Review

Progress in Construction Robot Path-Planning

Algorithms: Review
Shichen Fu 1, * , Detao Yang 1 , Zenghui Mei 1 and Weixiong Zheng 2

1 School of Mechanical-Electronic and Vehicle Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, Beijing 102616, China; [email protected] (D.Y.);
[email protected] (Z.M.)
2 Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Energy
and Power Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100089, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Construction robots are increasingly becoming a significant force in the digital
transformation and intelligent upgrading of the construction industry. Path planning is
crucial for the advancement of building robot technology. Based on the understanding of
construction site information, this paper categorizes path-planning algorithms into two
types: global path-planning and local path-planning. Local path planning is further divided
into classical algorithms, intelligent algorithms, and reinforcement learning algorithms.
Using this classification framework, this paper summarizes the latest research develop-
ments in path-planning algorithms, analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of various
algorithms, introduces several optimization strategies, and presents the results of these
optimizations. Furthermore, common environmental modeling methods, path quality
evaluation criteria, commonly used sensors for robots, and the future development of
path-planning technologies in swarm-based construction robots are also discussed. Finally,
this paper explores future development trends in the field. The aim is to provide references
for related research, enhance the path-planning capabilities of construction robots, and
promote the intelligent development of the construction industry.

Keywords: path-planning; construction robots; environmental modeling; optimization

criteria

Received: 28 November 2024

Revised: 12 January 2025 1. Introduction
Accepted: 22 January 2025 The data indicate that the aging population in China significantly impacts the age
Published: 24 January 2025
distribution of construction workers. As workers grow older, many find themselves unable
Citation: Fu, S.; Yang, D.; Mei, Z.; to perform high-intensity physical tasks. This prevalent aging trend in the workforce results
Zheng, W. Progress in Construction
in a depletion of human resources and intensifies labor shortages within the industry [1].
Robot Path-Planning Algorithms:
Review. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165.
In response to the challenges faced by traditional construction practices and to align with
https://doi.org/10.3390/ contemporary trends, the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development (Beijing,
app15031165 China), along with other relevant agencies, has advocated for the enhanced utilization
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
of construction robots. This initiative aims to foster the intelligent advancement of the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. construction sector and facilitate its transformation and upgrading [2]. Currently, robotic
This article is an open access article technologies find extensive applications across various engineering disciplines, including
distributed under the terms and coal mining [3–5], agriculture [6,7], healthcare [8], military [9], and autonomous driving [10].
conditions of the Creative Commons With the rise of intelligent construction technologies, the integration of construction robots
Attribution (CC BY) license
has emerged as a promising avenue for the sector’s evolution. Intelligent construction
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).
seeks to achieve automation, intelligence, and digitization in production and construction

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031165

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 2 of 27

processes, necessitating the use of integrated intelligent equipment such as robots. In recent
years, mechanized and automated construction models have been progressively adopted
in the industry, leading to the development and deployment of specialized construction
robots. These robots are defined as machines capable of executing construction tasks
either autonomously or semi-autonomously, following pre-defined programming. By
addressing labor shortages, construction robots not only enhance operational efficiency but
also improve the quality of work within the construction industry [11,12]. Compared to
industrial robots, the history of construction robots is relatively short. The development
of construction robots originated in Japan in the 1970s. In 1982, a fire-resistant material
spraying robot (Shimizu Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) developed by the Japanese Shimizu
Corporation (Tokyo, Japan) was successfully used on a construction site, marking the
world’s first construction robot to be successfully applied. From the 1980s to the 1990s, with
the development of robotic technology and increased investment from the United States,
Europe, and others, the types of construction robots began to diversify and evolve towards
automation and intelligence. In the 21st century, the scope of work for construction robots
has expanded, gradually moving from traditional construction and construction fields
towards demolition, building maintenance, and other areas. After 2010, the development
and application of technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine vision, and 3D
printing significantly advanced the field of construction robotics. This progress led to
the emergence of new types of construction robots capable of autonomous navigation,
decision-making, and precise construction tasks—for example, the exterior wall cleaning
robot called GEKKO (GEKKO GmbH, Ostfildern, Germany) by the (Ostfildern, Germany).
The development and application of these construction robots have made it possible for
humans to be relieved from hard and dangerous construction work. Figure 1 shows the
development process of construction robots.
Construction robots are divided into two categories: construction robots in the field
of civil engineering (CRCE) and construction robots in the field of building construction
(CRBE). The primary difference between the two lies in their construction scenarios. CRCE
is mainly used for infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams. In
contrast, CRBE is applied to housing construction, including residential buildings, office
buildings, and commercial complexes.
CRCE typically handles large-scale operations, such as earthmoving, foundation
treatment, concrete pouring, and steel structure installation. These robots require powerful
performance and stability to operate in complex terrains and harsh environments. However,
the degree of automation in CRCE is relatively lower compared to CRBE, often relying
more on manual control. Common examples of CRCE include excavation robots, concrete
spraying robots, and tunnel boring machines.
On the other hand, CRBE focuses on indoor precision tasks, such as bricklaying,
wall treatment, decoration, and pipe installation. These robots demand high precision
and flexibility to adapt to complex building structures and diverse construction needs.
As a result, CRBE often achieves fully automated operations. Typical examples include
bricklaying robots, wall spraying robots, and 3D printing construction robots.
Path planning is crucial for advancing autonomous navigation technology in construc-
tion robots and has become a significant topic in academic research. When constructing
roads, bridges, and other large structures, CRCE robots often operate in environments with
narrow roads, steep slopes, and many curves. Additionally, many remote areas have weak
or no mobile communication signals, although the on-site environment remains relatively
stable. Therefore, these robots can rely on offline global path-planning algorithms, such as
A* and Dijkstra, for autonomous navigation.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 3 of 27

2000–2010s 2010–
1970–1980s The application of artificial
Construction robots are
Architectural robots were extending from traditional intelligence, machine vision ,and
construction to areas such other technologies has promoted
first developed by Japan, Hilti Jaibot Construction as demolition and the development of construction
with Shimizu Corporation Drilling Robot robots in the direction of
maintenance, with
applying the world's first companies in China, intelligence, and construction
construction robot SSR-1 nLink
Singapore, and other robots that can make
Drilling
in 1982. countries beginning to independent decisions and adapt
Robot
develop in this field. to complex environments.

1990–2000s
During this period,
construction robots
developed towards
diversification and
specialization. At the same
time, many companies in Shanghai Construction Hadrian X bricklaying robot
Europe and America are Machinery Masonry Robot
Facade coating Robot
joining the race for
research and development
and manufacturing of
construction robots,such
as American Construction
Robotics, Australian
Shimizu Corporation Fastbrick Robotics, Suzhou Fangshi Technology HC1018 Intelligent Building
Material Spraying Robot Norwegian nLink, etc. floor leveling robot 3D Printing Robot

Figure 1. Overview of construction robots.

Figure 1. Overview of construction robots.

In contrast, CRBE robots working in residential and office buildings face different
Construction robots are divided into two categories: construction robots in the field
room layouts, significant structural variations, and the presence of moving workers. These
of civil engineering (CRCE) and construction robots in the field of building construction
factors make it challenging to obtain a stable and reliable map in advance. However, since
(CRBE). The primary difference between the two lies in their construction scenarios. CRCE
these work sites are usually located near urban areas, mobile communication resources are
is mainly used for infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams. In
readily available. As a result, CRBE robots can use sensors to gather real-time environmental
contrast, CRBE is applied to housing construction, including residential buildings, office
information and plan their next moves using local path-planning algorithms.
buildings, and commercial complexes.
Local path-planning algorithms are further divided into classical and intelligent algo-
CRCE typically handles large-scale operations, such as earthmoving, foundation
rithms based on their principles. Classical algorithms, such as the Artificial Potential Field
treatment, concrete pouring, and steel structure installation. These robots require power-
(APF) and Dynamic Window Approach (DWA), use mathematical models or predefined
ful performance and stability to operate in complex terrains and harsh environments.
rules for path planning. These algorithms are suitable for helping construction robots
However, the degree of automation in CRCE is relatively lower compared to CRBE, often
complete simple path-planning tasks.
relying more on manual control. Common examples of CRCE include excavation robots,
Intelligent algorithms, compared to classical algorithms, integrate technologies related
concrete spraying robots, and tunnel boring machines.
to artificial intelligence and machine learning. These algorithms offer superior learning and
On the other hand, CRBE focuses on indoor precision tasks, such as bricklaying, wall
adaptability, making them suitable for high-dimensional and complex environments. How-
treatment, decoration, and pipe installation. These robots demand high precision and flex-
ever, they are more complex to implement and require significant computational resources.
ibility to adapt to complex building structures and diverse construction needs. As a result,
Common examples include Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO),
CRBE often achieves fully automated operations. Typical examples include bricklaying
and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO).
robots, wall spraying robots, and 3D printing construction robots.
Alternatively, Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) techniques can be employed,
Path planning is crucial for advancing autonomous navigation technology in con-
enabling robots to learn and adapt to their surroundings autonomously without the need
struction robots and has become a significant topic in academic research. When construct-
for a pre-defined map. These algorithms, however, demand a large amount of raw data
ing roads, bridges, and other large structures, CRCE robots often operate in environments
and substantial computational power. Examples of DRL algorithms include Q-learning
with narrow roads, steep slopes, and many curves. Additionally, many remote areas have
and Monte Carlo Methods.
weak or no mobile communication signals, although the on-site environment remains rel-
This article categorizes the surveyed path-planning algorithms, as illustrated in
atively stable. Therefore, these robots can rely on offline global path-planning algorithms,
Figure 2, based on the aforementioned rationale. It reviews commonly used algorithms in
such as A* and Dijkstra, for autonomous navigation.
for a pre-defined map. These algorithms, however, demand a large amount of raw data
and substantial computational power. Examples of DRL algorithms include Q-learning
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 and Monte Carlo Methods. 4 of 27
This article categorizes the surveyed path-planning algorithms, as illustrated in Fig-
ure 2, based on the aforementioned rationale. It reviews commonly used algorithms in the
field
the of of
field pathpathplanning
planning from
fromrecent
recentyears,
years,analyzes
analyzestheir
their advantages disadvantages,
advantages and disadvantages,
andsummarizes
and summarizesimprovement
improvementstrategies.
strategies. Additionally,
Additionally, itit provides
providesinsights
insightsinto
intofuture
future
trendsininbuilding
trends buildingrobot
robotpath-planning.
path-planning.TheTheaim
aimofofthis
thisstudy
studyisisto
tooffer
offeraacomprehensive
comprehensive
referencefor
reference forrelated
related research,
research, enhance
enhance thethe path-planning
path-planning capabilities
capabilities of construction
of construction ro-
robots,
bots,
and and promote
promote the intelligent
the intelligent development
development of the construction
of the construction industry.
industry.

A* Algorithm
Gobal
path Djikstra
planning
RRT algorithm
APF Algorithm
Classic
Construction algorithms Dynamic Window Approach
robots
Path Genetic Algorithm
planning
Intelligent Particle Swarm
algorithm Optimization
Ant Colony Algorithm
Local Deep
path Reinforcement Q-learning
planning Learning
Algorithm Monte Carlo Methods

Figure2.2.Path
Figure Pathplanning
planningalgorithm
algorithmclassification.
classification.

The data sources for this article include the library database of Beijing University
The data sources for this article include the library database of Beijing University of
of Civil Engineering and Architecture and Google Scholar. The search keywords were:
Civil Engineering and Architecture and Google Scholar. The search keywords were: “al-
“algorithm name”, “robot path-planning”, and “specific improvement strategies” (e.g., path
gorithm name”, “robot path-planning”, and “specific improvement strategies” (e.g., path
quality, obstacle avoidance), with a publication year range of 2018–2024. The primary goal
of construction robot path planning is to ensure safety, encompassing both the robot itself
and personnel, followed by improving work efficiency to reduce costs.
The inclusion criteria for this study are as follows: Articles published between 2018
and 2024 that focus on improving mobile robot path-planning algorithms in terms of search
speed, path smoothness, and obstacle avoidance. Additionally, articles addressing inherent
defects of the algorithms were included, with preference given to those incorporating
mathematical foundations and experimental results. Comparative studies were prioritized
during the selection process.
The screening process involved two main steps. First, relevant research papers were
collected through keyword searches. Second, the articles were screened based on the
aforementioned criteria, prioritizing those with higher impact factors or those utilizing a
combination of multiple algorithms. The final selection was based on full-text reading to
ensure relevance and quality.
The structure of this article is as follows: Section 2 introduces common methods for
environmental modeling and path quality evaluation criteria. Section 3 presents global path-
planning algorithms, and Section 4 introduces local path-planning algorithms. Section 5
summarizes the algorithms mentioned above in a table, Section 6 discusses the future
development of path-planning technology in swarm construction robots, and Section 7 is
the conclusion.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 5 of 27

2. Environmental Modeling and Path Quality Assessment Standards

Mobile construction robots typically follow these steps during autonomous navigation:
1. Environmental Modeling:
For CRBE (Construction Robots in the field of Building Construction), environ-
mental modeling is usually based on the Building Information Model (BIM) of the
construction robot [13–15]. In contrast, CRCE (Construction Robots in the field of
Civil Engineering) builds models based on known maps and various sensors to obtain
environmental information.
2. Decision Making:
After acquiring environmental information, the navigation system of the construction
robot initiates the decision-making process to determine the optimal movement path. This
process typically employs path-planning algorithms to analyze the environmental model
and the robot’s state, thereby generating optimal action decisions.
3. Motion Control:
The control module of the construction robot converts the generated decisions into
motion instructions, enabling the robot to move along the planned path.

2.1. Environmental Modeling

The core of environmental modeling lies in the systematic organization and application
of the known environment. A well-designed environmental model can significantly aid
mobile robots in pathfinding. Typically, there are four main methods for constructing
environmental models: geometric models (GM), topological maps (TM), grid cell models
(GCM), and metric representations (MR) [16–20].

2.1.1. Grid Method (GM)

In 1968, Hodan proposed the concept of the Grid Map (GM), which divides the op-
erational space of mobile robots into uniformly sized network cells that represent binary
information. When the grid is devoid of obstacles, it is classified as a free grid, permitting
unrestricted movement for the mobile robot. In contrast, the presence of obstacles desig-
nates it as an obstacle grid. If the obstacles do not completely fill the grid area, an expansion
technique is applied to ensure that they occupy the entire grid space. The dimensions of
each grid cell are determined by the actual size of the construction robot.

2.1.2. Topological Methods (TM)

The TM environmental modeling method uses nodes to represent specific locations and
edges to show connections between these points. This method disregards the precise shape
of the environment, instead using points and lines to depict important locations in space and
their interconnections. By focusing on the connectivity of paths, this approach is particularly
suitable for complex, large-scale environments, such as mountainous terrain [21].
Voronoi diagrams are commonly used to depict this type of environmental model. A
Voronoi diagram divides the plane into different regions, each of which is called a Voronoi
cell or Voronoi polygon. Each Voronoi cell is associated with a particular point, known as a
seed point or generator. Any point within the cell is closer to its corresponding seed point
than to any other seed point. See Figure 3.
Voronoi diagrams are commonly used to depict this type of environmental model. A
Voronoi diagram divides the plane into different regions, each of which is called a Voronoi
cell or Voronoi polygon. Each Voronoi cell is associated with a particular point, known as
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 a seed point or generator. Any point within the cell is closer to its corresponding6 seed
of 27
point than to any other seed point. See Figure 3.

Distance from the

free point to the
seed point

free point

site points
(Nucleus)
Cell wall
Voronoi
Cell

Figure 3. Voronoi
Figure 3. Voronoidiagram.
diagram.

2.1.3.
2.1.3. Geometric
Geometric Characteristic
Characteristic Method
Method (GCM)
(GCM)
GCM
GCM is a technique that enables robots to
is a technique that enables robots to derive
derive abstract
abstract geometric
geometric features
features from
from the
the
observed environment, including elements such as lines, arcs, and circles, to characterize
observed environment, including elements such as lines, arcs, and circles, to characterize the
surroundings. ThisThis
the surroundings. methodology results
methodology in a relatively
results compact
in a relatively representation,
compact facilitating
representation, facili-
the process of position estimation. Nonetheless, the challenge of reliably extracting stable
tating the process of position estimation. Nonetheless, the challenge of reliably extracting
features from raw data is considerable, which limits the applicability of this approach
stable features from raw data is considerable, which limits the applicability of this ap-
primarily to structured operational environments.
proach primarily to structured operational environments.
2.1.4. Mixed Representation (MR)
2.1.4. Mixed Representation (MR)
The earliest hybrid representation was introduced by Thrun as a technique for extract-
The earliest hybrid representation was introduced by Thrun as a technique for ex-
ing topological features from a comprehensive metric map with the aid of sonar sensors,
tracting topological features from a comprehensive metric map with the aid of sonar sen-
facilitating the acquisition of feature data during robot navigation. A new node is created
sors, facilitating the acquisition of feature data during robot navigation. A new node is
when the sonar-derived feature data significantly differs from those of established nodes.
created when the sonar-derived feature data significantly differs from those of established
Conversely, if the feature data closely match that of known nodes, probabilistic localization
nodes. Conversely, if the feature data closely match that of known nodes, probabilistic
is executed through Markov decision processes, concurrently generating a topological
localization is executed through Markov decision processes, concurrently generating a
representation of the environment. Nevertheless, this approach encounters challenges
topological representation of the environment. Nevertheless, this approach encounters
in creating topological maps in areas where the obstacle feature data are ambiguous. To
challenges in creating topological maps in areas where the obstacle feature data are am-
address this, Yeap and Jefferies put forth a method for deriving a global topological map
biguous. To address this, Yeap and Jefferies put forth a method for deriving a global top-
from local metric maps. In this methodology, the local map is depicted using a grid and a
ological map from local metric maps. In this methodology, the local map is depicted using
collection of edges that resemble a topology that connects various existing local maps. A
dual-level planning strategy, incorporating both local and global planning, is utilized for
path planning.

2.2. Path Quality Assessment Criteria

In order to objectively assess the effectiveness of various search strategies and quantify
their performance, this paper presents a concise overview of seven evaluation criteria:
average path-planning time (Ta), relative standard deviation of average path-planning
time (Rt), average path length (Dm), relative standard deviation of path length (Rd), path
curvature (Rc), estimated path tracking time (Et), and success rate (Sr) [16], as shown in
Figure 4.
tify their performance, this paper presents a concise overview of seven evaluation criteria:
average path-planning time (Ta), relative standard deviation of average path-planning
time (Rt), average path length (Dm), relative standard deviation of path length (Rd), path
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 curvature (Rc), estimated path tracking time (Et), and success rate (Sr) [16], as shown in
7 of 27
Figure 4.

Average Path Length

(Dm)

Relative Standard
Deviation of Path Length
(RD)

Relative Standard Deviation of

Average Path Planning Time (RT)

Path Quality
Assessment Path curvature (RC)
Criteria

Success Rate (SR)

Estimated Path Tracking

Time (ETT)

Average Path Planning

Time (Ta)

Figure4.4.Introduction
Figure Introductiontotoevaluation
evaluationcriteria
criteriachart.
chart.

3.3.Global
GlobalPath-Planning
Path-PlanningAlgorithms
Algorithms
3.1.
3.1.A*
A*Algorithm
Algorithm
The
TheA*A*algorithm
algorithm is is
a map-based
a map-based search method
search methodwidely usedused
widely in various robots.
in various In theIn
robots.
construction
the constructionfield,field,
it canitbe canapplied to construction
be applied robots
to construction working
robots in places
working withwith
in places weak or
weak
even no mobile communication signals, such as material transport
or even no mobile communication signals, such as material transport robots and earth-robots and earthmoving
robots
moving working
robots in mininginareas.
working miningThe algorithm
areas. was initially
The algorithm was proposed and elaborated
initially proposed by
and elabo-
researchers Peter Hart, Nils Nilsson, and Bertrand Raphael in 1968 [22].
rated by researchers Peter Hart, Nils Nilsson, and Bertrand Raphael in 1968 [22]. The core The core concept
ofconcept
the algorithm is its heuristic
of the algorithm is itsevaluation strategy, where
heuristic evaluation the heuristic
strategy, where the function
heuristicis defined
function
(n) = has
asis fdefined (n) +f (n ) = h(n ) + g (n ) , g (n ) represents the actual cost incurred from the
g ( n ) , g ( n ) represents the actual cost incurred from the start node to start
the
current
node tonode, and h(node,
the current n) denotes and hthe(n)heuristic
denotesestimated costestimated
the heuristic from the cost
current
fromnode to the
the current
goal node. The total estimated cost from the start node to the goal node is represented
node to the goal node. The total estimated cost from the start node to the goal node is
by f (n). By evaluating
represented by f (n ) . By theevaluating
potential cost of each node
the potential cost on the path,
of each nodethe search
on the direction
path, is
the search
guided to reach the goal node with the shortest path or optimal cost. The estimated cost is
direction is guided to reach the goal node with the shortest path or optimal cost. The esti-
commonly
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER calculated
REVIEW using Euclidean distance or Manhattan distance. This article uses
mated cost is commonly calculated using Euclidean distance or Manhattan distance. This
Manhattan distance as an example, and Figure 5 illustrates its working principle.
article uses Manhattan distance as an example, and Figure 5 illustrates its working prin-
ciple.
Manhattan
distance
Obstacle

Euclidean
distance

Figure
Figure 5. A* algorithm 5. A* algorithm diagram.
diagram.

However, the A* algorithm faces limitations such as long computation tim

efficiency, and rough path planning. To address these challenges, researchers h
posed various improvements.
Wang F. adopted the Octile Distance formula, replacing traditional Manhatt
clidean distances, which better adapts to complex paths [23]. Huang H. utilized t
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 8 of 27

However, the A* algorithm faces limitations such as long computation times, low
efficiency, and rough path planning. To address these challenges, researchers have proposed
various improvements.
Wang F. adopted the Octile Distance formula, replacing traditional Manhattan or
Euclidean distances, which better adapts to complex paths [23]. Huang H. utilized the
Jump Point Search method to identify and skip unnecessary nodes, reducing the number of
nodes expanded during the search process and improving the algorithm’s efficiency [24].
Xiang D. combined the A* algorithm with a greedy algorithm, achieving a multi-
objective path-planning strategy. This approach also enables the algorithm to find multiple
high-quality paths that meet the problem requirements in complex environments [25].
Wang H. proposed the EBS-A* algorithm by incorporating extended distance, bidirec-
tional search, and path smoothing techniques, significantly improving search speed [26].
Fu B. integrated the A* algorithm with local path-planning technology, enabling dynamic
path adjustment and obstacle avoidance, thereby enhancing the practicality and safety of
path-planning [27].

3.2. Dijkstra
The Dijkstra algorithm is a graph-based data structure algorithm primarily used to
solve the shortest path problem in maps. It was proposed by Dutch computer scientist
Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1959. The algorithm works by progressively expanding the node
with the known shortest path. Through this process, it finds the shortest path from the
starting node to all other nodes. In large-scale construction, the Dijkstra algorithm can
assist construction robots in obtaining the shortest path from one construction point to
another. For example, it can help mobile concrete robots quickly distribute concrete to
various target points during large-scale construction projects.
The Dijkstra algorithm often faces challenges in dynamic environments, primarily
due to low efficiency, high computational resource consumption, and the inability to
handle negative weight edges. To address these issues, experts have proposed numerous
improvements.
Alshammrei S designed an optimal collision-free offline Dijkstra algorithm. In this
approach, robots follow the algorithm to generate the shortest path from the starting point
to the destination. At each node, the robot stops to test if there is an obstacle between
the current node and the next node. If an obstacle is detected, the robot excludes the
corresponding node and updates its directed graph. This process repeats until the target
point is reached. The improved Dijkstra algorithm can effectively solve the optimal path-
planning problem in environments with obstacles [28].
Bing H proposed a method to reduce computational effort by considering the distance
to the destination while calculating the shortest distance from a node to the starting point.
This causes the exploration process to generally progress towards the destination. By
comparing the computational complexity of traditional algorithms, the effectiveness of the
improved method was proven, reducing the complexity of the Dijkstra algorithm [29].
Li X solved the problem of planning a collision-free and approximately optimal path
for mobile robots in large-scale and densely obstacle-filled environments. This was achieved
by combining the Dijkstra algorithm with four-neighborhood search, eight-neighborhood
search, and reverse search algorithms [30].
Szczepanski R proposed a hybrid path-planning method based on the artificial bee
colony algorithm and the Dijkstra algorithm. This method combines the advantages of
offline global path optimization and online local path planning, successfully reducing the
time for robot path planning while ensuring path quality [31].
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 9 of 27

Sundarraj S introduced an inertia weight to control the global and local search ca-
pabilities of the particle swarm, optimizing the path-planning problem. This method
significantly enhanced various capabilities of the Dijkstra algorithm, such as obstacle
avoidance, path-planning speed, and computation time [32].
A system combining the Dijkstra algorithm and the Dynamic Window Approach
(DWA) was proposed, enabling intelligent vehicle robots to navigate autonomously and
avoid obstacles in unknown indoor environments [33].
An improved Dijkstra algorithm was proposed for the path-planning of track-based
logistics robots. This algorithm introduced a real-time node occupancy factor into the path
weight function and established a time window model within the algorithm to improve
computational efficiency. Additionally, the improved algorithm can solve the problem of
robot conflicts in multi-robot systems [34].

3.3. RRT Algorithm

Rapidly Exploring Random Tree (RRT) is a sampling-based global algorithm with
powerful global search capabilities. It explores space through random sampling and
gradually builds a tree to find a path from the start to the goal. This method is particularly
suitable for dealing with non-convex and high-dimensional search spaces. For example,
RRT can help construction robots with robotic arms or humanoid robots quickly find a path
to a target point.
The algorithm starts by initializing a tree that includes the start point. It then randomly
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
generates a target point within the search space. Next, it finds the node in the tree10 of is
that 28
closest to the target point and attempts to connect it to the target point, thereby extending
the tree towards this point. During the extension process, the algorithm checks whether the
path from the
introduced a current node to the target
rapid optimization pointfor
technique intersects withpath.
this initial obstacles. If an intersection
This modified algorithm is
detected,
stands outresampling
from otherisstatic
performed. If the
planning connection
methods is its
due to successful,
ability tothe target point
produce is added
higher-quality
to the tree.
initial This
paths, cycle repeats
enhancing until the goal
the effectiveness ofispath
reached. See Figure
planning 6. applications [39].
in various

Goal

Xrand(2)
Obstacle

Obstacle
Resampling
Branch
Node Xnew Obstacle
Xnear Xrand(1)
Obstacle
Tree

Obstacle

Figure 6. Schematic
Figure 6. Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the RRT
RRT algorithm.
algorithm.

The
In a RRT algorithm
parallel is characterized
effort, Jun G proposed a by its ability approach
data-driven to quicklyknown
find a as
feasible
UPPHE, path but
which
not necessarily the optimal path [35]. Xin P and Zhang W introduced a heuristic
incorporates the Feedback Rapidly Exploring Random Tree Star algorithm (FRRT*). This function
to guide themethod
innovative selection of sampling
features points, reducing
a risk network invalidmodules,
with feedback sampling and thus
allowing it improving
to leverage
search efficiency [36,37].
information derived from case data. By utilizing this data, FRRT* effectively constrains
Connell D of
the expansion implemented
the randoma two-way
tree and RRT
makes method, where the
adjustments algorithm
skewed draws
towards samples
optimizing
from bothefficiency,
planning the starting and ending
significantly points simultaneously,
enhancing aiming
the traditional RRT* to link [40].
approach the two trees
Wang H recognized the unpredictable nature of tree growth in the original RRT* al-
gorithm and sought to improve its performance by integrating the Attractive Potential
Field (APF) method with RRT*. This combination refines the targeting of the sampling
process, making it more focused. Additionally, in scenarios where RRT* encounters nar-
row channels or dense environments, Wang H’s approach employs adaptive step size ad-
justments facilitated by fuzzy control mechanisms, enhancing search efficiency in chal-
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 10 of 27

together in the center. This bidirectional extension significantly improves search coverage
and speed, especially in high-dimensional spaces [38].
Qi J developed a modified version of the Rapidly Exploring Random Tree Star (RRT*)
algorithm to establish an initial path and create a state tree structure. Furthermore, he
introduced a rapid optimization technique for this initial path. This modified algorithm
stands out from other static planning methods due to its ability to produce higher-quality
initial paths, enhancing the effectiveness of path planning in various applications [39].
In a parallel effort, Jun G proposed a data-driven approach known as UPPHE, which
incorporates the Feedback Rapidly Exploring Random Tree Star algorithm (FRRT*). This
innovative method features a risk network with feedback modules, allowing it to leverage
information derived from case data. By utilizing this data, FRRT* effectively constrains the
expansion of the random tree and makes adjustments skewed towards optimizing planning
efficiency, significantly enhancing the traditional RRT* approach [40].
Wang H recognized the unpredictable nature of tree growth in the original RRT*
algorithm and sought to improve its performance by integrating the Attractive Potential
Field (APF) method with RRT*. This combination refines the targeting of the sampling
process, making it more focused. Additionally, in scenarios where RRT* encounters narrow
channels or dense environments, Wang H’s approach employs adaptive step size adjust-
ments facilitated by fuzzy control mechanisms, enhancing search efficiency in challenging
areas [41].
Qie T introduced a refined sampling and tree growth mechanism that concentrates
on the forward area near the target point during the sampling and growth phases. By
restricting the sampling and tree development to this region, the method significantly
accelerates the path-planning process, offering a more efficient solution to navigation
problems in complex environments [42].
Chen J introduced an enhanced RRT-Connect algorithm for mobile robot path-
planning, generating a third node within the space to allow for the algorithm to greedily
expand with a quadtree [43]. Cui Xi proposed a sparse sampling mechanism to improve
global search efficiency by reducing redundant sampling. Additionally, Cui proposed a
dynamic target bias strategy that provides directional guidance for the expansion of the
random tree [44].
Liao B optimized the cost of each sampling point using the triangle inequality, which
outperforms normal algorithms in terms of both the quality of the initial solution and the
speed of convergence [45]. Zhang W introduced a memory strategy to avoid over-sampling
or getting stuck in local minima during the expansion of the random tree in non-convex
environments [37]. Li Y combined the advantages of P-RRT* and Quick-RRT*, ensuring the
rapid capture of optimal solutions and the formation of more effective initial solutions [46].

4. Local Path-Planning Algorithms

Local path planning does not use pre-prepared map data; instead, robots typically use
various sensors to perceive the surrounding environment, generate corresponding map
data on-site, and plan paths based on this data. Commonly used sensors include Laser
Radar Sensors (LRS), Visual Sensors (VS), etc. [16].

4.1. Environmental Monitoring

4.1.1. LiDAR Sensor (LRS)
LRS is a key component of autonomous navigation perception systems and is widely
applied in LRS mobile robots and autonomous driving technology. LRS precisely measures
distances by emitting and receiving laser pulses, utilizing the principle of light reflection to
generate detailed three-dimensional models [47–49].
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 11 of 27

4.1.2. Visual Sensor (VS)

A Visual Sensor (VS) is a passive sensor that collects information by capturing the
light reflected from the surface of objects. Compared to a Laser Radar Sensor (LRS), a VS
offers a broader detection range and can capture a large amount of image data. Depending
on the number and capabilities of VS, they can be classified as monocular vision detection,
binocular vision detection, and omnidirectional vision detection [50].

4.1.3. Multi-Sensor Information Fusion (MIF)

MIF enhances the accuracy and reliability of information by integrating data and
information collected from multiple sensors [47]. In fields such as autonomous driving
and robotics, the application of multi-sensor information fusion algorithms and models is
becoming increasingly widespread [51,52].

4.2. Classic Algorithms

4.2.1. Artificial Potential Field Method (APF)
In 1986, Oussama Khatib proposed a path-planning method based on artificial poten-
tial fields. The core idea of this method is to consider the target point as an attraction source
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and obstacles as repulsion sources, thereby creating an artificial potential field similar12 to
of an
28

electromagnetic field. As the robot moves within this field, it is simultaneously affected
by the combined force of the target’s gravitational attraction and the repulsive force from
allows
obstacles.for This
the adjustment
enables theofrobot
the robot’s path-planning
to effectively strategies.
avoid obstacles andThis
moveinnovation
towards the in-
creases the efficiency
target point of obstacle
[53,54]. The avoidance and
focus of algorithmic strengthens
research the to
is on how robot’s adaptabilityand
use “attraction” in
intricate environments
“repulsion” to guide the[56].
robot. The APF algorithm is illustrated in Figure 7.

Goal

Obstacle
Fg
F robot

Fo

Start

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of APF algorithm.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of APF algorithm.

APF is an algorithm widely used in the field of autonomous navigation. In the field of
Wu Z introduced a temperature parameter into the potential field function, which
construction robotics, it can help robots such as tile-laying robots, floor treatment robots,
can effectively prevent the robot from being trapped by local minima. This method allows
and on-site logistics robots to effectively avoid obstacles, ensuring their safety during
the influence range and direction of the potential field to be dynamically adjusted, thereby
operation. However, APF has several obvious drawbacks. Firstly, it tends to fall into
improving the flexibility and adaptability of path planning [57].
local optimal solutions. Secondly, when the target point is surrounded by obstacles or the
Wenlin Y addressed the issue of local optima by adding virtual targets and evalua-
distribution of obstacles is uneven, the algorithm may become stuck. Thirdly, in narrow
tion functions to change the direction and influence range of gravity and resolved the sit-
passages and similar situations, APF may cause path oscillation. Construction robots
uation of robot deadlock by increasing the gravitational force [58]. Szczepanski R em-
frequently encounter scenarios with these conditions when working indoors. These issues
ployed an adaptive local path-planning based on the Widrow–Hoff rule, which enables
can significantly impact the efficiency and safety of the robots.
robots to maintain a safe distance from obstacles during movement and achieve smooth
and collision-free path-planning by limiting the scaling factor of the repulsive potential
field. This adaptive algorithm performs well in dynamic environments [59].
Xing T combined deep learning with APF, using a feedback mechanism to continu-
ously optimize the reward function, thereby finding more efficient paths and enhancing
the robot’s adaptability to changing environments [60]. Zhang Y proposed an improved
APF (FV-APF) method, specifically designed for corridor environments, which better
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 12 of 27

Hanli Y proposed an improved repulsive force function to dynamically adjust the

direction of the repulsive force, a method that can reduce the failure of path-planning
caused by complex obstacle shapes [55].
Cheng C proposed incorporating the relative velocity approach into the enhanced
APF. This involves the real-time monitoring of dynamic obstacles’ motion states, which
allows for the adjustment of the robot’s path-planning strategies. This innovation increases
the efficiency of obstacle avoidance and strengthens the robot’s adaptability in intricate
environments [56].
Wu Z introduced a temperature parameter into the potential field function, which can
effectively prevent the robot from being trapped by local minima. This method allows the
influence range and direction of the potential field to be dynamically adjusted, thereby
improving the flexibility and adaptability of path planning [57].
Wenlin Y addressed the issue of local optima by adding virtual targets and evaluation
functions to change the direction and influence range of gravity and resolved the situation
of robot deadlock by increasing the gravitational force [58]. Szczepanski R employed
an adaptive local path-planning based on the Widrow–Hoff rule, which enables robots
to maintain a safe distance from obstacles during movement and achieve smooth and
collision-free path-planning by limiting the scaling factor of the repulsive potential field.
This adaptive algorithm performs well in dynamic environments [59].
Xing T combined deep learning with APF, using a feedback mechanism to continuously
optimize the reward function, thereby finding more efficient paths and enhancing the
robot’s adaptability to changing environments [60]. Zhang Y proposed an improved APF
(FV-APF) method, specifically designed for corridor environments, which better adapts to
the needs of specific scenarios [61].

4.2.2. Dynamic Window Approach (DWA)

The Dynamic Window Approach (DWA) is a widely used technique in mobile robot
path planning, which performs well in real-time dynamic environments, especially when
dealing with dynamic obstacles. The core idea of the algorithm is that it acquires the current
state of the robot, such as direction, speed, acceleration, etc., and generates a dynamic
velocity window to predict all possible movement trajectories of the robot at the next
moment. Then, it selects the path that best suits the mobile robot [62]. This algorithm has
good application in construction scenarios with heavy personnel traffic, such as material
handling robots, bricklaying robots, interior decoration robots, etc. However, DWA is
prone to local optimal paths and requires significant computational resources during actual
operation, especially in dynamic environments.
Gao Y combined DWA with D*Lite, making the algorithm’s performance in local
path-planning superior to general algorithms in intricate scenarios [63]. Mai X introduced
an innovative density-related evaluation factor within the path evaluation function. This
new factor significantly enhances the robot’s ability to perceive and assess the distribution
of densely located objects ahead of time. Through experimental studies, it has been
demonstrated that this enhancement has led to a notable increase in the efficiency of the
improved Dynamic Window Approach (DWA), with an impressive rise of 25%. This
advancement suggests that incorporating density awareness into robotic navigation can
greatly improve performance in complex environments [64].
Liao T introduced a novel way that mixes the modified A* with an enhanced DWA.
This technique involves the incorporation of trajectory estimation function into the eval-
uation process of the algorithm. Additionally, the resulting paths are further refined and
optimized through the application of the B-spline curve method, allowing for smoother
and more efficient trajectories [65]. Li Y proposed an algorithm that combines the improved
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 13 of 27

A* algorithm with DWA, and the hybrid algorithm successfully integrates the advantages
of both, enabling robots to dynamically avoid obstacles while navigating globally [66].
Zhou R introduced an innovative way that integrates three algorithms. In this en-
hanced approach, the traditional obstacle distance evaluation function of the dynamic
window algorithm was substituted with an artificial repulsive field function, effectively
improving the algorithm’s response to nearby obstacles. Additionally, the introduction
of an end distance evaluation function further refines the path optimization process. Fur-
thermore, the improved dynamic window method was synergistically combined with a
gradient descent-smoothed version of the A* algorithm. This integration effectively tackles
the limitations associated with poor global planning found in conventional algorithms,
ultimately resulting in paths that are not only safer but also smoother [67].
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 28

4.3. Intelligent Algorithm

4.3.1. Genetic Algorithm (GA)
Objective Genetic Algorithm (MRPS-MOGA). This method utilizes several advanced tech-
A genetic algorithm (GA) is an optimization technique inspired by the principles of
niques, including tournament selection, cyclic crossover, and adaptive bit-string muta-
natural biological evolution. This algorithm improves the quality of the population, which
tion. These strategies work in conjunction to effectively identify the most optimal path for
is equivalent to the quality of problem solutions, by simulating the biological evolution
mobile robots. One of the significant advantages of this algorithm is its enhanced perfor-
process. The process includes three key steps: selection, crossover, and mutation. GA
mance in situations where the computational requirements for determining the optimal
eliminates less fit individuals and evolves better ones, ultimately converging to the optimal
path are minimal, thus making it particularly efficient in real-time applications [71].
or near-optimal solution. The evolutionary process of GA is illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8. GA evolution process flowchart.

Figure 8. GA evolution process flowchart.
Genetic algorithms possess powerful global search capabilities, effectively explor-
ing Liu
the solution
C proposedspace, and are capablegenetic
a multi-objective of parallel searching.
algorithm based These
on anfeatures
elitist make GA
strategy
algorithms highly efficient in searching. GAs have applications in
(MLRMOEGA) for the path-planning problem of multi-locomotion-mode robots (MLR). a variety of problems,
such
The as operations
algorithm adoptsmanagement, multimedia,
an elitist strategy and more
to improve [68]. Genetic
the global algorithms
convergence are also
of genetic al-
extensively used in autonomous robot navigation. For example, in construction
gorithms by preserving the best individuals, thereby avoiding premature convergence. To sites,
multiplethe
address material transport
premature robots and
convergence issuestructural
of geneticassembly robots
algorithms, mapneed to cooperate
analysis operatorsto
and population diversity expansion operators were proposed. These operators allocation
complete tasks such as hauling and assembly. Genetic algorithms assist in task enhance
while
the helping robots
algorithm’s global with path
search planning,
capability. Byenhancing
changing overall efficiency.
the weights However, genetic
of optimization objec-
algorithms also have significant drawbacks, such as slow convergence speed,
tives, the multi-objective optimization performance of the algorithm was tested. The re- premature
convergence,
sults andthe
indicate that lowMLRMOEGA
precision. algorithm can optimize the value of specific objective
functions according to the decision-maker’s intent. Additionally, it generates relatively
balanced paths when considering multiple equal optimization objectives [72].

4.3.2. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm was initially proposed by electri-
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 14 of 27

Hu Y proposed an improved genetic algorithm aimed at the problem of mobile robots

in unstructured random environments path-planning. This algorithm can accurately detect
collisions and reflect the quality of the robot’s path. The algorithm can capture optimal
paths in dynamic random environments [69].
Li Y proposed an algorithm mixing the improved genetic algorithm with the dynamic
window approach, which enhances the dynamic obstacle avoidance capabilities for robots
while quickly generating shorter and smoother paths [70]. Suresh K S introduced an inno-
vative approach for mobile robot pathfinding, which is centered around a Multi-Objective
Genetic Algorithm (MRPS-MOGA). This method utilizes several advanced techniques,
including tournament selection, cyclic crossover, and adaptive bit-string mutation. These
strategies work in conjunction to effectively identify the most optimal path for mobile
robots. One of the significant advantages of this algorithm is its enhanced performance
in situations where the computational requirements for determining the optimal path are
minimal, thus making it particularly efficient in real-time applications [71].
Liu C proposed a multi-objective genetic algorithm based on an elitist strategy (ML-
RMOEGA) for the path-planning problem of multi-locomotion-mode robots (MLR). The
algorithm adopts an elitist strategy to improve the global convergence of genetic algo-
rithms by preserving the best individuals, thereby avoiding premature convergence. To
address the premature convergence issue of genetic algorithms, map analysis operators
and population diversity expansion operators were proposed. These operators enhance the
algorithm’s global search capability. By changing the weights of optimization objectives, the
multi-objective optimization performance of the algorithm was tested. The results indicate
that the MLRMOEGA algorithm can optimize the value of specific objective functions
according to the decision-maker’s intent. Additionally, it generates relatively balanced
paths when considering multiple equal optimization objectives [72].

4.3.2. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm was initially proposed by electrical
engineer Russell C. Eberhart and social psychologist James Kennedy in 1995. The algorithm
is inspired by the social behavior of bird flocking, aiming to simulate how organisms find
optimal solutions through group cooperation [72,73].
In 1998, Eberhart and Shi further extended and improved the PSO algorithm, in-
troducing several enhanced versions, such as the inertia weight and constriction factor.
These improvements significantly enhanced the algorithm’s convergence speed and search
capabilities [74,75].
After entering the 2010s, research on the PSO algorithm deepened further, resulting
in many variants and improved versions. These new versions often incorporate other
algorithms, such as genetic algorithms, Ant Colony Algorithms, etc., to form hybrid
optimization algorithms, improving performance and adaptability [73].
The fundamental idea of PSO originates from nature; when a flock of birds discovers a
new feeding area, at the beginning, each bird heads towards places where it believes food
might exist and notes the places where it sees the most food during the search process.
When the flock comes together, they share the information they have found, allowing
them to know where the most food currently is. Each bird then re-searches based on the
information it has gathered and the information shared by the team. After several rounds
of sharing, the flock can find the place with the most food, as shown in Figure 9.
food might exist and notes the places where it sees the most food during the search pro-
cess. When the flock comes together, they share the information they have found, allowing
them to know where the most food currently is. Each bird then re-searches based on the
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 15 of 27
information it has gathered and the information shared by the team. After several rounds
of sharing, the flock can find the place with the most food, as shown in Figure 9.

Bird

Food

Local Optimal Solution

Global Optimal Solution

Bird Particle
Feeding area Solution space
The quantity of food Fitness
Position of the bird

Single solution in space

The place with the most food

Global Optimal Solution

Figure9.9.Bird
Figure Birdflock
flockfeeding
feedingbehavior
behaviorrepresents
representsthe
theParticle
ParticleSwarm
SwarmOptimization
Optimizationprocess.
process.

PSOhas
PSO hasstrong
strongdynamic
dynamicenvironmental
environmentaladaptability,
adaptability,whichwhichmakes
makesititwidely
widelyused
usedin in
pathplanning
path planningbased basedon onhigh-dimensional
high-dimensionalmaps. maps. In In the
thefield
fieldofofconstruction,
construction,ititcancanhelp
help
withpath-planning
with path-planningfor forinspection
inspectiondrones,drones,fireproof
fireproofcoating
coatingrobots,
robots,etc.
etc. PSO
PSO has
hassome
some
drawbacks,including
drawbacks, includinggetting
gettingstuck
stuckin inlocal
localoptimal
optimalsolutions
solutionsin in multi-dimensional
multi-dimensionalspaces,spaces,
slowconvergence
slow convergencespeed speedin inthe
thelate
latestages
stagesofofoptimization,
optimization,and andsensitivity
sensitivityto toparameter
parameter
settings. To
settings. To address
address these
these issues,
issues, researchers
researchers havehave proposed
proposed many manyimproved
improvedParticle
Particle
SwarmOptimization
Swarm Optimization(PSO) (PSO)algorithms.
algorithms.
YangZZproposed
Yang proposedan anImproved
ImprovedParticleParticleSwarm
SwarmOptimization
Optimizationalgorithm
algorithm(IPSO)
(IPSO)thatthat
enhancesthe
enhances thealgorithm’s
algorithm’sexploration
explorationability
ability
andand search
search accuracy
accuracy byby improving
improving thethe veloc-
velocity
ity update
update methodmethodandand inertia
inertia weight.
weight. It also
It also employs
employs a aparticle
particleinitialization
initializationstrategy
strategyto to
increasepopulation
increase populationdiversity
diversityand andintroduces
introducesstrategies
strategiesto todeal
dealwith
withlocal
localoptima,
optima,thereby
thereby
shortening
shorteningthe theconvergence
convergence path length.
path Experimental
length. Experimental datadata
indicate that IPSO
indicate outperforms
that IPSO outper-
other
formsalgorithms in termsinofterms
other algorithms average path length
of average path and shortest
length path length
and shortest path[76].
length [76].
Yuan
YuanQQaddressed
addressed thetheshortcomings
shortcomings of traditional Particle
of traditional SwarmSwarm
Particle Optimization (PSO)
Optimization
algorithms in pathin
(PSO) algorithms planning, such assuch
path planning, slowasconvergence
slow convergencespeed and
speed a tendency to get stuck
and a tendency to get
in localinoptima,
stuck by proposing
local optima, an improved
by proposing ParticleParticle
an improved SwarmSwarm Optimization algorithm
Optimization based
algorithm
on Differential
based Evolution
on Differential (IPSO-IDE).
Evolution This algorithm
(IPSO-IDE). enhancesenhances
This algorithm the convergence speed of
the convergence
traditional PSO by introducing
speed of traditional adaptive adjustments
PSO by introducing to the weights
adaptive adjustments and
to the acceleration
weights coeffi-
and acceler-
cients. It also adds aItleader
ation coefficients. particle
also adds to theparticle
a leader swarm, to selected through
the swarm, a voting
selected mechanism
through to
a voting
guide the group
mechanism towards
to guide the optimal
the group towards position. To overcome
the optimal position.theTodeficiencies
overcome the of deficiencies
traditional
Differential
of traditional Evolution algorithms,
Differential Yuan Q
Evolution proposed an
algorithms, Yuanoptimization
Q proposed methodan for the adap-
optimization
tive scaling factor F and the crossover probability factor CR to improve the convergence
performance and iteration accuracy of the algorithm. Combining the improved Particle
Swarm Optimization algorithm with Differential Evolution, a new hybrid optimization
mechanism was proposed. This mechanism incorporates the concept of “mutual benefit
and win-win”, meaning that the two algorithms are in a cooperative relationship, optimiz-
ing each other to enhance their performance, thereby improving the overall performance of
the swarm [77].
Zheng L introduced an innovative Particle Swarm algorithm that incorporates the
principles of artificial potential fields, referred to as the apfrPSO. This advanced method
focuses on generating optimal planning paths for robotic systems by fine-tuning the inertia
weight parameter. Additionally, it employs a technique for sorting the position vectors of
overall performance of the swarm [77].
Zheng L introduced an innovative Particle Swarm algorithm that incorporates the
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 principles of artificial potential fields, referred to as the apfrPSO. This advanced method 16 of 27
focuses on generating optimal planning paths for robotic systems by fine-tuning the iner-
tia weight parameter. Additionally, it employs a technique for sorting the position vectors
of particles,
particles, known
known as rPSO.
as rPSO. Through
Through thesethese enhancements,
enhancements, the apfrPSO
the apfrPSO significantly
significantly improves im-
proves
the the capacity
capacity for robots fortorobots
adapttoto adapt to different
different operatingoperating
conditionsconditions
while also while also in-
increasing
creasing
the the precision
precision and overall andefficiency
overall efficiency of their path-planning
of their path-planning processesprocesses [78]. H
[78]. Zaman Zaman
RR
H R R modified
modified the mutation
the mutation and crossover
and crossover operatorsoperators
of BSA byof neighborhood
BSA by neighborhood to improve
to improve conver-
convergence
gence rates. Additionally,
rates. Additionally, a novel mutation
a novel mutation factor wasfactor was
joined tojoined
enhanceto the
enhance the con-
convergence
vergenceofprecision
precision avoidingoflocal
avoiding local
optima optima [79].
[79].

4.3.3.
4.3.3.Ant
AntColony
ColonyOptimization
Optimization(ACO)
(ACO)
Ant
Ant colony Optimization is heuristic
colony Optimization is a optimization
a heuristic optimization algorithm inspired
algorithm inspiredby the foraging
by the forag-
behavior
ing behavior of ants in nature. In nature, ants release pheromones to mark their paths,and
of ants in nature. In nature, ants release pheromones to mark their paths, and
when
whenants
antsfind
findfood
foodwhile
whilewalking
walkingalong
alongaapath,
path,they
theyrelease
releasemore
morepheromones
pheromoneson onthat
that
path.
path.The
Theconcentration
concentrationof ofpheromones
pheromonesdecreases
decreasesoverovertime,
time,creating
creatingaanegative
negativefeedback
feedback
mechanism. When choosing paths, ants tend to select those with higher
mechanism. When choosing paths, ants tend to select those with higher concentrations concentrationsof
ofpheromones,
pheromones, thus
thus forming
forming a form
a form of of collective
collective intelligence.
intelligence. This
This mechanism
mechanism ensures
ensures that
that the algorithm explores new paths and avoids converging prematurely
the algorithm explores new paths and avoids converging prematurely on suboptimal so- on suboptimal
solutions,
lutions, asasshown
shown inin Figure
Figure 10.10.
ThisThis algorithm
algorithm has has
beenbeen applied
applied in field
in the the field of path
of path plan-
planning for construction
ning for construction robots.robots.

pheromone

NEST FOOD FOOD

NEST

NEST FOOD NEST FOOD

Figure10.
Figure 10.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofofACO
ACOalgorithm
algorithmmechanism.
mechanism.

When ants
When ants choose paths,
paths,they
theydodonotnot
simply optopt
simply for the
for one
the with
one the
withhighest phero-
the highest
mone concentration;
pheromone instead,
concentration; they make
instead, choices
they make basedbased
choices on a certain probability.
on a certain This prob-
probability. This
ability is generally
probability related
is generally to both
related the pheromone
to both concentration
the pheromone and the
concentration andheuristic infor-
the heuristic
mation of the
information ofpath. The Ant
the path. TheColony Optimization
Ant Colony (ACO) (ACO)
Optimization algorithm, which simulates
algorithm, evo-
which simu-
lutionary
lates algorithms,
evolutionary has clear
algorithms, advantages
has over traditional
clear advantages algorithms,
over traditional including
algorithms, strong
including
strong robustness, good global optimization capabilities, efficiency when facing complex
problems, good readability, and a wide range of applications. If, in large-scale construc-
tion projects, a large number of construction robots need to work collaboratively, the Ant
Colony Algorithm can be used to optimize swarm control strategies, achieving efficient task
allocation and path-planning and avoiding conflicts between robots. However, it also has
some limitations: a lack of effective search strategies in the early stages of search can lead to
significant blindness in complex problems; convergence speed is usually slow, especially in
larger-scale problems; the algorithm needs multiple iterations to capture optimal solution;
and ants can be trapped in local optima easily [80,81].
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 17 of 27

Luo Q proposed an improved algorithm aimed at optimizing issues such as low search
efficiency, slow convergence speed, and the tendency to fall into local optimal solutions
in the Ant Colony Algorithm. By providing unevenly distributed initial pheromones, it
avoids the blind search of the Ant Colony Algorithm in its initial stages. By introducing
a damping coefficient into the heuristic function, the convergence speed of the algorithm
is accelerated. Combining the advantages of the MMAS algorithm model and the elite
ant algorithm, the pheromone update rules were improved to prevent the algorithm from
converging too early. A pseudo-random state transition rule is used to determine the next
path, enhancing the algorithm’s global search capability and convergence speed [82].
Zhang S proposed an innovative method called the Improved Ant Colony Algorithm
based on Population Information Entropy (AIACSE). This algorithm describes the diversity
of the population during the iteration process through information entropy and constructs
a non-uniform initial pheromone distribution to reduce the blindness in the early stages of
search; it adopts a non-uniform distribution initialization strategy based on the A algorithm,
avoiding the blindness in the evolutionary phase and improving the convergence speed.
The adaptive parameter adjustment strategy based on population information entropy
automatically adjusts the values of parameters according to the changes in population en-
tropy, maintaining the balance between exploration and exploitation. Through comparative
experiments, this improved algorithm performs excellently in terms of convergence speed
and success rate [83].
Wu L proposed an improved ACO algorithm. First, a directional factor is added to the
heuristic function to improve the convergence speed of the algorithm. Second, an improved
function is proposed to reduce the frequency of turn in the planned path; then, a new state
transition probability rule is added to the algorithm for increasing search efficiency and
population diversity; finally, a method for inhomogeneous distribution of initial pheromone
is proposed to avoid blind searching [84]. Miao C introduced an enhanced version of the
adaptive Ant Colony Algorithm. This innovative algorithm incorporates angle guidance
factors and obstacle exclusion factors into the transition probability of the traditional Ant
Colony Optimization (ACO). Doing so significantly enhances the real-time responsiveness
and safety of path planning. Moreover, the IAACO further refines the pheromone update
rules within the ACO framework by including heuristic information, adaptive adjustment
factors, and pheromone evaporation factors. This dual adjustment serves to create a more
effective balance between the algorithm’s convergence speed and its ability to conduct a
thorough global search, thus improving overall performance in optimization tasks [85].
Wang L proposed enhancements to the traditional Ant Colony Algorithm by imple-
menting an improved pheromone update mechanism. This updated approach incorporates
a safety value heuristic function that serves to optimize the overall efficiency of the algo-
rithm. One of the significant advantages of this innovation is its ability to minimize the
frequency with which the Ant Colony Algorithm becomes trapped in the local optima, a
common challenge faced during complex problem-solving. Additionally, this improve-
ment effectively decreases the search time required for 3D path planning, making the
algorithm more robust and effective for such applications [86]. Hengyi Huang integrated
ACO and DWA algorithms, proposing an algorithm for multi-robots that effectively avoids
the potential collision between real-time path planning and obstacles for multiple moving
robots [87].
Ronghua M enhanced the pheromone reinforcement for high-quality paths, making
these paths more attractive to the Ant Colony in subsequent searches, and thus improving
the quality of path-planning [88]. Wang H proposed an improved Ant Colony Algorithm.
By combining APF attraction to enhance the heuristic function, this modification accelerated
convergence. Additionally, during the pheromone update process, an extra pheromone
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 18 of 27

increment was introduced, which enhanced the optimality of path length. [89]. Yu X com-
bined ACO with A* to develop a two-layer algorithm, which enables AUVs to successfully
navigate through multiple targets in environments with dense obstacles [90].

4.4. Deep Reinforcement Learning Algorithm

Reinforcement learning belongs to machine learning and is widely applied in path-
planning for robots. The mathematical foundation of reinforcement learning is based on
Markov Decision Processes (MDP). A MDP consists of a set of states, a set of actions,
transition probabilities, and a reward function. Through MDPs, agents can choose actions
in a given state and receive rewards, thereby learning and optimizing their strategies. The
following is an overview of some commonly used reinforcement learning algorithms.

4.4.1. Q-Learning
Q-learning is a model-free reinforcement learning algorithm that is widely applied
in the field of construction robotics. The algorithm aims to determine the optimal policy
by learning the state-action value function (Q function). The Q function represents the
expected return of taking a certain action in a particular state. The learning process mainly
relies on the Bellman equation, which provides the theoretical basis for updating Q values.
Through continuous exploration and exploitation of the environment, Q-learning can find
the optimal policy within a limited time, thereby maximizing cumulative rewards. The
algorithm has many advantages, such as simplicity, model independence, and wide appli-
cability. However, its poor scalability, slow convergence, and the challenge of balancing
exploration and exploitation have always constrained its development. Scholars have made
many efforts to address these issues. Yu Z proposed the Double Q-learning method to
address the slow convergence rate, which involves two independent Q-value estimations.
Double Q-learning can more accurately estimate state values, thereby increasing conver-
gence speed and learning efficiency [91]. Low E S used the Flower Pollination Algorithm
(FPA) to improve the initialization of Q-learning, accelerating its convergence [92], and
also utilized a modified version of Q-learning, the Improved Q-learning (IQL), to speed
up machine learning [93]. Zhou Q introduced an enhanced version of the Q-learning
algorithm, referred to as optimized Q-learning (O-QL). This refined approach incorporates
a novel technique for initializing the Q-table, which plays a crucial role in setting the
foundation for the learning process. Additionally, it presents a fresh strategy for selecting
actions, aiming to improve decision-making during the learning phase. Furthermore, a
redefined reward function is implemented to better align with the specific objectives of the
task at hand. To optimize learning rate adjustments, the Root Mean Square Propagation
method is utilized, ensuring that updates to the learning parameters are both effective and
efficient. Collectively, these modifications lead to a significant acceleration in the learning
process, enhancing the overall efficiency of path planning [94]. Gharbi A introduced a
dynamic rewards factor to Q-learning for improving the efficiency of path planning and the
capacity of obstacle avoidance [95]. Du H used artificial potential fields to prevent random
exploration to avoid the slow convergence of Q-learning and provide basic information
about the environment for mobile robots. Du also proposed a dynamic reward factor to
accelerate algorithm convergence [96].

4.4.2. Monte Carlo Methods

The birth of the Monte Carlo method is closely related to the Second World War. In
the early 1940s, while working at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, John von Neumann
and Stanislaw Ulam began to study how to make decisions under uncertain conditions.
Ulam’s initial inspiration came from gambling, and he proposed an idea to solve complex
problems using random sampling, thus naming the method “Monte Carlo” in honor of
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 19 of 27

the famous casino in Monaco. The core idea of the Monte Carlo method is to use random
number generators to estimate a mathematical function or simulate the behavior of complex
systems through a large number of random samples. T. Dam proposed a new algorithm
based on the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) algorithm for robot path planning, which
increases the probability of the integrity of finding the best path and the convergence speed
in complex environments [97]. Wang T proposed an improved Ant Colony Optimization
(MC-IACO) based on Monte Carlo to address the issue of slow convergence at the initial
stage of robots [98]. Castellini A introduced a novel approach that extends the principles of
Partially Observable Monte Carlo Planning (POMCP) to address the challenge of regulating
robot speed in environments reminiscent of industrial settings. These environments often
present uncertain motion difficulties that can complicate the operational efficiency of
robotic systems. By employing this method, it becomes possible to better navigate the
complexities associated with varying levels of uncertainty in motion, ultimately leading
to enhanced performance and reliability for robots functioning in such contexts [99]. A
novel approach known as the sliding MCTS method was introduced by Xu P that builds
upon the principles of the Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) algorithm. In this innovative
framework, Xu P adeptly achieved an effective equilibrium between the optimization
and search functionalities inherent in the algorithm. This was accomplished through
the implementation of a dynamic moving root node, which allows for more adaptable
search strategies. Additionally, the method incorporates a mechanism for regulating the
sampling duration, thereby enhancing the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the search
process [100]. Mohseni A deployed a particle filter using the Monte Carlo localization
method to resolve a Hidden Markov Process based on Recursive Bayesian Estimation using
information entropy to identify outliers and probabilistic methods to remove detected
outliers. Additionally, a new mutation process was added to the localization algorithm
to actively detect high-likelihood areas using the posterior probability density function.
The improved Monte Carlo localization algorithm was applied to mobile robots, and
experiments demonstrated an improvement in the accuracy of path planning [101].

5. Summary
Architectural robots are now advancing to the forefront of digital transformation and
intelligent upgrading in the construction industry. Path planning, as a core element in
this technological evolution, has increasingly highlighted its strategic position. Based on
detailed considerations of the information richness of construction sites, path-planning
algorithms are divided into two major categories: global path-planning and local path-
planning. Within this framework, this paper comprehensively reviews the path-planning
algorithms applied in recent years and summarizes the advantages and limitations as well
as the improvement directions of various algorithms, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of path planning algorithms.

Algorithm Algorithm Type Advantage Limitations Improvement

Efficient: A* can find the shortest
Memory usage: A* In complex scenarios,
path quickly. Search speed: [23,24,26]
it takes up a lot of memory.
A* Algorithm Flexible: A* adapts to different Success rate: [27]
Sensitive: A* performance depends on the
problems by choosing different Path smoothing: [24,25]
choice of the heuristic function.
inspired functions.
Global Path-planning Computation complexity: the
Simple: the logic of the algorithm is
Algorithm computational complexity of Dijkstra is
relatively simple and easy to
relatively high.
implement. Computational
Low speed: Dijkstra search speed is low
Optimality: Dijkstra ensures that the complexity: [29,34]
Dijkstra during run in dynamic environments.
shortest path from the start node to Path quality: [30,31,33]
Inability to process the negative weight
the target node is found. Optimality: [28,32]
edges: there are negative weight edges in
Adaptability: Dijkstra is able to
the graph, which may cause the algorithm
accommodate the different models.
to find the correct shortest path.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 20 of 27

Table 1. Cont.

Algorithm Algorithm Type Advantage Limitations Improvement

Efficient: the RRT algorithm can
quickly converge to the target.
Flexible: RRT algorithms can easily Uncertainty: the randomness of the RRT
be combined with other algorithms to algorithm makes it possible to get Stochastic: [36,44,45]
form a more complex path-planning different results per run. Non-optimal path:
RRT algorithm system. Non-optimal paths: the paths generated [37,39,46]
Adaptability: the RRT algorithm can by the RRT algorithm are not necessarily Inefficiency: [38]
adapt to the dynamic environment, optimal, especially in complex Search speed: [40–43]
that is, the path can be updated in environments.
real time when the environment
changes.
Fast: APF computational complexity
Local is relatively low, suitable for
Path-planning application scenarios that require
Classic Suboptimal: APF falls into local minima.
rapid response. Success rate: [55,60]
Algorithm Success rate: APF depends on local
Flexible: APF can adapt to different Adaptation: [56,57,59,60]
APF Algorithm information and will become locked in a
environmental conditions. By Suboptimal: [58]
complex environment, leading to failure
adjusting the parameters of the Flexible: [61]
of path planning.
potential field, it can realize the
effective navigation of various
complex environments.
Fast: DWA can quickly calculate the
direction of the robot’s motion.
Suboptimal: DWA falls into a locally
Flexible: DWA can adapt to different Search speed: [63,65,66]
optimal path.
Dynamic Window types of robots and variable Calculation efficiency:
Low speed: DWA has great computational
Approach environments. [64]
complexity during operation, especially in
Barrier avoidance: DWA can Path smoothing: [67]
a dynamic environment.
dynamically identify and avoid
obstacles.
Fast: GA can find optimal or Search efficiency:
approximate optimal solutions to GA may be less efficient in the process of
large-scale optimization problems in finding solutions, especially when the
Path quality: [69,71]
a short time. initial population diversity is insufficient.
GA Algorithm Dynamic obstacle
Adaptation: GA can deal with Premature convergence: When the
avoidance: [70,72]
problems from different areas. population diversity is poor, GA may
Comprehensive: GA enables an converge prematurely to the local optimal
efficient global search. solution.
Global: PSO has excellent global
Slow convergence rate: PSO convergence
search ability and can effectively find
rate is slow in the fine search phase.
the global optimal solution.
Sensitive: The performance of the PSO
Efficient: PSO is computationally
depends somewhat on the position of the
efficient and can handle large-scale Search efficiency: [76,79]
Intelligent algorithm initial particles. Improper initial location
PSO Algorithm and high-dimensional problems at Search accuracy
selection may result in inefficient search or
low cost. [77,78]
poor convergent results.
Flexible: PSO can adapt to different
High-dimensional local optima: PSO
types of problems; widely used in
easily falls into the local optimal solution
function optimization, combinatorial
in a high-dimensional space.
optimization, and other fields.
High efficiency: ACO has high search
Suboptimal: ACO easily falls into a local
efficiency in path-planning and can
optimal solution. Search speed: [82,88]
quickly find the optimal or
Computational complexity: ACO’s Suboptimal performance:
near-optimal solution.
complexity of computational pheromone [85,86]
ACO Algorithm Path smoothing: ACO generates path
updating and path selection may be high Path quality:
smoothing, especially in the
in large-scale problems. [83,84,89]
environment of complex obstacles.
Convergence rate: ACO’s convergence Damage avoidance: [87]
Adaptation: ACO is highly adaptable
rate is slow and requires more iterations.
to environmental changes.
Convergence rate:
QL converges more slowly in the search
Flexible: QL can work without a
for the optimal solution.
complete model of the environment. Convergence rate:
Inefficient: QL is less flexible and efficient
Multi-purpose: It can be widely [91,92,96]
when facing complex or high-dimensional
Q-learning applied in various scenarios. Local optima: [94]
environments.
Optimal: Under certain conditions, Learning speed:
Sensitivity: the performance of QL largely
QL can help to ensure convergence to [93,95]
depends on the choice of
the optimal policy.
Reinforcement hyperparameters, such as learning rate
Learning-Based and discount factor.
Path-planning Algorithm
High cost: with the increase of
Comprehensive: MCM provides a
dimensions, the number of samples
more comprehensive risk assessment.
required for MCM increases rapidly, and
Flexibility: MCM adapts to different
the computational time and resource Convergence rate:
models.
Monte Carlo demand will increase. [97,98]
Processing of complex data:
Methods Random: MCM relies on random Path quality:
MCM is able to handle complex
sampling, and an insufficient sample size [99–101]
probability distributions and
can bias the results.
multidimensional data through
Sensitive: the effect of MCM depends on
random sampling.
the accuracy of the selected model.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 21 of 27

6. Path-Planning Technology in the Future Development of Clustered

Construction Robots
6.1. Overview of Clustered Construction Robots
Swarm robotics is not merely the aggregation of multiple single-task robots in quantity.
Instead, it involves selecting appropriate single-task robots based on actual construction
task requirements to collaborate and achieve higher work efficiency or complete tasks
that a single robot cannot. During the collaborative work of construction robots, construc-
tion workers can be considered efficient single-task robots. Therefore, the collaboration
of swarm construction robots mainly falls into two categories: robot collaboration and
human–robot collaboration.
Although collaborative work in construction is currently developing slowly, there
have been attempts. For example, Tavares P used Building Information Modeling (BIM) to
develop a human–robot collaborative structural steel manufacturing and welding system,
effectively improving work efficiency and product quality [102]. Similarly, Tsuruta T
developed an automated mobile robot system for marking free passage areas in construction
sites [103]. Compared to traditional construction robots, swarm construction robots require
a high level of autonomous decision-making and navigation capabilities. High-level
autonomous navigation poses significant demands on path-planning algorithms.

6.2. Path-Planning Algorithms in the Future Development Direction of Clusterized

Construction Robots
1. Construction robot swarms must be capable of both independent autonomous
operation and the ability to form a group for collaborative work when necessary. This
requires that the robot path-planning algorithms can respond quickly and are capable of
calculating the movement paths of multiple robots simultaneously.
Additionally, if a robot in the swarm fails and cannot move, the path-planning algo-
rithm needs to quickly remove it from the swarm. The failed robot should then be treated
as an obstacle.
2. Construction robots need to move in changing environments, which requires the
path-planning algorithm to have strong adaptability and obstacle-avoidance capabilities. It
must ensure that robots within the swarm do not collide with each other while moving and
that the entire swarm avoids collisions with static or dynamic obstacles.
3. Swarm construction robots work not only in planar maps but also in high-
dimensional maps, such as in the air, in the ocean, or between high-rise buildings. This
necessitates the ability of the path-planning algorithm to plan paths in high-dimensional
space. Since different robots have different modes of movement, such as rolling, climb-
ing, and walking, the suitability of the paths also varies. The algorithm must make path
selections based on these differences in movement, which poses high demands on the
intelligence and learning capabilities of the path-planning algorithm.

7. Conclusions
The primary goal of the path optimization of construction robot planning is to ensure
safety and the second is to improve work efficiency to save cost. This paper reviews the
commonly used algorithms in the path-planning of construction robots and collects the
current optimization algorithms in the field of various robots, including ground robots,
underwater robots, aerial robots, etc. The main optimization directions of the algorithm
include search speed, path smoothing, and obstacle avoidance. At the same time, according
to the mastery of the construction site information, the path-planning algorithm is divided
into two categories: global path-planning and local path-planning. Local path planning
can further be divided into the classical algorithm, intelligent algorithm, and reinforcement
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 22 of 27

learning algorithm. Common environment modeling methods, path quality assessment

standards, and common robot sensors are also introduced. Finally, we summarize the
various algorithms, analyze their advantages and disadvantages, and look forward to the
future development direction.
The A* and Dijkstra algorithms represent classic global search techniques. Their fun-
damental principle involves identifying the minimum estimated cost from the current node
to the target destination. By utilizing random sampling, RRT can efficiently establish a
path to the target point; however, ensuring path quality remains a challenge. The APF
method employs a physical potential field to represent environmental data, assisting in
obstacle avoidance and optimal path determination. Nevertheless, in intricate environ-
ments, it may easily become trapped in local optima. Drawing inspiration from natural
evolutionary principles, the GA serves as a highly effective global search strategy, although
its convergence rate is slower than that of alternative algorithms. The DWA integrates the
robot’s motion model with its environmental representation, utilizing a window model to
assess the robot’s motion states and evaluate viable trajectories. Both the ACO and PSO
algorithms originate from the behavioral patterns observed in biological groups. ACO
mimics the foraging behavior of ants searching for food, employing pheromones to direct
the search process in order to ultimately find the best solution. Conversely, PSO reflects
the foraging dynamics of flocks and schools, adjusting the positions of particles to seek
the optimal outcome. However, like ACO, PSO can also fall prey to local optima. Rein-
forcement learning boasts substantial learning and decision-making prowess, enabling it to
devise optimal paths even with limited information; furthermore, it displays considerable
adaptability and flexibility within complex and uncertain environments.
Construction robot path planning is an important branch of research to improve its
autonomy and has attracted the attention of the construction industry in the last decade.
Although many path-planning algorithms are applied in practical scenarios, there are still
many exploration directions:
1. Due to the complex and changeable construction environment and the difficulty
of construction tasks, the single path-planning algorithm and its improved model,
although near-perfect, are still difficult to meet actual engineering needs. Therefore,
most of the research directions began to turn to the combined algorithm. Compared
with a single algorithm, the combined algorithm can well combine the advantages of
each algorithm to make up for the defects of the individual algorithm itself, so as to
better complete the construction task.
2. The importance of path-planning technology based on reinforcement learning in the
field of path-planning for architectural robots is gradually increasing. Based on the
current development situation and the future development needs of the construction
industry, the research direction of reinforcement learning technology in the future
includes combining it with the traditional path-planning method and applying re-
inforcement learning to multi-agent collaborative path-planning. Meanwhile, deep
learning has become a star in the realm of path planning. Deep learning can conduct
autonomous information acquisition, information processing, and communication,
and meets the needs of path-planning. Additionally, it can make the building robot
with autonomous learning ability and gradually improve its ability to deal with the
complex environment and construction efficiency.
3. In the construction site environment complex, there are many uncertainties, often
appearing as narrow spaces and obstacles in the area; for these cases, the sensor in the
path-planning algorithm will become the future research hotspot. Compared with
a single sensor’s uncertainty and information integrity, more sensors can be more
accurate and more comprehensively detect and describe the environment.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 1165 23 of 27

4. As seen in the research on the path-planning algorithm of high-altitude building

robots and marine building robots, with the exploration of deep space and the ocean,
the future of architecture is not confined to land. Compared with land, construction
robots working in the ocean and deep air will receive stronger environmental factors,
which puts forward high requirements on the performance of the algorithm. For
example, marine building robots are disturbed by ocean currents and marine life,
requiring path-planning algorithms to quickly search for complex environments while
enabling dynamic obstacle avoidance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.F., D.Y. and Z.M.; formal analysis, S.F., D.Y. and Z.M.; in-
vestigation, S.F. and D.Y.; resources, S.F. and D.Y.; data curation, S.F., D.Y. and Z.M.; writing—original
draft preparation, D.Y. and Z.M.; writing—review and editing, S.F., D.Y. and Z.M.; supervision, S.F.
and Z.M.; project administration, S.F., Z.M. and W.Z.; funding acquisition, S.F. and Z.M. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China General
Program (51874308), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation Project (2019M660860), and Basic
Research Operating Expenses of Universities under Beijing Municipality (Youth Scientific Research
and Innovation Special Project X21051).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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