FOLD CLASSIFICATION, SUBTYPES, AND EFFECTS

1. Geometric Classification (Based on Shape)

Folds can be classified based on their shape.

 Antiform / Anticline: An antiform is an upward-arching fold where the limbs dip away from
each other. If the core contains the oldest rock layers, it is called an anticline.
 Synform / Syncline: A synform is a downward fold where the limbs dip toward each other. If
the core contains the youngest rock layers, it is known as a syncline.
 Monocline: A step-like fold with two nearly horizontal limbs connected by a steeper middle
section, often associated with faulting in underlying rock layers.

Effect: These folds influence surface topography, create natural basins, and can trap oil, gas, and
water within rock formations.

2. Genetic Classification (Based on Formation Forces)

Folds can also be categorized based on the forces that cause their formation.

 Tectonic Folds: Result from compressional forces acting tangentially to the Earth's surface,
causing bending or buckling (e.g., anticlines, synclines, and monoclines).
 Gravity-Induced Folds: Form due to vertical forces such as:
1. Downward movement of rock layers under gravity.
2. Upward push from rising salt domes.
 Flow Folds: Occur in ductile rock layers that deform plastically under high temperature and
pressure, such as:
1. Salt deposits.
2. Deeply buried gneisses.

Effect: These folds contribute to the formation of mountain ranges, sedimentary basins, and
structures that can influence groundwater flow and mineral deposits.

3. Mechanical Classification (Based on Rock Behavior)

This classification is based on how rock layers respond to deformation.

 Competent Folds: Form in brittle rocks that resist deformation, maintaining sharp and well-
defined structures.
 Incompetent Folds: Occur in ductile rocks that flow under stress, resulting in softer, more
irregular folds.

Effect: The mechanical properties of rocks determine how they react to stress, influencing rock strength,
fault development, and the stability of geological structures.
2 KINDS OF FAULTS AND THEIR SUBTYPES AND EFFECTS

1. Dip-slip Faults

Dip-slip faults are fractures where movement primarily occurs parallel to the dip (inclination) of the fault
plane, resulting in vertical displacement of rock layers.

Subtypes:

 Normal Faults:
Normal faults form when the greatest stress acting on the crust is vertical, usually due to
gravitational forces causing extension of the Earth's crust. In a normal fault, the hanging wall
block moves downward relative to the footwall block, often creating rift valleys or grabens.

 Reverse Faults and Thrust Faults:

Reverse faults develop under conditions of horizontal compression, causing the hanging wall to
move upward relative to the footwall. If the fault plane dips gently at angles of 45 degrees or
less, it is specifically called a thrust fault; these faults often result in large-scale crustal
shortening.

Effects of Dip-slip Faults:

Dip-slip faults generally cause vertical displacement of rock layers, affecting geological structure and
surface topography. Normal faults typically extend the horizontal distance between rock layers, placing
younger strata adjacent to older strata. Reverse and thrust faults shorten the horizontal distance of rock
layers, causing older strata to override younger strata and forming overlapping geological features such
as imbricate structures, nappes, and overthrust zones.

2. Wrench Faults (Strike-slip Faults)

Wrench faults, also known as strike-slip faults, occur when movement along the fault is primarily
horizontal, and the fault plane is usually near-vertical.

Subtypes:

 Dextral (right-handed) Faults:

In dextral wrench faults, the block on the far side of the fault moves horizontally to the right
relative to an observer facing the fault, causing lateral offset of geological features.

 Sinistral (left-handed) Faults:

In sinistral wrench faults, the block on the far side of the fault moves horizontally to the left
relative to an observer facing the fault, similarly resulting in lateral displacement.

Effects of Wrench Faults:

Wrench faults predominantly cause horizontal displacement of geological features, visibly offsetting rock
layers, fold axes, or linear features laterally. On geological maps, wrench faults appear as horizontal
offsets that shift previously continuous structures. Indicators such as slickensides—horizontal grooves on
fault surfaces—are common evidence of wrench faulting.
Summary of Fault Effects on Rock Layers and Surface Features:

 Normal Faults: These faults lead to the vertical displacement of rock layers, creating increased
horizontal spacing between layers and juxtaposing younger rocks downward against older rocks,
often forming valleys or basins.

 Reverse and Thrust Faults: These faults reduce horizontal spacing by pushing older rock layers
upward over younger ones, often creating mountainous features, imbricate structures
resembling roof tiles, or large-scale geological features called nappes.

 Wrench (Strike-slip) Faults: These faults shift geological features horizontally, creating lateral
offsets without significant vertical movement, resulting in the displacement of fold axes, rock
layers, or other linear geological features.

7 Discontinuities of rocks

1. Joints
Joints are natural fractures in rocks along which little or no displacement has occurred.

 Systematic joints occur as parallel or subparallel fractures consistently oriented,

indicating uniform stress conditions.

 Nonsystematic joints are irregularly oriented and formed under less uniform stress
conditions.

 Master joints penetrate multiple rock layers and persist for considerable distances,
significantly influencing rock mass stability.

 Major joints are prominent fractures that are smaller than master joints but still
distinctly visible and persistent.

 Minor joints are small-scale fractures that do not cross bedding planes, often confined
within a single rock layer.

 Micro-joints are minute fractures, just millimeters in size, common in finely bedded
sedimentary rocks.

Effects:
Joints represent planes of weakness that significantly decrease rock mass strength, affect
permeability and fluid flow, influence weathering rates, and often dictate slope stability. The
closer and more persistent the joints, the weaker the rock mass becomes, potentially creating
serious geological and engineering challenges.

2. Bedding Planes
Bedding planes are planar discontinuities separating individual layers of sedimentary rock
formed by deposition processes.
+ Bedding planes typically represent variations in sedimentation conditions, resulting in physical
and sometimes compositional differences between adjacent rock layers.
Effects:
They often act as preferential paths for groundwater flow, facilitate weathering, and control the
structural integrity and stability of sedimentary rock masses, especially influencing slope
stability, tunneling, and excavation activities.

3. Cleavage Planes
Cleavage planes are planar discontinuities in rocks produced by the parallel alignment of
minerals due to tectonic deformation and metamorphism, resulting in rock layers splitting easily
along these surfaces.
+ Cleavage typically develops perpendicular to the direction of maximum compressional stress
during metamorphism.

Effects:
Cleavage planes greatly influence rock behavior, particularly in metamorphic terrains, by
reducing tensile strength, facilitating splitting, and impacting engineering properties such as
anisotropic strength and deformation characteristics.

4. Schistosity
Schistosity is a pronounced foliation or layering within metamorphic rocks resulting from the
alignment of platy minerals under directed pressure and heat.
+ Schistosity develops parallel to mineral alignment, causing rocks like schists to split into thin,
flaky layers easily.

Effects:
It results in significant structural anisotropy, reducing strength perpendicular to foliation,
influencing slope stability, excavation behavior, and tunneling safety.

5. Fissures
Fissures are elongated openings or cracks within rocks, typically larger and more open than
joints, often created by tensile stresses or relaxation of pressure near Earth's surface.
+ Fissures may form due to cooling (e.g., columnar jointing in volcanic rocks), drying (shrinkage
fissures in sediments), or unloading stresses from erosion.

Effects:
Fissures markedly increase rock mass permeability, allowing rapid groundwater flow, and
weaken rock structures significantly. Large fissures can also pose risks for slope stability and
undermine foundations.

6. Faults
Faults are fractures in rock masses across which substantial relative displacement has occurred,
either vertically, horizontally, or obliquely.

 Normal Faults: Vertical displacement caused by extensional stresses, leading to

elongation of the crust and the downward movement of the hanging wall.

 Reverse (Thrust) Faults: Result from compressional stresses causing the hanging wall to
move upward relative to the footwall, shortening the crust.
 Wrench (Strike-slip) Faults: Primarily horizontal displacement along near-vertical fault
planes due to lateral shearing stresses.

Effects:
Faults dramatically alter rock mass stability, influencing seismic activity, groundwater flow,
mineralization, and landscape morphology. Fault zones often contain crushed, weakened rock
(fault gouge), leading to problematic engineering conditions.

7. Sheeting (Sheet or Mural Joints)

Sheeting is the formation of nearly horizontal or gently curved fractures parallel to the Earth's
surface, commonly observed in large igneous intrusions like granite as overlying rock layers
erode away, releasing residual stresses.

+These fractures often form concentric shells or layers, giving the appearance of artificial
stratification (pseudo-stratification).

Effects:
Sheeting fractures reduce rock mass strength significantly and contribute to slope instability,
posing challenges during excavation and quarrying operations, and causing rapid weathering and
rockfall hazards.