases in national income! This is understandable since it is very easy to measure such
aspects (they are quantifiable).

Their assumption is normally that, with the increase in incomes, solutions of social and political
problems can be found!

This is not necessarily the case, since it might be the cause of those problems in the first place!
Income gaps may be widened in such situation because of the prevailing social, economic and
political structures.

• Thus, DEVELOPMENT consists of process such as the creation of new social, economic
and political alternatives, which in many instances are prerequisites for agricultural or
rural development e.g. equality of access to the means and methods through which
income is distributed or generated.
• While increases in output, economic growth and national incomes are both desirable and
necessary, it should be recognised that, for the individual, development can involve:-
(a) Access to income or other means of obtaining enough food and other basic
necessities.
(b) The opportunity for work during the active years of life.

We can thus, summarise or define development as:-

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A gradual evolution, improvement, or growth; in the social/ economic/
political/environmental conditions of a: state, region, district or an individual.

1.3.1 The Role of Agricultural Extension in Agricultural/ Rural Development

1. Agric. Extension is one of the components of an agricultural or rural development

system. According to Adams (1982) and Mannion (1988) the weakness in one of the
components can lead to a weakness in the whole system.

In other words the system cannot afford to lose one of the components since they are
interdependent; and thus, the importance of agric. Extension.

2. Agricultural development implies a shift from traditional methods of production to new

science based methods of production.

e.g. New technological components such as new varieties, fertilizers insecticides etc.

That shift is made possible through agricultural extension by communicating and

educating farmers about these aspects.

You have to change farmers who subsequently may decide to change their farms. And this is
only possible through extension.

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3. Government may use agricultural extension to achieve two different policy objectives.

(i) To help farmers reach their goals as efficiently as possible.

(ii) To change farmers behaviour in order to reach government goals.

These are possible through agricultural extension

4. Extension may also be used to create a psychological climate in which it is possible to force
people to behave in the collective interest. For example if people became worried about
desertification, through extension it is possible to form pressure groups which can push for
the alleviation of the condition. This can create a favourable climate for the government to
introduce laws to preserve forests (against de-forestation) and the environment in general.

5. In industrialised countries farmers organizations have played a crucial role in Agricultural

development eg. helping farmers with education and information, increasing their production
efficiencies and exerting pressure (political pressure) on government.

Thus, extension organisation can play an important role in teaching farmers how to organise
themselves effectively. However, it may require political support to fulfil this role since it
might threaten the power of some people- that they have over farmers.

6. Extension may also help to report the farmers’ real situation to policy makers and research
workers. This might stimulate them to develop policies that will change the farmers’
situation, or to develop technologies which are profitable in the present situation (appropriate
technology).

7. Extension can help farmers increase their managerial skills and their power in decision –
making processes. This helps them in achieving their targets or goals through taking best
alternatives or even through adopting a certain innovation.

8. We believe that the main way to improve farm efficiency and to increase agricultural
production is to educate the farmer.

However, there are times when it may be better helping the farmer to solve the problem. e.g.
during the outbreak of army-worms.

Farmers may be educated in two different ways:-

(i) They may be taught how to solve specific problems or
(ii) They can be taught the process of problem – solving

Case I
You can teach a farmer to recognise a maize stalk boner and know what
to do.
Or
Case II

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You may introduce the farmer to a book which describe most diseases and pests and their
treatments and teach him/her how to use it.

2.0 EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING

All extension activity requires careful planning if it is to be effective. No extension activity is

planned in isolation; every demonstration, public meeting or film show is part of an overall
extension programme through which an extension agent and farmers work toward the
agricultural development of their area.

An extension programme is a written statement which contains the following four elements:

Objectives: which the agent expects to be achieved in the area within a specified period of
time. This will often be a one-year period, to enable the agent to review the
programme at the start of each farming year.

Means: of achieving these objectives.

Resources: that are needed to fulfil the programme.

Work plan: indicating the schedule of extension activities that will lead to the fulfilment of
the programme objectives.

• An extension programme with clearly defined objectives is helpful to local farmers, the
agent himself, his senior extension officers and other rural development agencies.
• For the farmers, it shows both what they can expect from the extension service and how
effective the agent is.
• For the agent, the programme provides a firm basis for planning extension activities on a
monthly and weekly basis and for anticipating well in advance what resources will be
needed.
• Senior extension officers can use programmes to assess agents' performance, to offer
advice for improvement and to justify requests for additional staff, equipment and funds.
• Furthermore, the programme helps other agencies to coordinate their activities with what
the agent is doing.
• However, programmes can only be used in these ways if they are written and made
available to all concerned.

A written programme is also useful when staff changes bring a new agent into the area. The new
agent can use the programme to carry on from where his predecessor finished, thereby ensuring
continuity of activities.

All organizations involved in agricultural development have their own procedures for planning,
which can vary considerably. In particular, they can differ in the extent to which plans are made
at national or local level. When considering the planning of extension programmes, two different
forms can be distinguished.

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Planning from below:

Farmers, with their extension agents, make plans for developing local agriculture on the basis of
local needs and potential, and then make requests for specific assistance from national and
regional authorities.

Planning from above:

The agent is simply expected to implement plans made at national level. He may, for example,
be given a target number of hectares to be planted with improved seeds, or a specified number of
farmers' groups to set up.

NOTE:

• Successful extension programmes should include both planning approaches. National

policies and programmes provide a framework within which the agent plans his/her local
programmes, and they establish priorities, which he/she must follow.
• If a national priority is to increase production of arable food crops rather than livestock
products, the agent will give these crops a high priority in his own programme.
• National programmes will also make funds and inputs available for particular kinds of
activity, which will influence the agent in his/her local planning decisions. But
agricultural improvement comes from the willing action of farmers as they try to increase
their own output and living standards.
• Local needs, therefore, provide the motivation for agricultural development, and must be
taken into account in the planning of local extension programmes. Even in cases where
the agent's freedom of decision is limited by national policy and directives, he/she must
still prepare a programme that will enable him/her to fulfil these directives within his
area.

Assumptions on Extension Planning

The concept of extension planning is based on a number of assumptions. Boyle (1965) has listed
the following assumptions in this regard:
• Planning change is a necessary prerequisite to effective social progress for people and
communities.
• The most desirable change is predetermined and democratically achieved.
• Extension education programmes, if properly planned and implemented, can make a
significant contribution to planned change.
• It is possible to select, organize and administer a programme that will contribute to the
social and economic progress of people.
• People and communities need the guidance, leadership and help of extension educators to
solve their problems in a planned and systematic way.

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2.1 THE NEED FOR PLANNING

i) Agricultural extension works to promote desired changes in a farming community over

time. In other words the purpose of extension is to facilitate learning and action among
farmers, extension personal and other agencies to promote agricultural development. If
the purpose is to facilitate learning then it should be done systematically and hence the
need for programme planning.

Thus, extension programme planning is conducted through a systematic sequence of

action to promote the utilization of science-based and indigenous knowledge and their
diffusion in a farming community.

ii) The bases of decision for change should not be taken lightly, but rather should be
considered carefully and hence the need for planning. Many decisions have to be taken in
order to ensure effective extension work. Naturally these decisions must be in time with
each other, which implies that extension requires systematic planning.

iii) Without planning it is very difficult for most extension workers to divide their attention
among many different problems (since they are confronted with many problems coming
from farmers). So they are unable to pursue any one problem in depth to be able to solve
each problem effectively.

iv) It gives chance to deal with things according to priority.

v) It also helps to avoid discrimination, since, extension workers tends to give most help to
those farmers with similar views to their own or who only can cope with the technology
they are trying to introduce. This can only be overcome by programme planning (tend to
go for progressive farmers).

vi) It facilitates the evaluation of extension effort. With a programme in hand it is possible to
tell whether the extension work was a success or a failure; since it will contain objectives
which can be used as criteria for evaluation.

vii) With programme planning attention will be concentrated on those target group which are
most important for achieving programme goals.

viii) Will give an opportunity for the most effective combinations of extension
methods to be used; due to the fact that you will have prior set objectives and strategies.

ix) The activities of extension agents and other service agents will be integrated and
organised as effectively as possible; since this will be stipulated in the programme, it will
be easier to CO-ORDINATE and MONITOR. It also gives a chance for extension agents
to concentrate on real extension work.

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x) In general attention is concentrated on farmers’ problems that are likely to be important
for them in the future and which also interest them; since, the programme will based on
the identified NEED/PROBLEMS and available RESOURCES.

* However, this will be clear as we discuss the process itself.

2.2 THE BASIC MODEL OF PROGRAMME PLANNING

• Traditionally, improvement in agriculture was seen in terms of the application of new

ideas from the scientific world to problem situations in farming.

• This led to the training of extension workers in the latest ideas from science and
technology so that they could operate in the role of experts and be able to tell a farmer
the answers to his/her problems.

• However, this emphasis has changed over the years from a servicing to development
approach.

• This new emphasis involves the setting of goals, and planning a course of action to
achieve these goals.

• Out of this developmental approach there is not only an improvement in the farm
business and its operations but also a corresponding improvement in the capacity of the
farmer to cope with his changed situation.

• This approach evolves at the theoretical level from a programming model.

2.2.1 The Basic Model

Over the years there have been numerous models of the programming process. The recent
addition of a problem solving orientation to the model provides a valuable new focus to
extension work. Since:
• It allows for the systematic investigation of a problem situation and the identification and
prioritising of problems; and also,
• It allows for the early involvement of the programme participants.

In recognising the tendency of many extension workers rushing into action without having given
adequate thought to the results of their action, Carter G.L. suggested an addition of another
phase to the model to alert both the programme designer and the extension worker to the fact that
the programming approach needs to be continually reflected upon (i.e. going through to see
whether what you did in every stage (phase) is right). Some kind of evaluation in each phase.

The conceiving of phase is seen as a continuous phase that operates simultaneously and in turn
with each of the other phases.

2.3 THE PROGRAMMING MODEL

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The model has four phases that are largely sequential although there may be movements back
and forth between adjoining phases.

The fifth (conceiving of) we said is a continuous one.

(i) The Investigation phase

This phase is concerned with investigating and analysing the problem situation.
• identification of problems
• consideration of alternative solution
• the resources available for solution
• alternative proposals for action
• existing and new information (collected)
(ii) The Design phase

It involves the development of a plan on the basis of identified problems and solutions.
• development and selection of objectives
• selection of methods and learning activities to achieve the objectives
• decision on evaluation procedure
• production of:
i. a programme document
ii. plan of action
iii. calendar
iv. sequence of events

(iii) Implementation phase

Is concerned with implementation of the detailed plans from the design phase
• promotion and organization of various activities
• assembling of necessary resources
• coordinating clients and resource persons

Sometimes adjustments to original plans, becomes necessary at this phase.

(iv) The evaluation phase

Is concerned with finding out to what extent we achieved what we had originally intended. To do
this we must set up some criteria or standards.
• We must collect actual evidence of what was achieved and, finally we must measure the
evidence against the criteria and make a judgement as to whether the results were
satisfactory.
• However, evaluation is not only confined to the later stages of the process. The total process
can be monitored on an on-going basis (formative evaluation).

Evaluation has the function of providing the means to improve future programmes.
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(v) The Conceiving of phase

This think through phase is a continuous operation and should link up with and influence each of
the other phases.
• While the programming model sets out a conceptual framework for an extension system, it is
also necessary to take guidelines from these and to translate them into operational tasks and
procedures which will be carried out by the extension organization.
• For example: you need to first determine the target groups before you proceed with anything.

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AND, extension programmes save a variety of client groups, each having its own characteristics
and needs:
e.g. - male farmers
- female farmers all constitute clientele for extension services
- youth farmers
- tenant farmers etc.

However, central to extension programming are the NEEDS of the people.

What is a need?

In general terms, a need is a gap between the current situation (what is) and a more
desirable situation (what is ought to be).

What ought to be Basis for Research and introduced

Practices

Needs goal or objective for a specific

Period in long range effort to reach
What is what is ought to be.

• Since a need is a value judgement, then people will perceive needs differently. That is
why sometimes farmers needs do not coincide with the state needs since the state officials
can perceive different needs.
• Needs tend to be group and situation specific.
• Needs identification and classification is of importance in programmes intending
to help people meet their needs.

There are various categories of needs:

(a) normative needs
(b) felt needs
(c) expressed needs
(d) comparative needs
(e) derived needs

• Normative needs:
Arise from a group of experts or an institution with a desire of establishing a norm or
desirable standard.

• Felt needs:
Are needs which people themselves regard as necessary.

• Expressed needs:
Emerge when a product or a service is widely used.

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• Comparative needs:
Are needs which emerge from the imbalance which exists between groups of similar nature.

• Derived needs:
Result from expressed attitudes of the people and their aspirations.

Therefore, whether these needs are felt or derived needs, the second important aspect after
identification is to prioritise them so that logical planning can take place.

Ways of Identifying needs

There are various ways. However, the most common ones are:

(i) Research findings

(ii) Meetings and discussion with the people involved
(iii) Individual interviews
(iv) Subject matter specialists

But since people are central to development process it is important that we use a method that will
maximise their involvement or participation.
The programming Model

Investigation

Conceiving
Evaluation of
Design

Implementation

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2.4 STAGES IN PROGRAMME PLANNING

Whatever particular procedures for programme planning are laid down by the extension
organization, five distinct stages can be identified.

Analyse: the present situation.

Set: objectives for the extension programme.

Develop: the programme by identifying what needs to be done to achieve the objectives, and
then prepare a work plan.

Implement: the programme by putting the work plan into effect.

Evaluate: the programme and its achievements as a basis for planning future programmes. This
will then lead to a review of the situation and the planning of a new programme, which should
build on the achievements and learn from the failures of the previous one.

• The different stages of extension programme planning are interrelated and the planning
does not always proceed neatly from one stage to another. Provisional objectives, for
example, may be set during the situation analysis stage, but they may later be altered as
new facts are collected and a deeper analysis leads to fuller understanding of the
situation. Objectives may have to be altered still further as unexpected difficulties arise
while the programme is being implemented.
• However, it is useful for the agent to think of programme planning as involving these five
activities, each of which will be considered in more detail, as each can be broken down
into smaller steps.

2.5 STEPS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS

Extension Programme planning involves the following steps:

(i) Situation Analysis

Before an extension programme can be draw up, the existing situation must first be
analysed. Farming problems and their causes must be understood and the natural, human
and other resources of the area identified. This stage involves three activities.

Collecting facts
There is a good deal of information that the agent will need about the people in the area,
their farming systems, natural resources and the facilities available for local development.
The agent will need information in order to have a good understanding of the situation
with which he is dealing, for example, on social structure and local culture, farming
systems, education and literacy levels, size of farms, local channels of communication,
transport facilities, local credit systems, marketing, health and nutrition levels, and crops
and livestock.

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These facts can be collected from a variety of sources. Reports of soil classification and
land-use surveys, farm management studies, social surveys and previous programmes can
provide a lot of useful background information. If the agent keeps good records of the
farms in his area, he/she will have at his fingertips much of the information he/she needs.
He/she can also obtain a lot of his/her information from farmers and local leaders. At
public meetings, in group discussions and in contact with individual farmers, the agent
should listen, ask questions and gradually build up a fuller understanding of the social,
agricultural and economic features of the area.

Detailed social and economic surveys require complex questionnaires and statistical
analysis, and are best left to professional researchers. But simple questionnaires can be
used in this fact-finding exercise and it is helpful if the extension organization provides a
standard list of questions or facts as a guide to the agent. One way in which farmers can
be brought into the planning process at this early stage is for them to do some of the fact-
finding themselves, using simple check-lists and questionnaires, for example, to
catalogue natural resources in the area.

Analysing facts
Facts do not speak for themselves. It is necessary to ask why things happen in the way
they do. If farmers report that yields have declined in recent years, the agent must look
for other information that would suggest an explanation. Is it because of low rainfall,
declining soil fertility, or poor seed? The agent must also separate fact from opinion and
guesswork. He may obtain conflicting information from two different sources, and must
judge which is the more reliable.

Identifying problems and potential

It should now be possible to decide what the main problems facing farmers in the area
are, and what potential there is for agricultural improvement. This is where the agent's
technical knowledge becomes important. Farmers may know what their problems are, but
the agent can bring his/her own perception of local problems based on a more scientific
understanding of farming. He/she will be able to explain problems more fully and relate
them to processes which farmers may not realize are in any way connected. Because of
his/her training and experience, he/she will also have more suggestions to make about
how the resources of the area could be used more productively.

Throughout the situation analysis, the agent should avoid either, relying totally on his/her
own expertise when interpreting facts and identifying problems, or leaving it entirely up
to farmers to define local needs and possibilities for change. It should be a joint effort,
with agents and farmers bringing their own experience and knowledge together to reach a
full understanding. If farmers are not fully involved in these activities, the agent runs the
risk of misinterpreting facts, wasting time in analysis and, almost certainly, of failing to
gain the full support of farmers for the programme.

A full situation analysis is not needed every year. The basic facts about the area and the
people will, in most situations, not change very much from year to year. However, the

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agent should review basic information each year and decide which parts of it need to be
updated.

Situations need to be assessed carefully by extension staff in collaboration with the farm
families. e.g.
(a) Gender division of labour
• e.g.on basis of – age and sex

(b) Agro-ecological factors

• such as crop-soil-animal relationship

(c) Limitations of the farming system

• Terrain will determine the agricultural potential
• Climate of the area.
• Water availability

(d) Political – economic context with which extension is operating.

e.g.
• land tenure
• market forces - prices of inputs
- prices of outputs
• credit availability

(e) Local – socio –cultural context e.g.

• local values
• belief systems
• family relationship - matrilineal
- patrilineal

• organisational structure and social interaction (establishes

rapport necessary for dialogue)

(f) Awareness of non-extension needs;

• Also identification of other agencies operating in the area; this will
facilitate relaying information to the appropriate agency.

• It is an important step, since it sets a foundation for the other steps to follow. Once you have
messed up with this step, its effects will be carried over to other steps (stages) since they are
based or dependent on this step.

(ii) Identification of Needs, Wants and Interests

It is important for extension staff to make a clear distinction between: needs, wants and interests:
• Interests – aspirations.

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• Wants –general things they want (essential)
• Needs – crucial or necessary wants (basic)

In extension we normally deal with needs although we don’t ignore the wants and interests.
Actually we deal with priority needs.

However, extension personnel must be willing and able to deal with the totality of farmers’
concerns.

(iii) Determining Problems, Resources, and Priorities

An assessment of interests, wants and needs should result in an identification of farmers’ related
problems.
• But the problems of any human group are usually numerous, and it is impossible to
concentrate on the solution of all of them at one time. (hence the need to have priorities).
• Sometimes the solution of one problem is basic to the solution of another.
• Thus, you need to prepare for the learning of knowledge and skills necessary to the
solution of specific problems.
• Collect all relevant information which is available in relation to the problem and which
resources are available.
• Then make decisions how best to solve the problem.

There are various methods to achieve this with farmers

e.g.
o Force-field analysis
o Dialogical approach
o SWOT
o O&OD etc

(iv) Coordination with other agencies

Extension agents need to coordinate their activities with other agencies working in the area. This
will help in:-
• Minimising duplication of efforts
• Minimising confusion (on part of clientele)
• Promoting complimentarity (since many problems are usually related).
e.g. malnutrition could be a result of several factors
o Illiteracy
o Poverty
o Nutrition
o Agricultural production etc.
• Exchange and sharing of information about mutual clientele.
• Timely delivery of services
• Motivation to extension workers if things go as anticipated.

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(v) Planning Learning Experiences and Action Programmes

When specifying what a farmer should learn, it is very important to involve the farmer himself.
This will promote his/her participation.

Setting objectives

Once the existing situation has been analysed, decisions can be made about the changes that
should be brought about through an extension programme. The key questions are how will local
problems be solved and how will local potential be developed. Solutions will require clear,
realistic objectives which should be set in three stages.

Finding solutions

In looking for solutions to local problems, the agent should distinguish between technical
solutions, involving improved inputs or simple changes in husbandry practice, and solutions
which involve institutional changes, such as improved credit and marketing systems. Solutions
involving institutional changes may require action by other agencies and at higher levels. While
the agent should certainly suggest such solutions to those responsible, there may be little that can
be done locally in isolation.

The sources of ideas for developing an area's potential include:

• the agent's own technical knowledge;

• farmers and agents from other areas who have tackled similar problems successfully;
• applied research which tests new ideas under farm conditions;
• national priorities and directives;
• projects which make funds available for particular activities.

Selecting solutions

When selecting from among the range of solutions and possible improvements, agent and
farmers should ensure that proposed solutions are:

Acceptable: to farmers in the area.

Technically: sound and tested by research and experience elsewhere.
Consistent: with national policy, and with the local activities of other agencies.
Feasible: within the time and with the resources available to farmers and the extension service.
Within: the scope of the agent's ability and job description.

The agent may find that some problems will have no feasible or acceptable solution that can be
implemented locally within the period of the extension programme. They may require
legislation, action at other levels and by other agencies, or more research. The agent should
lessen the effect of such problems where possible and act as a channel for putting forward the
case for changes to those who have the power to make them.

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Stating objectives

It should now be possible to state what the objectives of the extension programme are to be. But
because his/her time and resources may be limited, the agent must decide which objectives have
a higher priority than others. In doing so, he/she should consider national priorities and the size
and distribution of the benefits that will arise from a given input of time and resources.

Wherever possible, objectives should be expressed “SMART”ly in terms of amounts and

numbers, rather than general statements

The objectives for an annual extension programme will state what should have been achieved by
the end of the programme. These statements can be broken down into intermediate steps to be
taken during the year in order to achieve the programme objectives. Again, the agent will have to
make choices, selecting the most appropriate steps from several possibilities.

As the agent breaks down each programme objective into specific steps, he/she will in effect be
preparing a schedule of extension activities for the programme period. He/she will decide what
knowledge and skills the farmers will need; what additional technical information will be
required from specialists and research workers; what extension methods should be used; and
what resources and support he will need from his own and other agencies.

Developing an extension programme

Problem Potential Solutions Preferred Objective Intermediate Plan of Support
Solution Objectives work needed

• Once learning needs have been determined and objectives specified, it is better to agree
on the learning strategies and methods.
• Instructional resources may be selected based on their appropriateness and availability.
• Efforts should be made to specify how the results will be evaluated and the criteria to be
used. (We normally use objectives as criteria – but objectives which have been properly
stated).

Hence in summary:
(a) Identify the learning needs
(b) Determine priorities
(c) Determine possible alternatives courses of action
(d) Identify possible constraints in each
(e) Agree upon objectives.

(vi) Implementing the Programme

Implement according to the plan. The extension staff should encourage the emergency of both a
scientific attitude and a respect for indigenous knowledge.

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To implement the programme, the agent carries out the activities specified in the work plan. His
detailed monthly and weekly plans will take account of progress and problems encountered in
previous months. For example, the timing of some activities may have to be changed, or
additional method demonstrations may be planned if more farmers than expected want to take
part. An extension programme should be flexible enough to allow the agent to respond to
circumstances in this way.

(vii) Monitoring and Evaluating the Programme

When programme activities are implemented, careful monitoring is important in order to know
whether we are abiding to the plan. Thus, observation of programme operations and provision of
feedback are crucial to have a successive programme implementation.
• In any planned programme there are things which may go wrong or projected activities
which may be found to have been based upon false assumptions or inaccurate information.
Programme adjustments then become necessary.

• Programme evaluation in extension usually takes two forms:-

(i) formative and
(ii) summative

• Formative is the on-going evaluation exercise (monitoring)

• Summative evaluation usually occurs at key periods during the year or at the end of the
programme.
• Should involve representatives from various parties contributing to the programme
(especially the clientele).
• Such summative evaluation provides information which is used to justify whether to
continue with the programme or to abandon it; to suggest alterations or additional inputs.

The agent will be constantly reviewing and evaluating his progress during the year.
At the end of the year, a more thorough evaluation should be carried out in which
the agent identifies how fully each objective has been achieved, and the reasons for
any lack of progress. This evaluation, together with an up-dated situation analysis,
provides the basis for planning the next year's programme.

3.0 EVALUATING EXTENSION PROGRAMMES

Although extension educators, donors and administrators are in favour of evaluating extension
programmes, yet the fact remains that most of the people are not enthusiastic to undertake it.
Among the reasons being:
• To mask insecurity, incompetence and inadequacy of our efforts.
• Fear of change that evaluation might precipitate as a result of self protective and
defensive.
• The need to avoid embarrassment about potential bad news.

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• Evaluation is often an additional workload to an already heavy or almost impossible
workload.

Similarly, there have been certain myths that have often discouraged extension managers from
engaging themselves in useful evaluation. These include:
• Evaluate only when mandated. Many funded programmes require evaluation as a form of
accountability and as a result it becomes a myth that evaluation should take place only if
it is mandated. Evaluation is more than just accountability.
• Evaluation is an add-on activity. In reality it should be part and parcel of the programme.
• Evaluation is an activity for experts. Yes when complex methods are used. However,
there are many ways of doing evaluation for the purposes of improving delivery which do
not need experts.
• Outside evaluators are the best. Not always. Yes, external objective evaluators are often
useful in challenging insiders to address certain issues that they tend to overlook because
of their involvement in the programme.
• There is one best evaluation approach. Different approaches are better depending on the
issue to be evaluated as well as the prevailing situation.
• Quantitative data are the best. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods can lead
to better understanding of certain phenomena.

3.1 WHAT IS EVALUATION?

• Evaluation basically means passing judgement on something according to a given

criterion.
• With respect to education (which extension is part) Ralph Tylor has defined evaluation
as being:
The process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually
being realised by the curriculum (programme) and instruction.

In this case the criteria are the educational objectives which were set in advance.

• A more general and all inclusive definition of evaluation was suggested by Wilbur
Harris as:-

The SYSTEMATIC process of judging the worthiness, desirability, effectiveness,

or adequacy of something according to definite CRITERIA and PURPOSES.

Out of Harris definition three important points emerge:

(1) Evaluation is purposeful and is not done for the sake of it. The way evaluation is conducted
must reflect the reason for carrying out that evaluation.

(2) The process of evaluation involves three elements :

(a) Criteria
(b) Evidence
(c) Judgement

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Criteria- are a standard of what is acceptable.
• Thus, a criterion can be an expectation or a laid down rule which is used as a reference
point.
e.g. A farmer is expected to know how to apply sulphate of ammonia
by the end of a demonstration.
• Criteria help us to make various decisions or judgements.
• There can be various criteria on the same process.
• Hence, it is important to agree with all categories of people involved in the programme as
to which criteria are going to be used in making evaluation.
• This will help to have the same logical judgements, since your views will be based on the
same criteria.
• Also in that way you can make relevant improvements in the programme.
Objective (based on certain rules)
Criteria can be or
Subjective (based on ones value judgement)
• In most cases it is better to use objective criteria to avoid one’s biases.
• However, practically speaking, it is very difficult to completely wipe out some elements
of subjectivity in your criteria.

Evidence

• Is all information (data) you have which will be used for comparison to the
criteria.
• There must be some kind of measurements in order to get the information (data).
• Measurement – is a process of assigning symbols to the information but which a
defining the quantity or quality.

Measurement scales include:

o nominal
o ordinal
o interval
o ratio

• Sources of evidence
(i) records (e.g. farm records)
(ii) observation
(iii) Surveys (e.g. interviews using questionnaires) etc.

Judgement
• Basically means coming up with some conclusions about the programme based on
criteria and evidence.

That is to say:
• if you have the standards (criteria),
• and you have the evidence (observations & measurements),

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• then you can compare to see which evidences have met the standards and which have not.

Objective judgement – are judgments made based on empirical evidence.

Subjective judgement – are judgements made based on personal biases.

(3) Evaluation is systematic rather than a haphazard process.

i.e. Depending on the purpose there must be:

o careful selection of criteria
o accurate observations and measurement
o careful comparison (observation Vs criteria),
before making judgements and recommendations.

Evaluation is the process by which the effectiveness of extension is assessed. It is more than
simply finding out what happened; it involves passing judgement on what happened. Was the
outcome of the programme good enough? Was it better or worse than expected? Could more
have been achieved?

Extension programmes are evaluated to (a) ascertain for the extension organization how well
agents perform, so that their suitability for promotion may be assessed; (b) satisfy the
government that public money spent on extension is being used effectively; and (c) permit the
agent to learn from what has happened.

Evaluation is a waste of time unless the results have an influence on future extension decisions.

Agents should, therefore, ask questions about the following aspects of the programme:

Results: What happened as a result of the- extension programme? Were they the results that
were expected, and were there any unexpected results?

Inputs: Were all the planned inputs available and, if not, why?

Levels of evaluation

• There are several levels of evaluation of extension programmes. At the most general
level, the effect of extension on agricultural production, family incomes and standards of
living can be evaluated
• However, extension is not the only factor that leads to higher production and living
standards; changes in prices and in the availability of inputs are two of the many
additional factors that affect the level of crop and of livestock production
• He/she should also observe who is benefiting from extension. Is a broad cross-section of
the farming population sharing the benefits, for example, or do one or two particular
groups benefit most?
• Did the extension activities take place in the planned sequence and at the right time?
• Did these activities lead to the expected results?

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• Finally, the agent can evaluate at the level of each extension activity. All extension
activities, such as demonstrations, talks or meetings with a farmers' group, have a
purpose. The agent should try to check, wherever possible, not only how well the activity
itself was conducted but whether the purpose was achieved.
• At all levels of evaluation, the agent needs to collect information to compare the situation
after the activity with the situation existing before.
• Some effects can be assessed much sooner than others. Immediately after a public
meeting, for example, the agent can talk to a few members of the audience and check
how clearly they understood what he was saying. Changes in behaviour, on the other
hand, will not happen at once and the agent must wait before checking these.

There are several ways of collecting information for evaluation at the village level.

Agent's reports: Whether or not a formal report of each extension activity is required from
agents by their extension officers, the agent should make some notes on each activity for his own
use, concentrating on his conduct of the activity and on points to note for future occasions.

Supervisors: It is not easy for an agent to assess how well he/she conducts an extension activity;
in particular, he cannot see himself/herself through the eyes of the farmers who attend. It is
useful, therefore, to have constructive comments from a supervisor or colleague.

Discussions: Informal discussion with farmers after the extension activity will reveal their
immediate reactions. It is often useful to record such discussions using a tape recorder for later
transcription and fuller analysis.

Questionnaires: Simple check-lists and questionnaires can be used when the agent has the time
and opportunity to carry out a more formal evaluation of extension activities

Observation: Where changes in farming practice are concerned, observation is an accurate

source of information. The agent can see whether or not his advice is being adopted on farms in
the area.

• Many extension organizations have their own formal procedures for evaluation
• Whatever the formal procedures in a particular organization, however, the agent should
think of evaluation as an attitude of mind. He/she should develop a readiness to ask what
happened, why it happened and how it could be done better in the future. In this way,
he/she will continue to learn and improve his/her extension work.

3.2 THE PROCESS OF EVALUATION

Involves certain sequential steps:

(1) You have to decide on what to evaluate
(2) Then set the criteria or standards
(3) Make observations and measurements
(4) Compare observations to criteria
(5) Make judgements and recommendations

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However, the evaluation process is a cyclical one, or in other words is a continuous process since
you have to make an evaluation of what you decided to implement as improvements following
the previous evaluation.

3. Make
obsevations and
measurements

4. Compare
2. Select criteria observations to
criteria

5. Make
1. Decide on judgements and
what to evaluate recommendatio
ns

Steps in the evaluation process

Conclusion
There are at least five major elements in most evaluations:

1. Focus questions
2. Objects or events to be evaluated
3. Data or evidence
4. Analysis and interpretation using judgement perspective.
5. Judgements, conclusions or findings.
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NOTE: Purpose and approaches/models will differ or may vary, but these elements will be
present in one form or the other.

3.3 WHY EVALUATE

In other-words we are asking ourselves why evaluation should be part and parcel of the
programme development.

(1) To improve existing programmes and to form a basis for planning future Programmes.

(2) To determine programme effectiveness and efficiency.

• Since resources are limited, programmes have to be implemented as efficiently as

possible. The rate of efficiency of a programme offers a basis for either modifying or
completely abandoning a program.

• It also helps to tell whether the set targets have been reached or not.

(3) Accountability

When resources are very limited it becomes necessary to justify the expenditure on a particular
programme. It is only through evaluation that you can justify this.

(4) To assess external factors that can affect the implementation, especially factors that cannot
be identified in advance.

• Without evaluation you cannot tell which extra factors affected the programme and which
ones for example forced the modification of the programme implementation.

(5) Evaluation is important as a learning process.

• While evaluating you can learn new principles or techniques.

• You can test new programming models to see how they work.
• In doing so you generate knowledge that can be used in future by yourself or others who
will have shared your experiences.

(6) Generally we can say evaluation sets a basis for our future decisions in all facets of the
programme.

3.4 MODELS OF EVALUATION

Choosing an approach or model for evaluation is an important aspect since for each there are
different assumptions about what data to collect, how to collect them and how to make
judgments about success or failure. The following major approaches can provide a sufficient
choice for most extension evaluation situations.

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3.4.1 Expert Evaluation Model

This approach relies on expert judgment. Usually documentation is prepared in advance of

experts’ visits. The expert then interviews, analyses documents and make judgments using their
own judgment perspectives or those set as standards by the outside organizations such as the
FAO or by stakeholders.

Analysis
• Documents (reports) prepared by officials responsible for implementation could be biased
• The expert could be having his/her own biases influenced by performances elsewhere
without taking into considerations the realities on ground.
• Standards set might not necessary work everywhere.

3.4.2 Goal-Free Evaluation Model

This approach assumes that outside evaluators do not know, or need to know what the
programme has intended to accomplish, but that is the task of the evaluators to uncover what is
actually happening relative to farmers’ interests regardless of stated goals and intentions.

The focus point is to identify environmental and farming conditions and then to compare these
needs with what people are actually experiencing as a result of the extension programme. The
gap is then viewed as the starting point for making changes in the programme.

This approach relies heavily on open-ended interviewing and observations by persons who do
not have a vested interest in the programme.

Analysis
• Farmer’s interests are indeed central to any programme, but that is not everything. We
need also to know how best did the process go, what kind of inputs were used and
efficiently they were used. What were the problems during implementation and how they
could have been rectified?

3.4.3 Attainment of Objectives Evaluation Model

This approach assumes that the success of a programme can be determined by measuring a
programme’s outcomes against its own goals or objectives. This type of evaluation begins with
clarifying measurable objectives and the gathering data that validate the extent to which these
objectives have been met.

Analysis
• If the attainment of objectives evaluation is anticipated, programmes are often tempted to
set goals so low that outcomes will be attained easily, thus appearing to be successful
while ignoring major challenges.

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• It tends to ignore the extension process, thereby failing to provide explanations for the
outcomes.
• It is possible to use internal experts as long as the objectives are well defined.

3.4.4 Management Decision Evaluation Model

The purpose of this model is to provide relevant information as a management tool to decision
makers. It assumes that evaluation should be geared to decisions during programme initiation
and operation stages to make results more relevant at each particular stage.

Participation of stakeholders is central to the process because evaluation should serve their
decisions. Sometimes cost effectiveness and operations monitoring are included.

Analysis
• There is a tendency for decisions of the major stakeholders to be viewed as more
important than those of various types of farmers especially women, unless special care is
taken.

3.4.5 Naturalistic Evaluation Model

The model assumes that the programme is a natural experiment and that the purpose of
evaluation is to understand how the programme is operating in its natural environment.

Data should be collected and analysed from multiple perspectives since the assumption is that
programmes are negotiated realities among the significant stakeholders and that the evaluation
serves this value laden negotiation.

The outcome of the evaluation is dialogue concerning disagreements about objectives,

expectations, problems, procedures, opportunities, policies and suggested changes in methods or
activities.

Analysis
• Many positive collaborative changes can be made through this model if conflict
resolution skills are combined with evaluation.

3.4.6 Experiment Evaluation Model

The purpose is to determine whether changes in programme outcomes were due to the
contributions of the programme and not just to life experiences or from other influences.

To be able to compare you need at least two groups where one receives educational treatment
and another not.

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Analysis
• Because of the nature of human subjects, the ethics of withholding educational services
and the difficulty of controlling for external influences it is extremely difficult to
operationalise this model.
• Can be used only when major changes are expected or a major failure is anticipated in
pilot efforts where causal claims are central to making major programme investments

3.4.7 Participatory Evaluation Model

The purpose of this model is for extension educators and farmers to initiate a critical reflection
process focussed on their own activities.

The model assumes a democratic participatory process along with autonomy on the part of
educators and learners.

This is the form of what is usually termed “participatory action research”.

Analysis
• People on the receiving end are ultimately the best judges of impact whether benefits
have been produced or not.
• Being involved will show farmers that they are regarded as responsible and not just
passive beneficiaries.
• It is self-educating process to all participants and encourages development of human
capacities especially among farmers.
• Can speed implementation when participants take greater ownership of the efforts.
• It is time consuming
• Farmers’ lack of experience may drag the process.
• Demands greater coordination skills.

3.4.8 The Logic Model for Program Planning and Evaluation

What is the Logic Model?

The model describes logical linkages among program resources, activities, outputs, audiences,
and short-, intermediate-, and long-term outcomes related to a specific problem or situation.
Once a program has been described in terms of the logic model, critical measures of performance
can be identified.

Logic models are narrative or graphical depictions of processes in real life that communicate the
underlying assumptions upon which an activity is expected to lead to a specific result.

Logic models illustrate a sequence of cause-and-effect relationships—a systems approach to

communicate the path toward a desired result. Logic models link the problem (situation) to the

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intervention (our inputs and outputs), and the impact (outcome). Further, the model helps to
identify partnerships critical to enhancing our performance.

Planning Process
The application of the logic model as a planning tool allows precise communication about the
purposes of a project, the components of a project, and the sequence of activities and
accomplishments. Further, a project originally designed with assessment in mind is much more
likely to yield beneficial data, should evaluation be desired.

Elements of the Logic Model

S INPUTS OUTPUTS OUTCOMES

I
T
U Short- Medium- Long-
A
T What we What we Who we Change in: Change in: Change in
I Invest! Do! Reach! situation:
O
N •time •workshops •Farmers •knowledge •behaviour •environment
•money •publications customers •skills •practices •social
•partners •field days •participants •attitude •policies conditions
•equipments •equipment etc. •motivation •procedure •economic
•facilities demonstration •awareness etc. conditions
etc s etc •political
etc conditions
External Influences, Environmental, Related Programs

We should begin building our logic model by asking questions in the following sequence.
1) What is the current situation that we intend to impact?
2) What will it look like when we achieve the desired situation or outcome?
3) What behaviours need to change for that outcome to be achieved?
4) What knowledge or skills do people need before the behaviour will change?
5) What activities need to be performed to cause the necessary learning?
6) What resources will be required to achieve the desired outcome?

Situation
The situation statement provides an opportunity to communicate the relevance of the project.
Characteristics that illustrate the relevance include:
• A statement of the problem, (What are the causes? What are the social, economic, and/or
environmental symptoms of the problem? What are the likely consequences if nothing is
done to resolve the problem? What are the actual or projected costs?);
• A description of who is affected by the problem (Where do they live, work, and shop?
How are they important to the community? Who depends on them–families, employees,
organizations?);

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• Who else is interested in the problem? Who are the stakeholders? What other projects
address this problem?
The situation statement establishes a baseline for comparison at the close of a program. A
description of the problem and its symptoms provides a way to determine whether change has
occurred. Describing who is affected by the problem allows assessment of who has benefited.
Identifying other stakeholders and programs builds a platform to measure our overall
contribution, including increased awareness and activity, or reduced concern and cost.

Inputs
Inputs include those things that we invest in a program or that we bring to bear on a program,
such as knowledge, skills, or expertise. Inputs that we need to communicate include:
• Human resources, such as time invested by faculty, staff, volunteers, partners, and local
people;
• Fiscal resources, including appropriated funds, special grants, donations, and user fees; •
other inputs required to support the program, such as facilities and equipment;
• Knowledge base for the program, including teaching materials, curriculum, research
results, certification or learning standards etc.
• Involvement of collaborators - local, state, national agencies and organizations involved
in planning, delivery, and evaluation.

Outputs
These are the first level of results associated with a programme or project. Outputs are those
things that we do (providing products, goods, and services to program customers) and the people
we reach (informed consumers, knowledgeable decision makers, farmers etc). Describing our
outputs allows us to establish linkages between the problem (situation) and the impact of the
program (intended outcomes). Outputs that help link what we do with program impact include:
• Publications such as articles, bulletins, fact sheets, handbooks, brochures, posters etc ;
• Teaching events such as workshops, field days, tours, short courses etc;
• Discovery and application activities, such as research plots, demonstration plots,
• The people we reach also are outputs of the program e.g. number of people who
participated in the seminar, workshop or short term training etc.

Outcomes
This is the second level of results associated with a programme or project Outcomes answer the
question “What happened as a result of the program?” Program outcomes can be short-term,
intermediate-term, or long-term. For example, in a safe water project, an outcome would be “the
percentage of households that are using chlorinated drinking water”.

Short-term outcomes of educational (extension) programs may include changes in:

• Awareness– farmers recognize the problem or issue;
• Knowledge– farmers understand the causes and potential solutions;
• Skills– farmers possess the skills needed to resolve the situation;
• Motivation– farmers have the desire to effect change;
• Attitude – farmers believe their actions can make a difference.

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Intermediate-term outcomes include changes that follow the short-term outcomes, such as
changes in:
• practices used by participants;
• behaviours exhibited by people or organizations;

Long-term outcomes (impact) follow intermediate-term outcomes when changed behaviours

result in changed conditions, such as:
• Improved economic conditions– increased income or financial stability;
• Improved social conditions– improved cooperation, improved livelihoods;
• Improved environmental conditions– improved air quality (from pollution) or reduced
erosion;
• Improved political conditions– improved participation in decision making processes.

External Influences
Institutional, community, and public policies may have either supporting or antagonistic effects
on many of our programs. Documenting the social, physical, political, and institutional
environments that can influence outcomes helps to improve the program planning process by
answering the following:
• Who are important partners/collaborators for the program?
• Which part(s) of the issue can this project realistically influence?
• What evaluation measures will accurately reflect project outcomes?
• What other needs must be met in order to address this issue?

3.5 THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH

3.5.1 What is Logical Framework Approach (LAF)?

• LFA is a systematic planning procedure for complete project cycle management

• It is a problem solving approach which takes into account the views of all stakeholders
• It also agrees on the criteria for project success and lists the major assumptions
• Developed in response to poor planning and monitoring of Development projects

The Logical Framework Approach

• The Logical Framework Approach is a set of interlocking concepts which must be used
together in a dynamic fashion to develop a well-designed, objectively-described and
evaluable project.
• Results of the process of using the Logical Framework concepts can be displayed in a 4 x
4 Matrix, providing a one-page, concise summary of major project elements and their
relationships to each other.

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Logical Framework
NARRATIVE OBJECTIVELY MEANS OF IMPORTANT
SUMMARY VERIFIABLE VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS
INDICATORS

Program Goal:

Project Purpose:

Outputs:

Inputs:
Activities

Example
NARRATIVE OBJECTIVELY MEANS OF IMPORTANT
SUMMARY VERIFIABLE VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS
INDICATORS
Program Goal: The Measure of Goal Concerning long-term value
broader objective to Achievement of program/project
which this project
contributes:
Farm Income Increased
Project Purpose: Conditions that will Affecting purpose to goal
Production Increased. indicate purpose has link:
been achieved: End 1. Prices remain stable.
of project status. 2. Transport facilities
adequate.
3. Storage facilities exist.
Outputs: Magnitude of Affecting output to purpose
1. Fertilizers and HYV outputs necessary link:
seed distribution system and sufficient to 1. Fertilizer used where
in place. achieve purpose. needed.
2. Farmers trained. 2. Rainfall supply adequate:
3. Credit system in place. [Improved assumption:
2. 10 inches of rain will fall
between May and October
each year.]

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Inputs: Activities and Level of Affecting input to output
Types of Resources Effort/Expenditure link:
1a. Design distribution for each activity. 1. Farmers receptive to new
system. methods.
b. Construct storage 2. Fertilizer prices remain
facilities. stable.
c. Training staff.
2a. Recruit farmers.
b. Develop training
facilities and materials.
c. Conduct training.
3a. Hire credit specialist.
b. Develop system
procedures.
c. Train staff

3.5.2 LOGFRAME MATRIX

Log-frame matrix serves the following functions:

• A tool for planning a logical set of interventions
• A tool for appraising a Programme document
• A concise summary of the Programme
• A tool for monitoring progress made with regard to delivery of outputs and activities
• A tool for evaluating impact of Programme outputs, i.e. progress in achieving purpose
and goal.

Overview of the Logical Framework Approach

To simplify programs we first recognize that there are three basic levels of responsibility:
• Inputs – the resources we consume and activities we undertake.
• Outputs – the things we are committed to produce. These must be stated as results.
• Purpose – the reason we are producing the outputs; if our outputs are products, then our
purpose may be profit. If our outputs are social services, then our purpose might be
improvement in the quality of life of a target population
• Goal - The higher-level objective immediately above project purpose. Goal thus relates
our project aspirations.

Hierarchy of Project Objectives

• The Logical Framework breaks a project down into four separate and distinct levels of
objectives.
• At the lowest level are the Project Inputs. These are the activities to be undertaken that
will in turn result in the second level of objectives that we call the Outputs.
• Outputs are the results that are directly accomplished by management of the inputs.
• The purpose is what we expect to result from having achieved the outputs.
• The fourth level in the Logical Framework is a higher order objective called the Goal.
The project is one of the necessary conditions for achieving this goal,

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3.5.3 KEY FEATURES OF LOGFRAME MATRIX

• The LOGFRAME MATRIX is a participatory Planning, Monitoring & Evaluation tool

whose power depends on the degree to which it incorporates the full range of views of
intended beneficiaries and others who have a stake in the programme design.
• It is a tool for summarizing the key features of a programme and is best used to help
programme designers and stakeholders
• Develops a common understanding of the expectations of a programme by outlining a
hierarchy of aims;
• Defines indicators of success and establishes criteria for monitoring and evaluation;
• Defines critical assumptions on which the programme is based; and
• Identify means of verifying programme accomplishments

The Hierarch of Aims (intervention logic)

• The GOAL is a bottom line condition of well-being of individuals, families, or

communities. It is usually described in terms of quality of life improvement towards
which the programme will contribute
• The PURPOSE is the effect which is expected to be achieved as a result of the project.
• The OUTPUTS are the deliverables through which the purpose will be achieved.
• The ACTIVITIES are the main elements/components of the projects through which the
outputs are achieved.

3.5.4 OBJECTIVELY VERIFIABLE INDICATORS (OVI)

• Indicators must be valid, reliable, precise, cost-effective and stated independently from
other levels.
• Indicators should make clear how the target group will benefit from the realisation of
outputs.
• Indicators should be specific in terms of:
✓ Quality (what?) - Q
✓ Quantity (how much?)- Q
✓ Time (when, how long?) - T
✓ Target Group (who?) - T
✓ Place (where?) - P

Objectively Verifiable Indicators (Quantity & Quality) Example

• Indicator -Increased Rice production

• Quantity - increased from 15 bags/acre to 30 bags/acre
• Quality – farmers using improved seed increased from 30% to 60%
• time - Increased from15 bags/acre to 30 bags/acre by 2025
• Place – Mvomero District

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Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI)

The process of defining indicators forces us to clarify our objectives. A good indicator at this
level is:
a. Plausible measuring what is important in the project
b. Attributable measuring changes caused by the project
c. Cost-effective involving data that may be collected and analyzed inexpensively
d. Independent not inherent to the project
e. Targeted how much.., what kind of.., by when
f. Verifiable to reach agreement
• The GOAL: OVI measures (direct or indirect) to verify to what extent the goal has been
achieved.
• The PURPOSE: OVI measures (direct or indirect) to verify to what extent the purpose
has been fulfilled.
• The OUTPUTS: OVI measures (direct or indirect) to verify to what extent the outputs
are produced
• The ACTIVITIES (INPUTS): Goods, people and services necessary to undertake the
activities.
• OVIs are quantitative, qualitative, and time-bound measures that constitute evidence of
the extent to which the aims at all four levels have been met. They:
• Indicate how to recognize success at each level
• Assist to refine and clarify aims (Goal to Activity)
• Facilitate monitoring and take remedial actions if required.
• Facilitates programme evaluation to determine delivery of outputs and progress made in
achieving purpose and goal.

3.5.5 ASSUMPTIONS AND PRECONDITIONS (AP)

• APs are:
• Important events, conditions or decisions outside the control of the project which must
prevail for the GOAL to be realized.
• Important events, conditions or decisions outside the control of the project management
necessary for the achievement of the PURPOSE.
• Important events, conditions or decisions outside the control of the project management
necessary for the production of OUTPUTS.
• Important events, conditions or decisions outside the control of the project management
necessary for the START of the project.

3.5.6 MEANS OF VERIFICATION (MOV)

• The source of DATA necessary to verify status of Goal level indicators.

• The source of DATA necessary to verify status of Purpose level indicators.
• The source of DATA necessary to verify status of Output level indicators.
• The source of DATA necessary to verify status of Activity level indicators.

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3.5.7 ASSUMPTIONS AND RISKS

• Assumptions and risks are external conditions that are outside the control of the
programme. The achievement of aims depends on whether or not assumptions hold true
and the risks do not materialize.
• The sufficient conditions between the levels in the hierarchy of aims are the
Assumptions. This is the external logic of the programme.
• Log-frame demands that all hypotheses, assumptions and risks relevant to a programme
are made explicit.

• Fill the first column downwards (from the goal to the inputs)
• Move to the fourth column on assumptions and (fill it from bottom upwards)
• Then column two and lastly column three.

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3.6 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF PARTICIPATION IN EVALUATION

3.6.1 Benefits

• Involving people on the receiving end is likely to assure the most efficient allocation of
resources and an early identification of ineffective or wasteful use of resources.
• The beneficiaries are ultimately the best people to judge the impact, whether benefits
have been produced or not.
• Being included in the planning, implementation and evaluation will show farmers that
they are regarded as responsible and capable individuals and not simply beneficiaries.
• It can encourage development of human capacities among farmers and empowerment.
• Can increase sustainability in agricultural development.

3.6.2 Limitations

• Lack of experience on the part of farmers can drag the process. However that shouldn’t
be the reason to abandon participation.

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• Lack of resources and organisational skills to implement a participatory process.
• Organizations tend to feel threatened by people’s participation.

3.6.3 Levels of Participation

Level 1:
Farmers provide data and evidence of their achievements along with their reactions to extension
without being involved in planning evaluation efforts.

Level 2:
Farmers receive information, evaluation summaries, feedback on extension performance from
extension staff but they are not asked to react.

Level 3:
Farmers receive evaluation results and other information from extension staff and are asked to
give reactions and recommendations for improving extension processes and resources.

Level 4:
Farmers carry out evaluation of extension in cooperation with extension managers and make
decisions regarding changes in providing extension services.

Level 5:
Farmers conduct their own evaluation of extension independently of extension and report their
findings to policy makers.

How much participation should farmers have?

Experience has shown that farmers in many extension programmes have participated in the
evaluation of extension through farmer associations and committees. However, the most
important thing is that farmers have to be involved as much as possible.

For example, Levels 1 and 2 above can be characterised as pseudo participation because they
represent paternalism on the part of extension.

Levels 3 and above can be characterised as genuine participation because they represent
collaborative or empowering relationships.

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