CHAPTER: 2

Model
 Explain OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model and their Functions.

 International standard organization (ISO- Year 1947) established a committee in 1977 to develop
an architecture for computer communication.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
 In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard (IS) for computer communications architecture.
 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programme(such as spreadsheets (excel)) through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems.
 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

Fig: Seven layers of OSI Reference Model

 Why OSI is Layered Architecture?

The OSI model is composed of seven layers:

Physical (layer1), Data link (layer2), Network (layer3) Transport (layer4), Session (layer5),
presentation (layer6) Application (layer7)
Layers:
 Designer identified which networking functions had related uses and collected those functions
into discrete groups that became the layers.
 The OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems.
 The Each layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
 Data is Encapsulated (Data + Header) with the necessary protocol information as it moves down
the layers before network transit.

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Fig: An exchange using the OSI model

(1) Physical Layer

 Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical
medium.
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to next.
 Physical layer is concerned with the following: (deal with the mechanical and electrical
specification of the primary connections: cable, connector)

Functions:

Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium:

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The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and the
transmission media, including its type.

Representation of bits (below figure):

The physical layer data consist of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted,
bits must be encoded into signals –electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding.

Data rate : transmission rate:

The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits sent each second.

Synchronization of bits:

Sender and receiver clocks must be synchronized.

Line configuration:

The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the medium.

Example: Point-to-point , Multipoint

Physical topology:

Defines how devices are connected to make a network.

Example: Bus,Star,Mesh,Tree,Ring

Transmission mode:

Direction of Transmission between to devices.

Example: Simplex,Half-Duplex, Full Duplex

(2) Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Functions:

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Framing:

Divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into frames.

Physical addressing:

It provides the Sender & Receiver system’s address .

Flow control:

Sender’s Data send speed must be same as the Receiver’s Receiving speed.

Error control:

Tailer is responsible for the detection of error frame/ lost frame and retransmit that frames.

Access control:

When two devices are connected to the same link,which device has control over the link at any
given time.

(3) Network Layer

 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to
the destination host.

Functions:

Logical addressing: The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer,
among other things, includes the logical address of the sender and receiver.

Routing: When independent networks or links are connected together to create a network of
networks or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or gateways) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.

(4) Transport Layer

 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

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Functions:

Segmentation and reassembly:

A message is divided into transmittable segments, each having a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the
destination.

Connection control:

The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.

Connectionless transport layer: It treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination machine.

Connection-oriented transport layer: It makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.

Flow control:

The transport layer performs a flow control end to end. The data link layer performs flow control
across a single link.

Error control:

The transport layer performs error control end to end. The data link layer performs control across
a single link.

Port Addressing:

Computer often run several processes (running programs) at the same time. Process-to-process
delivery means delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the other.

(5) Session Layer

 The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

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Functions:

Dialog Control:
It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications.

Session Management:
Connection Estabilished, Maintained, Terminated : This layer requests for a logical connection to
be established on an end-user’s request. Any necessary logon or password validation is also handled
by this layer. When requirements complete it just terminate the connection.

Synchronization (Check-points):
If a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last
checkpoint.
Example: If system is sending a file of 2000 pages, here put checkpoints after every 100 pages to
ensure that each 100 page unit is received and acknowledged independently. If crash happens during
transmission of page 786 page,then resend only 701 to 786 only, not resend from 1 to 786 pages.

(6) Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

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Functions:

Translation (Character Set Conversion):

The presentation layer at the sender side changes the information from its senderdependent

format into a comman format and the presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.

Encryption & Decryption:

To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that the
sender transforms thye original information to another form and sends the resulting message out
over the network.

Decryption means it reverse the original process to transform the message back to its original form.

Data Compresion & Decompression:

Data Compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.

Example: Text (.doc to .txt), Audio (.mp3 to .rm) ,Video (.vob to .3gp)

(7) Application Layer

 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

 It provides user interfaces and support for services such electronic email, remote file access,
WWW, and so on.

Functions:

Network virtual terminal:

It is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.

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File transfer, access, and management:

It allows user to access files in a remote host (to read /to make changes),to retrieve files from a
remote computer for use in the local computer.

Mail services:

It provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

Directory services:

It provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various objects &
services.

Summary of Layers:-

 Explain TCP/IP Reference Model.

 TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): model was developed before the OSI
model in 1970.
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.
 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of
five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.

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Fig: Basic structure of TCP/IP and OSI model

Fig: Detail view of TCP/IP and OSI model

(1) Host-to-Network Layer (Network Access Layer)

 This is the lowest layer in the TCP/IP reference model.
 The host has to connect to the network using some protocol, so that it can send the IP packet
over it. This protocol varies from host to host and network to network.
 At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol.

Functions of Physical Layer:

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits

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 Data rate: transmission rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode
Functions of Data Link Layer:
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control
 Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery

(2) Internet Layer (IP Layer)(Network Layer)

 This layer is located above the host to host and below the Transport layer.
 This layer is called the internet layer and it holds the whole architecture.
 The task of these layers is to allow the host to insert packets into any network and then make
them travel independently to the destination.
 The internet layer defines a packet format and a protocol is called internet protocol (IP).
 The internet layer is supposed to deliver IP packets to their destination. So, routing of packets
and congestion control are important issues related to this layer.
 The protocols are located on this layer are IP, ICMP, IGMP. ARP, RARP.
IP (Internetworking Protocol)(Internet Protocol):
 It is a host-to-host protocol.
 It is Connectionless & Unreliable Protocol.
 Packets in the IP layer called Datagram.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 It is used to find the Physical address (MAC Address) of the node when the Logical
address (IP Address) is known.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
 It is used to find the Logical address (IP Address) of the node when its Physical
address (MAC Address)is known.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 It is used to handle control and error messages in this layer.
IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
 It provides two multicasting.
 Multicasting means one computer sometimes need to send the same message to the
number of computers at same time.
 Example: Send one e-mail to the group (multiple e-mail id).

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(3) Transport Layer
 This is the layer above the internet layer.
 Its function are same those of a transport layer in OSI model.
 Transport layer is responsible for host to host delivery.
 The transport layer was represented in by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
 TCP and UDP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a
process to another process.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 It is Connectionless and Unreliable protocol.
 The packet produces by UDP is called Datagram.
 Provides Port-to-port Communication.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 It is Connection Oriented and Reliable protocol.
 The packet in Transport layer is called Segment.
 Provides Port-to-port Communication.
 It is slower than UDP.

(4) Application Layer

 TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layer, because they are of little
importance in most application.
 This layer on top of transport layer is called as application layer.
 The protocol related to this layer are all high level protocols such as virtual terminal(TELNET),
file transfer protocol(FTP), and electronics mail(E-MAIL).

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 It supports e-mail on the internet.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

 It supports file copying from one computer to another computer.
 To copy file some problems must occurs like:
 Two systems may use different file structure.
 Two systems may have different way to represent text and data.
 Two systems may have different directory structures.
All this problems have been solved by FTP.

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol):

 It provides simple copies of the file.
 They do not need to solve the problems.
Two operations:
 Reading:- Copying a file from the server site to the client site.

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 Writing:- Copying a file from the client site to the server site.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):

 It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring & maintaining devices in
the internet.

TELNET (Terminal Network):

 It is general purpose client server application program used for remote login.

 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model

SR.NO OSI model TCP/IP model

1 Has a seven layers Has a four layers
2 Transport layer guarantees delivery of A transport layer does not guarantee
packets. delivery of packets.
3 Horizontal approach. Vertical approach.
4 Separate session layer. No session layer, service provided by
transport layers.
5 Separate presentation layer. No presentation layer, service provided
by application layer.
6 Network layer provides both Network layer provides only
connectionless and connection oriented connectionless services.
services.
7 It defines the service, interfaces and It does not clearly distinguish between
protocols very clearly and makes a clear services, interfaces and protocols.
distinction between them.
8 The protocols are better hidden and It is not easy to replace the protocols.
can be easily replaced as the
technology changes.
9 OSI is truly a general model application. TCP/IP cannot be used for any other.

10 It has a problem of protocol fitting into The model does not fit any other protocol
a model. stack.

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