RAPID PROTOTYPING

Principles and Applications

RAFIQ NOORANI, Ph.D.

Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Loyola Marymount University
Los Angeles, CA

WILEY
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
CONTENTS

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
About the Author xxi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 World of RP 2
1.2.1 What Is RP? 2
1.2.2 Basic Process 4
1.2.3 Industries Using RP 5
1.2.4 Growth of RP 5
1.2.5 Installations by Countries 9
1.2.6 Technology Development 9
1.3 History of RP 9
1.3.1 Early History 10
1.3.2 Early Solid Freeform Fabrication 12
1.3.3 Commercial Development 14
1.3.4 Chronology of RP Development 14
1.4 Development of RP Systems 14
1.4.1 3D Systems' Stereolithography Process 14
1.4.2 3D Systems'Selective Laser Sintering 17
1.4.3 Helisys'Laminated Object Manufacturing 17
vi CONTENTS

1.4.4 Stratasys' Fused Deposition Modeling 19

1.4.5 Solidscape's 3D Printing 20
1.5 Applications in Education and Industry 21
1.5.1 Application in Product Development 21
1.5.2 Application in Reverse Engineering 23
1.5.3 Application in Casting and Pattern Making 24
1.5.4 Application in Rapid Tooling 26
1.5.5 . Application in Medicine 26
1.5.6 Application in Rapid Manufacturing 27
1.6 Case Study: Fabricating a Prototype Using 3D Printing 28
1.7 Summary 30
Problems 32
References 32
2 Principles of Rapid Prototyping 34
2.1 Principles of Automated Processes 34
2.2 RP Fundamentals 36
2.2.1 Creation of Solid Models 36
2.2.2 Conversion to STL File 37
2.2.3 Slicing the File 43
2.2.4 Making or "Growing" the Prototype 43
2.2.5 Postprocessing 44
2.3 Problems with STL File Format 46
2.4 Other Translators 48
2.5 Case Study: Designing and Prototyping a Spur Gear 50
2.5.1 Introduction 50
2.5.2 Project Procedure 51
2.6 Summary 53
Problems 54
References 56
3 Liquid-Based RP Systems 57
3.1 Classification of RP Systems 57
3.1.1 Liquid-Based Systems 57
3.1.2 Solid-Based Systems 58
3.1.3 Powder-Based Systems 58
CONTENTS vii

3.2 3D Systems' Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) 58

3.2.1 Company Profile 58
3.2.2 Details of Stereolithography ("SL") Process 59
3.2.3 SLA Systems 68
3.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 72
3.2.5 Applications and Uses 72
3.3 D-MEC's Solid Creation System 72
3.3.1 Company Profile 72
3.3.2 Solid Creation System 73
3.3.3 Products 73
3.3.4 D-MEC Modeling 76
3.4 CMET Solid Object UV Laser Plotter 77
3.4.1 Company Profile 77
3.4.2 SOUP Process 77
3.4.3 SOUP Machines 77
3.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 78
3.5 Summary 78
Problems 79
References 79
4 Solid-Based RP Systems 80
4.1 Stratasys' Fused Deposition Modeling Systems 80
4.1.1 Company Profile 80
4.1.2 Principles 81
4.1.3 Process 84
4.1.4 Products 85
4.1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 90
4.1.6 Applications and Uses 92
4.2 Helysis Laminated Object Manufacturing System 93
4.2.1 Company Profile 93
4.2.2 Principles 94
4.2.3 Process 94
4.2.4 Products 94
4.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 94
4.2.6 Applications and Uses 95
4.3 Solidscape's 3D Printing and Deposition Milling 96
4.3.1 Company Profile 96
4.3.2 Principles of Solidscape Prototyping 96
4.3.3 Process 96
4.3.4 Products 97
vm CONTENTS

4.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 98

4.3.6 Applications 100
4.4 3D Systems' Multijet Modeling System 100
4.4.1 Company Profile 100
4.4.2 Principles 100
4.4.3 Process 100
4.4.4 Products 101
4.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 101
4.4.6 Applications and Uses 102
4.5 KIRA's Selective Adhesive and Hot Pass (SAHP)
System 102
4.5.1 Company Profile 102
4.5.2 Principles 102
4.5.3 Process 102
4.5.4 Products 105
4.5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 105
4.5.6 Applications and Uses 105
4.6 Summary 105
Problems 106
References 106

5 Powder-Based RP Systems 108

5.1 3D Systems'Selective Laser Sintering 108
5.1.1 Company Profile 108
5.1.2 Principles of SLS Process 108
5.1.3 Principles of Sinter Bonding 109
5.1.4 Process 110
5.1.5 Laser Sintering ("LS") Materials 111
5.1.6 Products 112
5.1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 114
5.1.8 Applications and Uses 115
5.2 MIT's Three-Dimensional Printing 117
5.2.1 Institution 117
5.2.2 Process 118
5.2.3 Major Applications 119
5.2.4 Research and Development 120
5.3 Z Corporation's Process (Z406 System) 121
5.3.1 Company Profile 121
5.3.2 Process 121
CONTENTS ix

5.4 Soligen's Direct Shell Production Casting 125

5.4.1 Company Profile 125
5.4.2 Model and Specifications 127
5.4.3 Key Strengths 127
5.4.4 Process 129
5.4.5 Applications and Uses 131
5.4.6 Case Studies 133
5.4.7 Research and Development 133
5.5 EOS's Laser Sintering Systems 133
5.5.1 Company Profile 133
5.5.2 Models and Specifications 134
5.5.3 Laser Sintering Process 139
5.5.4 Applications and Uses 139
5.6 e-Manufacturing using Laser Sintering 140
5.6.1 Introduction 140
5.6.2 Customized Plastic Parts 141
5.6.3 Customized Metal Parts 149
5.6.4 e-Manufacturing in a Brief 153
5.7 Summary 154
Problems 155
References 155
6 Materials for Rapid Prototyping 156
6.1 Introduction 156
6.1.1 Nature of Materials 157
6.1.2 Chemical Bonding and Structure 159
6.2 Types of Materials 162
6.2.1 Polymers 162
6.2.2 Metals 168
6.2.3 Ceramics 173
6.2.4 Composites 176
6.3 Liquid-Based Materials 177
6.3.1 Photopolymer Development 177
6.3.2 Photopolymer Chemistry 177
6.4 Solid-Based Materials 181
6.4.1 Polymers 181
6.4.2 Metals 183
6.4.3 Composites 185
6.5 Powder-Based Materials 186
i CONTENTS

6.5.1 Polymers 186

6.5.2 Metals 190
6.5.3 Ceramics 193
6.6 Case Study 194
6.7 Summary 195
Problems 196
References 197
7 Reverse Engineering 199
7.1 Introduction 199
7.2 Measuring Devices 201
7.2.1 Overview 201
7.2.2 Contact-Type Measuring Devices 202
7.2.3 Non-Contact-Type Measuring Devices 203
7.3 CAD Model Construction from Point Clouds 209
7.3.1 Preprocessing 210
7.3.2 Point Clouds to Surface Model Creation 213
7.3.3 Medical Data Processing 216
7.4 Data-Handling and Reduction Methods 221
7.4.1 Uniform-Grid Method 221
7.4.2 Nonuniform-Grid Method 222
7.4.3 Three-Dimensional Grid Methods 226
7.5 Applications and Trends 231
7.5.1 Applications 231
7.5.2 Future Trends 233
7.6 Case Study 234
7.6.1 Introduction 234
7.6.2 Methodology 235
7.6.3 Bronze Cast of OVG 237
7.7 Summary 239
Problems 239
References 241
8 Rapid Tooling 243
8.1 Introduction 243
8.2 Indirect Methods of RT 244
CONTENTS xi

8.2.1 Room Temperature Vulcanizing Silicone Rubber

Molds 246
8.2.2 Spray Metal Tooling 247
8.2.3 Sprayed Steel 249
8.2.4 Cast Aluminum and Zinc Kirksite Tooling 250
8.2.5 Three-Dimensional Keltool 250
8.2.6 Vacuum Casting 251
8.2.7 Reaction Injection Molding 252
8.2.8 Wax Injection Molding 252
8.2.9 Spin Casting 252
8.2.10 Cast Resin Tooling 253
8.2.11 Rapid Solidification Process 253
8.2.12 Plaster Molds 254
8.2.13 Electroforming 254
8.2.14 Investment Cast Tooling 255
8.3 Direct Methods of RT 256
8.3.1 Direct ACES Injection Molding Tooling 256
8.3.2 Copper Polyamide Tooling 258
8.3.3 Direct Metal Laser Sintering 258
8.3.4 Selective Laser Sintering RapidSteel 259
8.3.5 Laminated Tooling 260
8.3.6 Laser Engineered Net Shaping 260
8.3.7 Controlled Metal Buildup 261
8.3.8 Prometal 261
8.4 Case Study: Sheet-Metal Forming by RT 262
8.4.1 Forming Technologies 262
8.4.2 Stereolithography Process 263
8.4.3 Fused Deposition Modeling 265
8.4.4 Laminated Object Modeling 266
8.4.5 Research Results 266
8.5 Summary 267
Problems 267
References 268
9 Medical Applications in Rapid Prototyping 269
9.1 Introduction 269
9.2 Medical Applications of RP 270
9.2.1 Presurgical Planning Models 270
9.2.2 Mechanical Bone Replicas 270
9.2.3 Teaching Aids and Simulators 270
9.2.4 Customized Surgical Implants 271
xii CONTENTS

9.2.5 Prosthetics and Othotics 271

9.2.6 Anthropology 271
9.2.7 Forensics 272
9.3 Types of Medical Imaging 272
9.3.1 X-Ray Technology 273
9.3.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 275
9.3.3 Computed Tomography 276
9.4 Software for Making Medical Models 278
9.4.1 MIMICS and the CT Modeler System 278
9.4.2 Velocity2Pro Software by Image3 280
9.4.3 3D-Doctor from Able Software 281
9.4.4 VoXim 281
9.5 Medical Materials 282
9.6 Other Applications 284
9.6.1 Anthropology 284
9.6.2 Biology and Chemistry 285
9.7 Summary 285
Problems 286
References 287
10 Industry Perspectives 288
10.1 Guidelines for Implementation 288
10.1.1 Purchasing Decisions 288
10.1.2 Facilities Planning 289
10.1.3 Environmental Issues 290
10.2 Operating Issues 291
10.2.1 Cost Analysis 291
10.2.2 Training of Personnel 293
10.2.3 Maintenance Costs 294
10.3 Managing Issues 294
10.3.1 Integrating Technology Within the Company 294
10.3.2 Productivity Advantage 295
10.3.3 Lean Production 297
10.4 Service Bureaus 299
10.4.1 What Is a Service Bureau? 300
10.4.2 Reasons for Using Service Bureaus 301
10.4.3 Factors in Choosing a Service Bureau 303
10.5 Rapid Prototyping Consortia 304
10.5.1 Benefits in Consortia Affiliation 304
CONTENTS xiii

10.5.2 University-Industry Consortia 305

10.5.3 Industry-Industry Consortia 306
10.6 Present and Future Trends 306
10.7 Summary 308
Problems 309
References 309
11 Research and Development 310
11.1 Improvement of FDM Process Using Design of
Experiment 310
11.1.1 Abstract 310
11.1.2 Introduction 311
11.1.3 Design of Experiments 312
11.1.4 Selection of Build Parameters 314
11.1.5 Experimental Method 315
11.1.6 Results and Analysis of DOE 318
11.1.7 Factor Analysis and Physical Interpretation 321
11.1.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 324
11.2 Improvement of Part Accuracy 324
.2.1 Abstract 324
.2.2 Introduction 325
.2.3 Theory and Analysis 326
.2.4 Results and Data Analysis 329
.2.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 334
11.3 Effects of Cryogenic Processing on RP Materials 334
.3.1 Abstract 334
.3.2 Introduction 335
.3.3 Background 335
11.3.4 Experimental Procedure 336
11.3.5 Results and Discussion 339
11.3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 341
11.4 New Technologies 344
11.4.1 Laser Engineered Net Shaping 344
11.4.2 Solidica 345
11.4.3 On Demand Manufacturing 346
11.4.4 Direct Material Deposition: OPTOMEC 346
11.5 Summary 348
Problems 349
References 350