UNIT II : SEARCH AND GAME TREE

SEARCH PROBLEMS IN AI:

Problem-solving agents:
In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving
methods. Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used these search
strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide the best result.
Problem-solving agents are the goal-based agents and use atomic representation.
Search Algorithm Terminologies:

o Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a

given search space. A search problem can have three main factors:

a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions,

which a system may have.
b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns
whether the goal state is achieved or not.
Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree.
The root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the
initial state.
Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented
as a transition model.
Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal
node.
Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

Properties of Search Algorithms:

Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare the
efficiency of these algorithms:
Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return
a solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best

solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is
said to be an optimal solution.

Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to

complete its task.

Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point during
the search, as the complexity of the problem.

Types of search algorithms

Uninformed/Blind Search:
The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as closeness,
the location of the goal. It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes
information about how to traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and goal nodes.
Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is searched without any
information about the search space like initial state operators and test for the goal,
so it is also called blind search.It examines each node of the tree until it achieves
the goal node.
Informed Search
Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search,
problem information is available which can guide the search. Informed search
strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an uninformed search strategy.
Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.
A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but
guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.
Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in
another way.
An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.
1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search
Uninformed Search Algorithms
Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates
in brute force-way. Uninformed search algorithms do not have additional
information about state or search space other than how to traverse the tree, so it is
also called blind search.
Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:
 Breadth-first Search
 Depth-first Search
 Depth-limited Search
 Iterative deepening depth-first search
 Uniform cost search
 Bidirectional Search

1. Breadth-first Search:
o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree
or graph. This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is
called breadth-first search.
o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all
successor node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search
algorithm.
o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.
Advantages:
o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
o If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will
provide the minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into
memory to expand the next level.
o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS
algorithm from the root node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse in
layers, so it will follow the path which is shown by the dotted arrow, and the
traversed path will be:

2. Depth-first Search
o Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data
structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and
follows each path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
Advantage:
o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes
on the path from root node to the current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses
in the right path).
Disadvantage:
o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the
infinite loop.
Example:

In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it
will follow the order as: Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E,
after traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and
still goal node is not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and
then G, and here it will terminate as it found goal node.
3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:
A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite
path in the Depth-first search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will
treat as it has no successor nodes further.
Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
o Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given
depth limit.
Advantages:
Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.
Disadvantages:
o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
Example:
4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:
Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or
graph. This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each
edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node
which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands nodes
according to their path costs form the root node. It can be used to solve any
graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm is
implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum priority to the lowest
cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path
cost of all edges is the same.
Advantages:
o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least
cost is chosen.
Disadvantages:
o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only
concerned about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an
infinite loop.
Example:
5. Iterative deepeningdepth-first Search:
The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms.
This search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually
increasing the limit until a goal is found.
This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it
keeps increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search
and depth-first search's memory efficiency.
The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is
large, and depth of goal node is unknown.
Advantages:
o Itcombines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast
search and memory efficiency.
Disadvantages:
o The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous
phase.
Example:
Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth-first search.
IDDFS algorithm performs various iterations until it does not find the goal node.
The iteration performed by the algorithm is given as:
Bidirectional Search Algorithm:
Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial
state called as forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-search,
to find the goal node. Bidirectional search replaces one single search graph with
two small subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other
starts from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect each
other.
Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.

Advantages:
o Bidirectional search is fast.
o Bidirectional search requires less memory

Disadvantages:

o Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

o In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.

Example:
In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This
algorithm divides one graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing
from node 1 in the forward direction and starts from goal node 16 in the
backward direction.

The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

Informed Search Algorithms:

Here, the algorithms have information on the goal state, which helps in more
efficient searching. This information is obtained by something called a heuristic.
In this section, we will discuss the following search algorithms.
1. Greedy Search
2. A* Tree Search
3. A* Graph Search
Search Heuristics: In an informed search, a heuristic is a function that estimates
how close a state is to the goal state. For example – Manhattan distance, Euclidean
distance, etc. (Lesser the distance, closer the goal.) Different heuristics are used in
different informed algorithms discussed below.
Greedy Search:
In greedy search, we expand the node closest to the goal node. The “closeness” is
estimated by a heuristic h(x).

Heuristic: A heuristic h is defined as-

h(x) = Estimate of distance of node x from the goal node.
Lower the value of h(x), closer is the node from the goal.

Strategy: Expand the node closest to the goal state, i.e. expand the node with a
lower h value.

Example:
Question. Find the path from S to G using greedy search. The heuristic values h of
each node below the name of the node.
Game tree:
A game tree is a tree where nodes of the tree are the game states and Edges of the
tree are the moves by players. Game tree involves initial state, actions function,
and result Function.
Example: Tic-Tac-Toe game tree:
The following figure is showing part of the game-tree for tic-tac-toe game.
Following are some key points of the game:
o There are two players MAX and MIN.
o Players have an alternate turn and start with MAX.
o MAX maximizes the result of the game tree
o MIN minimizes the result.

Example Explanation:
o From the initial state, MAX has 9 possible moves as he starts first. MAX
place x and MIN place o, and both player plays alternatively until we reach a
leaf node where one player has three in a row or all squares are filled.
o Both players will compute each node, minimax, the minimax value which is
the best achievable utility against an optimal adversary.
o Suppose both the players are well aware of the tic-tac-toe and playing the
best play. Each player is doing his best to prevent another one from winning.
MIN is acting against Max in the game.
o So in the game tree, we have a layer of Max, a layer of MIN, and each layer
is called as Ply. Max place x, then MIN puts o to prevent Max from
winning, and this game continues until the terminal node.
o In this either MIN wins, MAX wins, or it's a draw. This game-tree is the
whole search space of possibilities that MIN and MAX are playing tic-tac-
toe and taking turns alternately.
Hence adversarial Search for the minimax procedure works as follows:
o It aims to find the optimal strategy for MAX to win the game.
o It follows the approach of Depth-first search.
o In the game tree, optimal leaf node could appear at any depth of the tree.
o Propagate the minimax values up to the tree until the terminal node
discovered.
In a given game tree, the optimal strategy can be determined from the minimax
value of each node, which can be written as MINIMAX(n). MAX prefer to move
to a state of maximum value and MIN prefer to move to a state of minimum value
then:
Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence
o Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used
in decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the
player assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.
o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
o Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess,
Checkers, tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm
computes the minimax decision for the current state.
o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is
called MIN.
o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit
while they get the maximum benefit.
o Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will
select the maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.
o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the
exploration of the complete game tree.
o The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of
the tree, then backtrack the tree as the recursion.
Working of Min-Max Algorithm:
The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example.
Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-
player game.
In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called
Minimizer.
Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to
get the minimum possible score.
This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way
through the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value
and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps
involved in solving the two-player game tree:
Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the
utility function to get the utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree
diagram, let's take A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes first
turn which has worst-case initial value =- infinity, and minimizer will take next
turn which has worst-case initial value = +infinity.
Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞,
so we will compare each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer and
determines the higher nodes values. It will find the maximum among the all.

o For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes
value with +∞, and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum
of all nodes value and find the maximum value for the root node. In this
game tree, there are only 4 layers, hence we reach immediately to the root
node, but in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if
exist), in the finite search tree.
o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing
optimally.
o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time
complexity of Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the
game-tree, and m is the maximum depth of the tree.
o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar
to DFS which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for
complex games such as Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge
branching factor, and the player has lots of choices to decide. This limitation
of the minimax algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning