Middle Egyptian

Grammar
through

Literature

Gabor Toth
Rutgers University-Camden
Preface
One day, a group of people in a small Chinese village went to the police station. They
made a formal request to change their family name. The officials were taken aback,
because in China, family names go back generations and families are usually keen on
preserving them.
First, the police thought the reason was that someone in the family was a criminal. Then,
the family revealed that their name was 苟1 (Gŏu2). This word means “careless,
negligent,” and the written character does not have a negative connotation. But another
word 狗 (gŏu) “dog” is pronounced exactly the same way, and it just happens to be one
of the curse words in Chinese. For example, 狗腿子 (gŏu tuĭ zi) is a rich person’s
enforcer, a henchman, and a typical curse for a bad man is 这个狗东西 (zhè ge gŏu
dōngxi). This is a bit strange since many Chinese family names are animal names. For
example, 马 (mă) “horse” and 牛 (niú) “ox” are frequently occurring Chinese family
names, and the “dog” also has an equal rank with them in the Chinese lunar calendar. But
the children of the 苟 families were always called names in school and were haunted by it
through life.
They also told the police that an old man of the 苟 family remembered that the family’s
original name was not 苟, but 敬 (Jìng). The two names have the character 苟 in
common and differ only by the “side radical” 文.
The police asked for evidence. The family found a local historian and after some
research, he found out that there lived an emperor between 907 and 960 A.D., whose
name was 石敬瑭 (Shí Jìngtáng). The middle character 敬 was the same as the old family
name. The reason for the name change was that in China, one cannot bear the same name
as the emperor. When the Emperor came to power, he decreed that everyone who has the
敬 name must change it. The two characters, 敬 and 苟 are very similar, and so the 敬
families changed their name to 苟. This seemed an innocent choice as a thousand years
ago, “dog” was 犬 (quăn), and 苟 did not have a negative connotation.
Due to evidence the family produced, the police allowed it to change its name. When this
was reported in a newspaper, the police all over China got requests from 苟 families who
now wanted to change their name.
There was a 15-year old girl named 苟 who said she was so inspired by her name change
that she said she was going to become a doctor. But when she did become a doctor, all
the patients knew her real name was 苟 and she became known as the 狗医生 (gŏu
yīshēng) “dog doctor.”

What did we learn form this story? A few Chinese customs may immediately call the
reader’s attention. For example, in ancient China an ordinary citizen could not bear the

1
Unless stated otherwise we use simplified (mainland) Chinese characters.
2
The pinyin Romanization system is used.
same name as the emperor (which is the source of all the problems in the story). This
custom, more like an imperial decree, is alien to ancient Egypt, where officials of the
court and scribes could be called “Ameny” during the reign of any of the
pharaohs having their son of Re name “Amenemhat.” But
customs aside, comparing the identically sounded characters 狗 and 苟 one can see that
they are composed of a common part and an additional sign. The common part is called
the “phonetic” and the extra sign is the “radical.” The phonetic tells how the sign is
pronounced and the radical usually (but not always) points to or gives a clue for the
meaning of the word. For example, at the left side of the sign 狗 is the so-called “animal
radical” and it appears as part of a whole host of animal names, such as 猪 (zhū) “pig,”
猫 (māo) “cat,” or with related meaning 狠 (hěn) “ferocious, ruthless.” Other radicals are
not so pointed, for example, the connection of the “grass radical” on the top of the sign
苟 with the actual meaning of the word has been obscured by time. These so-called
“picto-phonetic” characters comprise about 80% of the approximately 49,000 Chinese
characters. (They came to China with the Song Dynasty c. 1500-1066 BC.) The radicals
help to distinguish in writing between characters that sound the same. For example, the
sign 古 (gǔ) “ancient” is part of the words 估 (gū) “estimate (person radical),” 姑(gū)
“aunt (female radical),” 菇(gū) “mushroom (grass and female radicals),” 牯 (gǔ) “bull
(ox radical),” 故 (gù) “reason, cause (tap radical),” and 固 (gù) “firm, solid (enclosure
radical).”
The ancient Egyptians were confronted with the same problem: How to distinguish the
roughly 17,000 Egyptian short words in writing from each other? Instead of inventing the
Chinese radicals, they came up with a different solution: the system of determinatives.
These extra signs (placed usually at the end of the words) came into existence for the
same reason as the Chinese radicals. Insisting on short words and limiting the total
number of signs inevitably lead to a multitude of coincidences. Although graphically
different, the determinatives serve the same purpose; to distinguish between words that
are spelled the same way. For example, “exist” is part of the words
“open,” “hurry,” “fault, blame,” “stripped off.” They are
transliterated the same way (the verbs in appropriate verb forms) , but their meanings
are different.
We also learned from the story that adding a radical to a Chinese character can also
change its sound, for example, adding the “tap radical” to 苟 gŏu, it becomes 敬 jìng.
The radicals can also be combined with each other, for example, the person radical 人
forced into the enclosure radical 口 gives 囚 qiú “captive, prisoner, imprison.” The
ancient Egyptians solved this problem by combining (the passive participle of) the verb
“smite, strike down” with the adjective “living, alive” to get
“captive,” lit. “one who is smitten alive.” They also
made sure that the word conveys the correct meaning by inserting many determinatives
wherever possible.
As another example, in the traditional Chinese character 愛 (ài) “love” the middle part
心 (xīn) is the heart radical and the lower part is the hand radical. The composition
carries the simple meaning that a person in love takes his/her heart in hand (and brings it
to the loved one). The similar Middle Egyptian phrase is composed of a number of signs:
“your heart in your hand,” and it carries a different meaning:
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“the presence of mind.”
In both languages there are many radicals. A Chinese dictionary lists 190-230 radicals
(with the discrepancy due to different interpretations of the combined ones), and
Gardiner’s Egyptian Grammar has about 108 generic radicals.
Which signs can serve as radicals and which have phonetic values (and which are
ideograms)? Due to the overwhelming ratio of the picto-phonetic characters in Chinese,
this is only a problem in Middle Egyptian. One of the first difficulties that a student
encounters is that many signs can play both roles. For example every student of Middle
Egyptian learns at the first lesson that the uniliteral the “horned viper” has the
phonetic value . Only later it turns out that this sign is also the determinative in the word
“father.” (What is more, it is actually an ideogram for Upper-Egypt’s XIIth
nome the so-called “mountain of the horned viper.”) In case of the combined
sign (a label from Tomb U-j in Abydos) it is not even clear whether it should be read
as two phonetic signs or as an ideogram combined with a determinative. In the first case,
according to Günther Dreyer, it should be read as “Abydos,” and in the second, the
elephant stands for “Elephantine” and the determinative designates foreign land.

The Chinese story we just read raised a few basic issues in the Chinese and Middle
Egyptian languages. The past 10 years of teaching an introductory course in Middle
Egyptian at Rutgers University-Camden convinced the author that a profitable and
rewarding way to draw the students’ interests to this subject (and to raise one of the worst
retention rates in languages) is to bring into instruction as many literary works and as
soon as possible. This is especially important in the study of the Middle Egyptian verbal
structure, the most complex part of the language. For example, faithful translation of the
six forms not only requires the understanding of the particular sentence or clause
that they appear in but also the understanding the context they are imbedded in. Reading
literature in any languages however needs at least some rudimentary knowledge of
grammar and vocabulary. This book is no exception. The reader is assumed to have some
familiarity with Middle Egyptian writing and basic grammar, including the grammar of
forming nonverbal sentences and clauses.
The focus of the book is on Middle Egyptian verbal structure by studying a variety of
genres of literature. Each lesson text starts with a specific piece of literature and is
followed by its own Vocabulary and Grammar Points. For the convenience of the reader,
these vocabularies are assembled into a dictionary at the end of the book.

3
[Sh. S. 14].
4
Lichtheim’s translation.
To focus on grammar rather than reading, the texts are written in horizontal lines from
left to right. We also use spaces (rather than commas) and line breaks between logically
distinguishable clauses and sentences. For greater clarity, we sometimes emend the
hieroglyphs (with references in the Grammar Points). For example, in the spelling of the
verb “give, put, cause” we use the bread giving arm rather than the simplified
form . In addition, we avoid large stacks of hieroglyphs, for example, instead of
we will write . For the other extreme, we will also try avoiding leaving flat signs
alone; for example, a lonely scroll determinative will be written as .
In the vocabularies and the dictionary we usually use the first dictionary form of words
regardless of how they appear in specific texts. The dictionary forms are taken from
Raymond O. Faulkner, A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian (Oxford: Griffith
Institute, 1988), J. E. Hoch, Middle Egyptian Grammar (Society for the Study of
Egyptian Antiquities Publications, 15, 1996), and James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian
(Cambridge University Press, 2000).
We will give full (traditional) transliteration of the texts and point out the signs that are
missing from specific spellings. Variant spellings that appear in the texts will be pointed
out, for example, a variant spelling of Kush (northern Sudan) appears in the
second stela of Kamose as
The purpose of this book is to give the reader enough guidance in Middle Egyptian
grammar so that he or she will be able to arrive at his or her own translation of the texts.
To give complete translations would therefore defy this purpose. At the difficult passages
we will not only explain more grammar points, but will also point out and discuss the
often conflicting views of grammarians. Translations by well-known Egyptologists are
also widely available also in books and through the Internet. Among these, the three-
volume work of Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature (Berkeley, University of
California Press, 1973) and William K. Simpson (Editor), The Literature of Ancient
Egypt, (The American University of Cairo Press, 2005) are standard references
throughout this book.
In the selection of the texts careful attention is paid to chronology. In addition, the most
well-known of all the ancient Egyptian stories, the Story of Sinuhe and the Westcar
Papyrus have not been chosen since their analyses are widely available.
To show the universality of the ideas and mindset of the Egyptians, the texts are
accompanied by various quotes from classical pieces of literature. In finding suitable
quotes Michael McClain, a former Rutgers student of Classical Studies, provided an
indispensable help to the author.
Contents
Preface
Contents
1. The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni
2. Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part I
3. Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part II
4. Two Boundary Stelae of Senwosret III
5. The Second Stela of Kamose: Part I
6. The Second Stela of Kamose: Part II
7. The Second Stela of Kamose: Part III
8. The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part I
9. The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part II
10. The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part III
11. The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part I
12. The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part II
13. The Bull Hunt Scarab of Amenhotep III
14. Two Harpers’ Songs
Appendix I
1. Uniliterals
2. Biliterals
3. Triliterals
Appendix II
1. Regular Root Classes
2. Summary of Verb Forms and Constructions
Appendix III
List of Verb Forms Occurring in the Texts
Dictionary
1
The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni
“A man’s best treasure is a thrifty tongue,
His most appealing gift, a tongue that moves
With moderation; for if you should speak
Slander, you’ll soon hear worse about yourself.”
Hesiod, Works and Days, translated by Dorothea Wender

1
2
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#!$%

3
The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni

Vocabulary
prosperous bread
submissive, love, desire, want
timid, fearful, respectful
moment, instant
bless, praise
small, a trifle
modest, regular, correct,
straightforward, precise, trustworthy, control temper
loyal
self-denial,
open restraint, self-control

tent heart, mind

silent, still, (noun) silence base(ness),

wrongdoing
broad, wide
gluttony,
seat, place, throne intemperance, voracity; with the
be quiet, at peace determinative glutton, gourmand,
gastronome, chowhound
(verb) speak, talk,
(noun) speech point the finger ( at),
reproach
sharp
cup, jar
knife
water
go astray, stray,
transgress, overstep (path) extinguish (fire)
path quench (thirst)
rush, hurry, attack be thirsty
time, occasion, event, deed, fill, be full of
misdeed, fault
mouthful
sit, sit down
mouth, speech, spell
multitude of
persons, company of guests herbs, edible
vegetable
dislike, hate
make firm, strengthen

4
beautiful, good, fine then (particle)
stand for, replace, soothe
serve instead of
empty, free ( of)
a mere
trifle reproach, blame

great, much, many bread

vile (adj.) power, (verb)

have power, give power ( to)
be greedy, covetous
word
belly, body
(verb) speak, talk
pass (noun) speech
time kind, gentle ( to)
forget be harsh,
overbearing
roam, travel freely
mother
eat
servants
fever of appetite, greed
go up, emerge
, drink
name
be drunk
silent, still, silence
take, accept
call, summon
be content, pleased, happy,
peaceful great, big
be savage, aggressive, strength, power
angry
young men
flesh, meat
,
side guard, ward off, beware lest
beside, in the presence oppose, be in
of opposition
be greedy learn, know
thrust aside, set happen, evolve, occur
aside, push away
do, make

5
, , god (preposition) like
in front of, corresponding to, surpass, transgress
when, accordingly
wealth, increase,
punish excess, surplus
vizier ordain, order, predestine,
assign, settle
child
, belly
wake, aftermath
read aloud, recite
know, perceive, gain full
knowledge of, be wise , thing, property
conduct, nature, plan, land
counsel
incarnation, majesty
people
King of the Upper and
character, qualities Lower Egypt
come, return moor, die
(verb) end up; (preposition) install, raise up, set up
since; (noun) limit
king
say, tell, speak
beneficient, functional,
that worthwile
write, writing overseer, steward
papyrus-roll, town
register
come, return
hear, listen

6
The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni

Grammar Points
中雍之道 (zhōng yōng zhī dào) is a famous Confucian quote in which 中 means
“moderation, middle road,” 雍 means “harmony,” and 之connects the modifier with the

word modified. 道 originally means “principle, doctrine” later elevated in Taoism to

“way, road, path.” The first two lines of The Instructions Addressed to Kagemni contain

the words “submissive, timid”, “modest,

trustworthy, loyal,” “silent, still,” “quiet, at peace,” and

convey the same idea, adding that anyone who follows this principle will be rewarded.

The noun “the silent man” and also “the knowledgeable man”
are the description of a man who lives according to Maat, the principles of harmony and
order.
It is fascinating that in such distant cultures as Confucian China and the Middle Kingdom
of Ancient Egypt thinkers arrived at the same idea. When translating the present text, this
universal principle should be kept in mind.

In this instruction the author, the father of the vizier Kagemni, conjectured to be the
famous sage Kaires, shares his wisdom with his children. The text starts with an
adjectival sentence (adjectival predicate + subject) whose subject “fearful, timid” is

a noun of agent derived from the verb “become afraid.” In this and
subsequent chapters, nouns of agent will occur several times. For example, in the
Semna/Uronarti Stela of Senwosret III, and are nouns of agent derived from

the adjective-verbs “aggressive, angry” and “hasty,

impetuous.” Further examples of nouns of agent are “the one who listens, the

listener” from “hear,” “the one who reports, the herald” from

7
“repeat,” and “follower, retainer” from “follow.” In the second

clause the passive1 of the verb is employed whose subject has many
meanings. According to Gardiner,2 a good translation of should have a touch of the
Confucian moderation and balance.

The adjectival sentences continue. In the first clause can be taken as a genitival
adjective “open the tent of the silent” (Scharff, Gardiner), or (emphasizing the reward of
a quiet and modest person) as a preposition “the tent is open to the silent” (Federn,

Lichtheim). According to Gardiner, (with the seated man as a

determinative) can also mean “contented (one).”

Conversation manners are emphasized here in a simple negation of the imperative; the

negative word usually written as “do not” is followed by the negatival

complement of the verb “speak.” Recall that the negatival complement (for verbs
with non-geminated stems) is formed by the base stem plus . Here contrary to norm the
ending is spelled out. Lichtheim’s vivid translation “Do not chatter!” is worth mentioning.

The violent nature of the adjectival sentence “the knives are sharp” and the negative
meaning of the active participle “he who transgresses” of the verb “transgress, go
astray” clearly indicates that the preposition here should be understood as “against.”
Stern warning is issued for “he who transgresses from the road,” a phrase that
Lichtheim translates as “the blunderer.”

1
See the Summary of Verb Forms in Appendices II-III.
2
The references for the relevant chapters are in the Selected Specific Bibliography.

8
This sentence is problematic. First, the negative particle followed by the infinitive
negates existence, so that the first part can be translated as “there is no hurrying/without
hurry.” Second, the negative particle and the particle together negate contrastive
words or phrases and thereby can be translated as “and/but not” or “except.” The
ambiguity comes from two sources: can be considered as the start of a new
sentence (Gardiner, Allen), but can also be viewed as referring to the knives of the
previous sentence (Scharff, Federn, Lichtheim). The many possible renderings of can
accommodate both views.
In the first rendering, Gardiner takes the principal meaning of as (proper) time, and
henceforth translates the sentence as “There is no speedy advance except at its proper
time.” Allen’s translation is closely related to this: “There is no hurrying except at its
proper time”.

In the second rendering means “misdeed, fault,” for example,

“no fault of mine came out.” With this choice, following Scharff and Federn,
Lichtheim’s translation is: “without hurry except when he faults.” According to this, the
knives are waiting to strike for the moment when a misdeed is committed.

The topic now turns to table manners in a typical conditional sentence. A conditional
sentence consists of a protasis (the conditional clause that contains the condition under
which the content of the main clause holds), and the main clause, the apodosis. The
protasis here (and typically) starts with followed by the subjunctive of the verb

Note that the determinative of “sit” is , but in a playful mood, here and below

the scribe uses the determinative “give birth.” The apodosis contains the
imperative of In an interesting contrast, the object of the hatred is the imperfective

relative form “what you desire” of the verb Finally, “bread” can be
promoted to “food.”

3
[Urk. VI, 151, 2]

9
“So he spoke to me with his features stamped
by the impression of that righteous ardor
which burns with true control within the heart.”
Dante, Divine Comedy, Purgatorio Canto VIII,
translated by James Finn Cotter

This is an A B nominal sentence, here translated as “B is A.” Here “takes (only)”

instead of “is” is better suited for the meaning: It takes only a brief moment to control
one’s desires. In general, stands as close to the beginning of the sentence as possible
and is placed “inside” a noun phrase with separable parts. This usually does not apply to

direct genitives such as , however, here the scribe defies the rule.

In the A B nominal clause B serves as the preposed object of the second clause
(introduced by ). The imperfective of the verb is used here since the whole
sentence expresses a general statement well suited to this verb form. The translation
should use English present tense. The prepositional adverb has omitted pronominal
object (which would be ), and it refers to

This is a typical subject-imperfective construction describing a generally true statement.

The abstract noun “thirst” is derived from the verb

“thirsty.”

The subject-imperfective construction continues. The noun “filling” is derived

from the verb “fill.” (The original is emended to as this is masculine.)

10
can be considered as a direct genitive “mouthful” lit. “filling of the mouth.” Note

also that “fix, set, establish” is a prime example of a causative derived from

the verb “become fixed, set.”

A feminine singular adjective can be used as noun, expressing quality of a “thing.” Here
is a noun referring to a “(single) good thing.” These two clauses still contain subject-
imperfective constructions with rare exceptions, where the suffix pronouns are omitted.

The object “goodness” in the first clause is an example how “place,

position” prefixed to an adjective converts the adjective to a noun. Further examples

include “truth” and “evil.”

This is an A B nominal sentence. is an active participle “he who

is greedy” of the verb “be greedy.” With this the phrase can
be rendered as “he who is greedy for his belly.” The text from to the end of the
next line is difficult. Federn and consequently Lichtheim consider as an adverb
clause of time and should therefore be introduced by “when.” According to this
interpretation, is the time period for the course of a meal, and the meaning of the
sentence is that the chowhound is rude by not observing the end of meal time. Gardiner
does not accept this on the basis that does not refer to a time period but to the right time.

One further problem with Federn’s interpretation is that it forces the perfect (which
should be used for completed action) of to be translated as present tense “he forgets.”
Following Scharff and Gardiner, should be at the beginning of this sentence with
the perfect of rendered as English perfect tense “time passes and he has forgotten.”

11
After this problem with the tenses, Lichtheim’s translation agrees with Gardiner’s. The
imperfective of with its subject clearly means that “the belly roams,” but the twist
comes viewing as a nisbe and as a resumptive coreferent. With these,
in English means “(those) in whose house.”
“On the tables were neatly arranged some fruit, vegetables,
pasta, rice, refreshments and pea-noodle soup. Sanzang
raised his chopsticks and started to say a grace over the food,
but the idiot, who was impatient and hungry to boot, did not
wait for him to finish before grabbing a red lacquered wooden bowl
of white rice that he scooped up and gulped down in a single mouthful.”
Wu Cheng’en, Journey to the West,
translated by W.J.F.Jenner

Proper table manners are further emphasized in this conditional sentence employing the
subjunctive of and the imperative of . The form of the intransitive verb
“pass” in the adverb clause is stative expressing the state of the chowhound
after he ate his fill and his greed is over.

Once again this is a typical conditional sentence introduced by The predicate of the
protasis is the subjunctive of and that of the apodosis is the imperative of . The
clause at the end introduced by can be taken as an adverb clause “when his heart…”
followed by English present tense, or as an independent clause “and/so that his heart…”
followed by English future tense. It contains a subject + stative construction with the
stative of the adjective-verb which, in contrast to an adjectival predicate, expresses
the result of the prior action .

12
The affirmative tone turns now to negative employing the negative imperative along
with the negatival complement of The many meanings of the preposition allows two
interpretations of . On the one hand, it could caution not to speak
aggressively against the eating of meat (Federn, Gardiner), and on the other, it could
caution not to savagely grab the meat (Scharff, Lichtheim).

The imperative of is followed by “what he gives,” a perfective relative form of

Gardiner emends into . After the negative imperative, the clause introduced by
the particle contains an A nominal sentence with A being the infinitive of the
caus. 2-lit verb (used nominally). Unlike the previous example, is normally
followed by the subjunctive, expressing future consequence.

We have seen previously a number of conditional sentences with the subjunctive. In the
protasis of the conditional sentence here, however, is the prospective of , (and not
the subjunctive .) As before, can be elevated from “bread” to “food,” in fact,

Gardiner emends the long lacuna here as . The last sentence employs the negated
passive of It expresses inability and can be translated by the English present tense:
“no words can prevail,” lit. “power cannot be given to words.” With a bit of flexibility,
the prepositional adverb should be taken to mean “against.”

According to Gardiner, since the phonetic value of is the original needs to be

emended into . Nonetheless and also are unknown words. Gardiner who

suggests that may mean “stolid,” translates this sentence as

“the face is powerless over against one stolid,” but admits that this is a guess. Federn has
an interesting attempt (supported by examples from the Pyramid Texts and the Book of

13
the Dead) to revert back to , suggesting this to be the stative of an adjective-verb
describing the quality of a calf. He therefore suggests this to be translated as “meek” and
the rest as “to the degree of slow-wittedness.” The complexity of the argument and the
lack of precise grammatical information make this argument difficult to accept.

As Gardiner points out, the adjectival predicate “gentle” is the exact opposite to

“harsh.” Note the unusual spelling of “mother.” The

comparative allows two interpretations depending on whether or not the preposition
“to” is employed: “the harsh is kinder to him than (to) his mother.”

After all the grammatical hurdles, it is a relief to translate this simple A B nominal

sentence, meaning “B is A.” The noun phrase is an Egyptian

idiom for “everyone.”

is the imperative of , “give, put, let, cause.” In this

typical construction the imperative is followed by the subjunctive of with obvious
causative meaning. It is followed by an adverb clause introduced by . An obvious
connecting word between the two clauses is “while.” The verb form of “be silent” is
imperfective expressing concomitant action. As for the last clause, Gardiner puts this at

the end of the current passage, and interprets the verb form of as “call,
summon” in the subjunctive to express result: “so that you may be summoned” (to high
office or court). Lichtheim puts this clause at the beginning of the next passage,
translating this as “when you are summoned…”
“But the man remembered his mighty power,
the glorious gift that God had sent him,

14
in his Maker's mercy put his trust for comfort and help:
so he conquered the foe, felled the fiend…”
Beowulf, translated by Francis B. Gummere

The negative imperative rules out the (tempting) consideration of as a

construction “high-minded, proud” lit. “big of heart”. In fact, here is an adjective-verb
with subject , lit. “do not let your heart get big because of/on account of your
strength…” is an Egyptian idiom for “middle,” and therefore here refers to

the company of young men surrounding the one cautioned.

Based on its meaning should always be regarded as imperative, although the final
radical is a bit misplaced. It is usually translated as “beware lest” or “guard.” This is
followed by the passive of
“Well argued; but no living man can hope
to force the gods to speak against their will.”
Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, translated by F. Storr.

The power of the divine is recalled here in a textbook example of a negated perfect (of
the verb “know” with the impersonal pronoun as a verbal suffix). As such it does
not mean completed action, but expresses lack of ability. The first object is the active
participle “what (may) happen,” and the second is the imperfective relative form
“what (god) does.” Finally, in this complex sentence, the preposition “according
to/in accordance with” governs the nonattibutive perfective relative form of the verb
(used nominally) as it has an expressed subject, its suffix pronoun (referring to ).
(The infinitive as the object of a preposition usually appears without an expressed
subject.)

15
“And a young prince must be prudent like that,
giving freely while his father lives
so that afterwards in age when fighting starts
steadfast companions will stand by him
and hold the line. Behaviour that’s admired
is the path to power among people everywhere.”
Beowulf, translated by by Seamus Heaney

This is a typical example of the + subjunctive construction with the perfect of

employed. This is a very common use of the subjunctive and has causative meaning.
Here, lit. “has given that one summon.” The possessives
+ suffix + masculine/feminine noun; + suffix + + plural noun
were developed in the spoken language during the Middle Kingdom and the Second
Intermediate Period.

!
The object of the compound preposition “after,” lit. “in the wake” is the
nonattributive perfective relative form of ! as it has a (suffix) pronominal subject. !
refers to completion, gaining full knowledge. The infinitive ( ) appears after whose
use is to emphasize concomitant actions: his understanding the nature of men and their
characters becoming clear to him, lit. “having come upon him.”

The introductory word followed by perfect is a rare construction, but grammatically

similar to the very common The 2-lit. verb means “end (up),” so
that literally means “ended” and can be translated as “in the end.” , at the
beginning of the sentence as here, is written as , and it introduces a noun clause. It
can be translated as “inasmuch as,” lit. “with respect to (the fact) that.” It starts the
vizier’s communication to his children.

16
The imperative of starts the sentence. The object of the preposition is the
perfective relative form of as it has an expressed subject. In the negative imperative

the determinative of needs to be changed to . Finally, is the (feminine)

geminated perfective passive participle of the 2-lit.verb . As such, it can be translated as
“what has been ordained.”

Filial piety, the virtue to of loving and respecting the parents, is emphasized here in two
syntactically adverbial clauses containing pseudoverbal + infinitive constructions. In
narrative texts and are typical words to introduce pseudoverbal predicates. In
these constructions they no longer have their original meanings, merely express
subsequent actions, and as such they can be translated as “then.” Note also the singular
and plural meanings of In the direct relative clause introduced by the preposition
the feminine form of the relative adjective is used as a noun, and the entire (adverb)
clause serves as the object of

here introduces an adjectival sentence “thereupon it was good…” The sentence

contains a textbook example of the comparative “beyond anything,” lit. “with
respect to everything.” The relative adjective introduces a direct relative clause which
contains the frequently used apparent adjective, the prepositional phrase, “entire,” lit.
“to the limit.” The latter is used in the Egyptian idiom “this entire land” with
the suffix pronoun referring to .

After the perfectives of the intransitive verbs of motion and are used. This
is not very common, and most often the perfect is used instead. Due to its position, it is
clear that the preposition is employed here adverbially, meaning “accordingly.” The
strange sentence is a metaphor and stands for “to conduct themselves.”

17
"#$%
This is a reference to the end of the reign of Huni (Nysuteh, 2637-2613 BC), last king of
the 3rd Dynasty. Note also that the pharaoh’s name is topicalized (fronted) for emphasis,
and in the perfect, the suffix pronoun refers to it.

&$'(#
The verb form of is clearly passive. Sneferu (2613-2589 BC), the first king of the 4th
Dynasty, is the first true (smooth sided and east-west aligned) pyramid builder. He was
the father of Khufu, the largest pyramid builder in Egypt. Sneferu had two pyramids
constructed at Dashur (the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid), and at Meidum. The
etymology of his name, the causative “to make beautiful, to make good,” suggests
that he may have been a benign ruler.

The passive of is introduced by Note that with the preposition (or )

means “to appoint to” an office/position. The position in question is (a
reverse nisbe) a major or overseer of the town. As for the historical record, in the 4th
Dynasty there is no vizier named Kagemni, although there is one in the 6th Dynasty under
the reign of Pepi.

The closing A nominal sentence contains the imperfective relative form of used
nonattibutively as the predicate: “that is how it goes,” lit. “it is that it comes.”

18
2
Excerpts from the
Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor
“At that a massive wave came crashing down on his head,
a terrific onslaught spinning his craft round and round-
he was thrown clear of the decks-
the steering oar wrenched
from his grasp-
and in one lightning attack the brawling
galewinds struck full-force, snapping the mast mid shaft
and hurling the sail and sailyard far across the sea.”
Homer, The Odyssey, translated by Robert Fagles

Part I
Arrival to the Residence. The herald’s story begins. Storm at sea and the
herald’s miraculous survival. The phantom island.1

1
Gardiner’s translation.

19
! "!

20
$

&

21
Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part I

Vocabulary

say loss, need

follower, retainer, herald army, expeditionary force
excellent, trustworthy end, result
hale end, hinder-parts, hind-quarters
take heart, may it Wawat (northern end of) Lower
please you Nubia
local prince, monarch, pass (by), surpass, transgress
commander, lord, mayor
Senmut (the island of Biggeh,
reach, catch, attack First Cataract region)
home, interior calm, content ( in peace, safety)
take, receive, accept , (dependent pronoun) he,
him
mallet
hear, listen to
hit, strike, smite
(independent pronoun) I
mooring stake
empty, free ( of)
prow-rope
excess, wealth
land
wash
praise
water
praise, worship, thank
finger
god
answer
man
address, question
embrace
(verb) speak, (noun) speech,
companion, equal word
crew king
come, return heart
safe

22
look at
hand, arm; with, from
sky
stammer
brave
mouth, speech, spell, opening
lion
man
foretell, predict
save, take away, carry off
(wind)storm
veil
tempest, rainstorm
face
come, go up, emerge
state, condition
before (of time), lit. upon the
weary hand
relate, tell touch, kick, set
foot
likeness
raise, lift up, carry, support;
happen, evolve, occur (
sail lit. carry the wind
become something/someone)
repetition
self
wave, swell
walk, go ( to)
wood, tree, mast (of a ship)
mining region, mine
die
sovereign
survive, remain, be left
come/go down
(number) one
sea (the Mediterranean
or the Red Sea) (lit. the great blue-green) island
ship wave
cubit (52.5 cm or 20.6 inches) day, daytime
long be alone
wide, broad spend the night, sleep, lie
down, go to rest
sailor, voyager
hut; thicket
the choicest, pick
embrace, hug
Egypt, lit. the Black
shadow, shade
see, regard;

23
stretch out, straighten fish
knees
bird
foot
satisfy
learn, know
, great, much
find
hand, arm
figs
take away, cut out
grapes
fire drill, fire stick
leeks, vegetables
bring about, make become,
all, each, every, any create
fine, special, fire
noble
go, perish
sycamore figs
fire, flame; burnt
notched sycamore offering
figs
cucumber

24
Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part I

Grammar Points

The story begins with the herald’s enthusiastic narrative, and the verb form of is
the so-called narrative infinitive. (The only other alternative for with is the suffix
conjugation, the form, meaning “then said.” This verb form is used for
sub/consequent action to a prior action. The proponents of this, however, would have to
admit the unlikely scenario that one or more pages of the papyrus are missing.) Narrative
infinitive is common in journal entry type statements, commemorative inscriptions,
historical narratives, literary verses, and narratives. As here, the actor is usually
introduced by the agent particle . This type of infinitive seems to occur where there is a
major break in the narrative, and can also be recognized by the absence of the
introductory particle , and by its reference to the past (when one would expect the verb

form to be perfect). In the formula the subjunctive of is

used to announce news. It is derived from the expression lit.

“make your heart sound.” Whether the seated man after is a determinative or a
suffix pronoun is subject to interpretation, and accordingly, “commander” or “my
lord”are both possible translations.

The perfect of “reach” is introduced by the particle (expressing

completed action), and its object with determinative can be

translated as “home.” Notice that the herald and the commander are not named.

25
It is clear from the context that and are both passive verb forms. In Middle
Egyptian the passive verb form is the passive counterpart of the perfect expressing
completed action. These two clauses are followed by the third which concludes the
sequence of actions. It contains a subject-stative construction involving the transitive verb

“put, place.” The subject-stative construction involving a transitive verb has

passive meaning (although it is mostly used with personal pronominal subject), and here
it also emphasizes the resulting state: “the prow-rope is placed on land.” Note the rope

determinative not to be confused with the uniliteral

Safeguard of the voyage by the divine is thanked in the first two clauses employing the
passive forms of and . (Note that cannot imperative because its imperative
form is ) The third clause is syntactically adverbial, contains a pseudoverbal +

infinitive construction involving the verb “embrace.” As such it describes an

action currently in progress. or stands for the ordinal number

“second,” and the seated man converts this to a noun “companion,” lit. “second one.” We
see here a typical compressed writing of a double consonant with no vowel between them.

Finally, note that is emended to . (It is tempting to think that

means “brother”, therefore is masculine dual “two brothers”, but this makes no
sense here.)

Since the herald is a member of the crew, the suffix pronoun of does not fit here.
Rather, the suffix pronoun is and the extant is a graphic peculiarity of Middle
Egyptian. The explanation is that the feminine ending of nouns has often been lost, and,
at times, especially in suffixed forms, the scribe wanted to emphasize that the ending
was pronounced, and indicated this by adding an extra . Thus, in the suffixed form
of the feminine noun the extant should not be read as .

26
This noun is the first (preposed) subject of two subject-stative constructions with the

intransitive verbs “return” and “safe, intact.” As such, they should be

translated by English past or perfect tense.

The negative particle negates the last adverb clause in which should be interpreted
as a preposition “to, for.” Less likely, following the pattern A, it is also possible to
regard as a negation of existence of A, where A is the noun phrase with
indirect genitive “loss of our army.”

The perfect of the transitive verbs and indicate completed actions in the past. It is also
possible to view this passage as a pair of mutually dependent balanced sentences employing the

nonattributive perfect relative forms of and The primary meaning of is

“end,” so that this clause may be interpreted as the herald’s boasting of how far the expedition went.
Since also means hinder-parts, hind-quarters, can also be interpreted as “we left
behind...” “Wawat” is Lower (northern) Nubia and “Senmut” is the island of Biggeh,
south of Aswan in the First Cataract region.

Once again the subject-stative construction applied to the verb of motion emphasizes
the resulting state and should be translated with past or perfect tense. As usual, the
enclictic element (with the 3MS suffix pronoun) refers to what has been said before.
The use of the dependent pronoun after as the subject and the 1PL stative suffix

of (which actually has been added later) points to an early stage of Middle
Egyptian. The topicalized object of the second clause and the sense of the completed
action would be a “perfect” fit: . It is disappointing to find here the perfective of ,
or else the scribe may have missed an The dependent pronoun (and not ) refers to

27
The imperative of followed by the very common enclictic particle (with the
second-person suffix) is used by the herald to call the attention of the commander. Note
the contrasting uses of the enclictic elements here and in the previous sentence.
While refers to a prior statement in the text, the imperative with relates to the
commander. For further emphasis that he needs to be listened to, the herald asserts his
own fine qualities in an A B nominal sentence. The noun phrase B is a
construction.

The depressed mood of the commander and the efforts of the herald to cheer him up
continue with two imperatives here. In the first construction, the (reflexive) dependent
pronoun is the object of the imperative of . The second is the irregular (but most
often used) imperative of “give, put.”

As it is the case here, the particle is almost always followed by the subjunctive and
points to future action. It expresses the herald’s desire and expectation what the
commander should do. It is followed by an unmarked adverb clause that can be
introduced by “when.” The verb form here is the imperfective of as it expresses a
concomitant action to the governing clause. The next two sentences may still be viewed
being under the influence of (until the new particle comes up), and thereby consider
the verb forms of and subjunctives further detailing the herald’s expectations.
As indicated in the first clause, however, it is clear that the commander will have an
audience with the king. In the next sentence, the main clause contains no
new information, whereas the adverb clause does; it tells how the commander
should act, lit. “your heart (being) with you.” (The frequently used compound preposition
with clumsy literal meaning “in the hand of” should be replaced by “with.”)

28
According to the ancient Egyptians the heart was the center of thought and emotions, and
in translation “mind” is often more suitable than “heart.” This adverb clause can then be
translated as “presence of your mind.” In summary, this passage should be considered as
a sentence with emphasized adverb clause, where is the theme and
is the rheme. This is an emphatic construction, the verb is in a perfective relative
form, and is a noun clause serving as the subject. The emphasis can be
brought out by the translation: “it is with presence of your mind that you should speak.”
The second adverb clause has similar grammar employing the perfective relative form of
, the theme, and employing the infinitive of the 5-lit. verb , is the rheme.

We met this construction (negation of existence) in the previous text:

“there is no hurrying/without hurry.” Here too it can be translated using “without.”

The herald continues his efforts to lift the captain’s spirit up, this time with making general
statements. For these he uses the imperfective. In fact, the verbs and each appear in a
subject-imperfective construction. (Note that the imperfective of always uses the first base stem
.) The subjects are “(a) man’s mouth/speech” and “his speech/words.” is an

interesting phrase. It uses the infinitive of “veil” (with the cloth determinative ) used as a

noun in a direct genitive with “face.” The phrase “veiling the face” clearly means “leniency,
clemency” from the king.

is the only bilateral sign that normally does not have a phonetic complement, so
that the beginning of the passage reads as and not This sentence is

grammatically similar to the previous: Thus, is in imperative

followed by the enclictic particle for emphasis. The phrase “desire, wish” is

29
derived from “state, need, condition” which itself is a (feminine) nisbe

“what is near” derived from the preposition “near, by, during.”

Grammatically it is also possible to view this sentence as and consider the
verb form of as imperfective or as a nonattributive imperfective relative form (with

emphasized adverb clause). Examples to this construction are:

“Your majesty does as he wills,”1 and

“How a man does what he wants…” 2 Note also that the idiom
“whenever he wills/likes he does” appears in religious texts as the name of the great
primordial god. The imperfective however expresses a general (or ongoing) statement,
and does not fit in the context here well.

This is an A B nominal sentence “B is A.” The verb forms of and are both
infinitives used as nouns.

Although the previous sentence indicates that the frustrated herald is at the point of
giving up, here he starts with a long narrative, his own tale, his story within the story.
From the point of view of grammar, the subjunctive of expressing exhortation is a
typical way to begin a narrative. Various translations are possible: “let me relate…” or “I
shall tell…”

There is a bewildering variety of phrases that can be formed from the preposition

“like.” As here, the masculine and feminine prepositional nisbes ,

“similar, the like” are the most immediate. can also be used to form various nouns,

1
[Sin. B 263]
2
[CT VII, 190b].

30
such as “copy,” “likeness”, and “one like,
equal.” These forms are not always distinguishable from each other. The compound
phrase also contains the adverbial use of the preposition meaning “pertaining to
it, with respect to it,” or, at the risk of sounding a bit archaic, “thereof.” The literal
meaning of the compound is “the like thereof.”
is clearly a perfective active participle meaning “that happened.” (Note the missing
feminine ending.)

The stative of intransitive verbs (in particular, verbs of motion as here) expresses past or
perfect tense. Note, however, that we are at the beginning of the narrative, in fact, a story
within a story, and we therefore should translate the sailor’s stative of as past perfect.
Alternatively, this can also be viewed as a circumstantial clause attached to the end of the
previous passage. Note the spelling of “sovereign” as a false dual. This may point to

the change of the phonetic value of from “aggressive, angry” to possibly

through the sequence → → The word may also be a nisbe from “father”,
that is why the alternative spelling

!"# $#

!"#
The stative of should still be rendered as past perfect. Note how the feminine noun
makes the indirect genitive and the following two suffix pronouns feminine. In ancient
Egypt “cubit” was a standard measurement of length (52.5 cm or 20.6 inches).
According to this, the ship was 63 m long and 21 m wide. This is about 45% longer than
the Solar Boat of Khufu now in the Solar Boat Museum next to Khufu’s pyramid. Note

also the irregular spelling of

31
Here and below we will notice how meticulously the different measurements, numbers,
and various descriptions are taken care of while the names of the protagonists are not
even mentioned!
The subject of the last adverb clause (that can be introduced by “with”) should be
plural here. The feminine suffix attached to the prepositional adverb refers to the

ship . Note that is a short version of “the choicest, pick.”

A pair of clauses with the (normal) subjunctive form of the 2ae-gem. verb
praise the crew. They are followed by the main clause with adjectival predicate
employing the comparative. The latter is the same pattern as the best known example:

“it is better than anything.”

The imperfective (or the subjunctive) of continues to praise the crew. It is not known

why the giraffe is the determinative of . (One of the students suggested that it is
because the giraffe is the tallest animal and can see far, far away, maybe even into the
future.) Its two objects, “the storm” and “the tempest” are followed by adverb
clauses that contain constructions. This is a typical example of this construction
and in an adverb clause needs to be translated as “before he (has/had) heard.”

The association of the Seth animal with tempest and, in general, with rage and
turmoil is clear.

The sentence begins with a subject-stative construction with the intransitive verb (of
motion) as the predicate. It expresses past or perfect tense not focusing on the action
itself but the state which results from this action. The adverb clause introduced by the
particle is typical and refers to location. The choice of the connecting word “when,

32
while, and” is up to the translator. Finally, the adverbial phrase introduced by the
compound preposition must govern a noun or a noun phrase. Therefore, the verb form
of must be infinitive used as a noun. The subject of this infinitive is a suffixed
personal pronoun and can therefore be translated as a possessive pronoun. All in all, we
arrive at the translation: “before we reached land”, lit. “before our reaching land.” Note
the nice balance between the adverb clause and adverbial phrase of location and time.

This passage is difficult. First of all, means “raise, lift up, carry” and along

with “wind” the phrase can be literally translated as “carry the wind”,
an Egyptian idiom for “sail.” It is tempting to regard the beginning of this passage as the
infinitive construction : “sailing” or “as (we) sailed.” But this does not really fit
into the context; the emerging storm and the impending peril of the crew. So, we need to
disregard this idiom, extend to the impersonal pronoun , and render the beginning as
the passive of phrase : “the wind was raised.” The verb form of can be
perfective (translated as simple past tense) or imperfective with concomitant meaning
imbedded in adverb clause and attached to the previous passage. The imperfective of
(with the suffix pronoun referring back to the wind) is a good choice for its object
“repetition” and the whole circumstantial clause simply indicates the
continually increasing strength of the wind. The last adverb clause has the moved up
intrusive short prepositional adverb as the predicate. An ironic side note: Here and in
the next passage we are led to believe that a wave of 4.2 meter (8 cubits) tall could sink a
63 m long ship with Egypt’s best sailors on board!
“…I saw your brother,
Most provident in peril, bind himself,
Courage and hope both teaching him the practise,
To a strong mast that lived upon the sea;
Where, like Arion on the dolphin's back,
I saw him hold acquaintance with the waves
So long as I could see.”

33
William Shakespeare, Twelfth Night.

This sentence is short but problematic. The construction follows the form + noun + MS
perfective/ imperfective active participle and is therefore a participial statement. The
noun means “mast, piece of wood” and is the perfective active participle of
“strike.” The spelling of is most possibly a “sportive dual” (in much the same way as

in the throne name &' ()*+ , of Ahmose I the double stands for ).
(Neither the spelling nor the sense justify the imperfective active participle here
since it would convey repetition “battering/pounding.”) Another well-known sportive

(plural) writing is in the compound preposition “except, apart

from.” The 3FS dependent pronoun must refer to “the wave/swell.” With these,
a possible translation of this passage is “it was the mast/a piece of wood that
battered/pounded it/broke it up (the wave/swell) for me.” This conveys the meaning that
the broken mast/a piece of wood actually helped the sailor to survive, and describes a
typical scene of a sailor clinging to the mast with his life to float ashore.

“then” introduces a subject-stative construction with predicate the intransitive verb

“die.” Once again this is to be translated by simple past or perfect tense. The 3FS
stative suffix was often omitted if the verb ended with This was possibly due to the
loss of one in pronunciation and the scribe’s effort to reflect this in writing. This is in

contrast with the note above on the writing of “our crew.” The
plural relative adjective is used here as a noun, lit. “those who exist(ed).” In fact, the
entire clause (with the prepositional adverb ) functions as a noun, the topicalized

subject of the following clause. Here is the negated perfective of the 3-ae-
inf. verb “survive, remain” and not the negated perfective of the 2-lit. verb happen

34
(by the same spelling). The prepositional phrase “one of them,” lit. “one therein”
serves as a modifier.

The subject-stative construction of the intransitive verb above is contrasted here

with that of the transitive verb . We are still in past or perfect tense but the
construction has passive meaning. This is again clear since the action “put on” lit. “given
to” is performed “by the wave of the sea” on the subject “I.”

Among the many meanings of the verb we need to choose here “spend.” In perfect
form it is the predicate of the governing clause. Using with primary meaning “make,
do” in connection with time is not that unusual as in colloquial English we also say
“doing time” with a bit different meaning. (It is up to the reader to decide which is worse:
stranded in a deserted island or being in prison.)
The following three unmarked adverb clauses describe how this action happened. The
verb forms are easy to identify: The middle adverb clause with an adverbial predicate is
stuck between two with stative predicates. Note that the verb “be alone” is related to
“one.” (For “companion” see the discussion above.) It is up to the translator how
to group these along with the last clause containing the perfect of

The transitive verb “stretch” with the introductory phrase is in perfect form
which clearly indicates past tense. The following pseudoverbal + infinitive construction
(the so-called of futurity) uses the verb “learn, know” and indicates planned action:
“to find out/to discover.” In the last virtual question, is a perfective relative form of
.

35
.
There are no difficulties here with the grammar and the translation. is not only

“grape” but also “wine.” In one spelling of the bilateral sign plays

out its phonetic value , but in the text the determinative may also be suggestive to
tiredness associated with the condition of drinking wine.

The scribe apparently makes distinction here between unripe and ripe (notched) sycamore
figs. Note the forward position of the prepositional adverb inside the loosely
connected nouns in A B. In the last clause the object of the preposition is the
infinitive of (used as a noun): “(as if) tending” lit. “(like/as if) making.” Its subject of
the infinitive is the suffix pronoun and it refers to (and if is an exceptional
writing of possibly also to and ). Note that Blackman views the last clause
as and with the impersonal suffix pronoun it converts the phrase into
passive voice “as if it was tended.” The English translation does not reflect these
differing points of view.

In the adverb clause the predicate (the prepositional adverb ) is moved up from the
back in and placed directly after the first subject; not an unusual
construction, provided that the adverbial predicate is short. The second clause needs some
elaboration. It contains the negated adverb clause “it was not in its
interior,” lit. “it in its interior is not” which can stand alone. The (feminine) relative
adjective placed in front of this serves as a marker and turns this into relative clause
used as a noun: “that which it was not in its interior.” As such it can be negated using .
We arrive at the phrase “there was nothing that was not in it.” In plain language this
means that it (the island) had everything in it.

36
This sentence starts with the perfect of the caus. 3-inf. verb (with omitted subject)
and object , an English reflexive pronoun. In the next sentence the governing clause
has the perfect of as a verbal predicate, lit. “I placed to the ground” meaning “I put
down.” A clause of causality is then introduced by the preposition “because” followed
by the adjective (used as a noun) and the adverbial phrase “in my arms.” Lit.
“because much in my arms,” meaning that the sailor had too much in his arms.
Throughout, the object (the produce of the island) is omitted since it has been described
in detail in the previous passage.

The only possible reason for the scribe to use here the narrative infinitive of is that
there is a break in the narrative; the sailor, after marveling at the riches of the phantom
island, stuffed himself, and now it is time to give offerings to the gods for his good
fortune. This he does in three main clauses. In the column writing of the original papyrus,

the signs could not fit at the end of the column, so the scribe fitted them at the
bottom of the next column. In the last two clauses the perfect verb forms of and
are employed. Note that the compound phrase “burnt offering” comes from “go,
perish” and “fire,” lit. “go/perish to/by flame.”

37
3
Excerpts from the
Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor
"Who and whence art thou, and what caused thee
to come hither?” “O my lord,” answered I, “ I am
in very sooth a waif, a stranger, and was left to drown
with sundry others by the ship we voyaged in. But
Allah graciously sent me a wooden tub, so I saved myself
thereon and it floated with me, till the waves cast me
up on this island." When he heard this, he took my hand
and saying, “Come with me,” carried me into a great sardab,
or underground chamber, which was spacious as a saloon. ”
The First Voyage of Sinbad the Sailor, from the Arabian Nights,
translated by Sir Richard Burton

Part II
The snake god appears and questions the herald.
(The herald tells his story.)
The snake god promises him safe return to home.

38
(The herald tells his story of shipwreck to the snake god. This is largely a repetition of his narrative to the
commander, therefore skipped.)

39
!

40
Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part II

Vocabulary

voice, sound, noise belly

, thunder, presence; in
storm, cloud the presence of
think, suppose (interrogative pronoun) who
wave fetch, bring, get
(masc. noun) wood, tree, stick, ditto sign
mast
commoner;
crack,smash
little
quake
late, dwadle
unravel, uncover, strip
ashes
snake
be ignorant, not know,
cubit (52.5 cm or 20.6 inches) not learn
beard take, take possession
of, take away
great
place, throne
body (usually in plural)
sweeten, reside
, sweep,
brush over; overlay set, place, remain, last
gold reach, touch
eyebrows uninjured, be whole,
intact
, lapis-lazuli
pale, blanch
, true, proper,
correct become afraid
bend ka
(preposition) at the head of, live
in front of
god
open, split, part

41
fill walk, go ( to)
complete die
, month town

42
Excerpts from the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor: Part II

Grammar Points

The two sentences here pose no grammatical problems. The first is a textbook example
how the perfect (of the transitive verb ) can be used to express past tense when
introduced by the particle . The transitive use of the stative of the verb with active
meaning is a holdover from Old Egyptian. Its object is the noun clause at the end. It is an
A nominal sentence with moved forward within the indirect genitive.

This is a pair of clauses using the pseudoverbal + infinitive construction expressing the
imperfect, in particular, actions in progress. They can be translated by past continuous
tense.

The two clauses with perfect verbal predicates are followed by an unmarked A noun
clause serving as the object of the second predicate. Imbedded in this is the relative
clause (without ): . Introduced by the particle it looks almost like an
independent sentence except the suffix pronoun . is coreferential to the antecedent .
Typically, these kind of relative clauses contain a pseudoverbal predicate; in our case an
+ infinitive construction. As such it points to (an immediate) scary future; the fast
approaching snake.

The adjectival sentence of possession A B here means “A belongs to B” since A is a

dependent pronoun. It describes the length of the snake: “he was of 30 cubits/30 cubits

43
long,” lit. “he belonged 30 cubits.” Converting to English units, the snake was about 50.5
feet long. This must have been a scary sight for the sailor as the largest anaconda ever

found in nature was only 37 feet long! Note the typical abbreviated spelling of
“he belongs.”
The subject of the following adjectival sentence with predicate “great” is
topicalized and referred to by the dependent pronoun . This sentence contains a
comparative “his beard was greater than/over 2 cubits,” lit. “his beard, it is great with
respect to 2 cubits.”

The subject-stative construction of the transitive verb has passive meaning. It tells
that the snake’s skin was covered/overlaid with gold. The adverbial sentence of identity
(the so-called of predication) describes the snake’s eyebrows being made of (genuine)

lapis-lazuli. Both are signs of divinity. Note the typical extra in the suffix pronoun of
the dual.

This is an adjectival sentence with some subtlety. First, the adjectival predicate
“bent” is the passive participle of the 3-lit. verb “bend” (with the same spelling).

Second, in the prepositional phrase “up in front/forward,” is short for the

prepositional nisbe used as a noun, lit. “one in front/at the head.”

The second clause is a typical adverb clause, and only context indicates that it is
subordinate to the first. In translation, it can be introduced using “while.” Alternatively, if
one insists that the particle should introduce a main clause, it can be treated as an

44
independent sentence. is a common compound preposition
meaning “in the presence of” a respected or high ranking person/god.

The narrative infinitive of starts the snake’s speech. (The only other possibility is that
the scribe left out the suffix from the perfect as the previous verb form is

also perfect.) The snake’s question is a participial statement A B. A is the particle

(spelled here only as ) combined with the interrogative pronoun “who,”

and B is the perfective active participle of the verb “fetch, bring, get” (with past

meaning). Literally: “so, who is the one who brought…” is the Egyptian ditto
sign.

The protasis of this typical conditional sentence (introduced by ) contains the

subjunctive of the negative verb “delay, dawdle,” and its object is with the
infinitive of . After the prospective (with omitted ) is also possible; in any
case, there is only a slight difference in the English translation. The protasis repeats the
snake’s previous question with the interrogative pronoun omitted. In the apodosis, should
he fail to respond, the snake threatens the sailor with two consequences. First, a
construction is used with the prospective of (the subjunctive uses only the base stem
), and (with the pronominal object , reflexive in English) needs to be interpreted as
“find, experience.” The two consequences that follow are two adverb clauses introduced
by The first has an adverbial predicate, and the second the stative of + “become
something.” indicates the resulting state described in the following relative clause.
(Although in English one may translate this as infinitive, grammatically it is clearly not,
since the infinitive of the 3-lit. verb uses the base stem.) The relative adjective

45
which marks the relative clause has no antecedent and functions as a noun since it is
governed by the preposition . Thus this prepositional phrase can be translated as
“as/like one who.” The relative clause itself contains the negated perfective
The use of the impersonal pronoun conveys passive meaning “a thing unseen,” lit. “he
has not been seen.”

The sailor abruptly takes over the story here. There are at least two different
interpretations of this passage. To begin with, we first give a rudimentary grammatical
analysis. The imperfective of “speak” in the first clause is not for making a general
statement (as usual) but for expressing an incomplete/ongoing past action. In the next
clause the pseudoverbal construction + infinitive is syntactically adverbial, and as such,
it can be negated by . This construction is rare since Middle Egyptian normally uses

1
the negated perfect for this purpose. Though a minor issue,

the original determinative of was emended to . The third is a simple

adverb clause, and we should keep in mind that the sailor is in the presence of the snake
and, as noted above, the latter represents a superior divine authority. Finally, the fourth

(also circumstantial) clause contains the perfect of the verb “be ignorant,
not know, not learn,” and the following dependent pronoun is used reflexively.
being the opposite of , the clause can be interpreted as an expression for
“having lost consciousness,” lit. “having lost knowledge of myself.”
Now, at closer inspection of the meaning, we find that this passage cannot be the sailor’s
(out)spoken response to the snake as it lacks respect which then may result in making the
snake angry, the last thing the sailor wants to do. In addition, the last clause would then
be a misfit to the entire passage. To resolve this situation, one can assume that the sailor
talks to himself, but then the last passage still sounds awkward. To resolve this, it has

1
[Peas. B2, 114]

46
been suggested that the suffix pronoun attached to and should be changed to
(scribal errors). With these, the whole passage turns into a narrative of the sailor, and
everything falls into its right place.

Contrary to expectation, the transitive verbs ! and here are in perfective forms
(not in perfect), a holdover from Old Egyptian. They are all governed by the initial word
The causative verb “(transitive) sweeten, (intransitive) reside” (in the
infinitive) is derived from the adjective verb “sweet,” and the phrase
“place of residence” is similar to our “home, sweet home.” The last three clauses are
circumstantial. The first is introduced by the negative word the verb form of
“touch” is the infinitive with suffix pronominal subject. The one-word English translation
“unhurt” covers up the grammar. After having been carried in the snake’s mouth, in the
next clause the stative of “uninjured, be whole, intact” expresses the resulting
relieved state of the sailor. Finally, the negation of the infinitive of “take
away/possession of” further reaffirms his good treatment.
(The sailor tells his story to the snake god. This is a repetition of his narrative to the
commander, therefore skipped here.)

"
The snake, taking over the narrative with a verb form of signaling
sub/consequent action, further quiets down the sailor in repeated negated imperatives of
the adjective verbs “afraid” and " “pale, blanch.” The last clause contains the
perfect of “reach, come to” expressing completed action, and it can be attached to the

previous passage by the connecting word “now.”

47
#
In a construction occurs in perfect with topicalized subject for emphasis.
This emphasis can be brought in translation as “it is a god who….” The verb form of

“live” is subjunctive and the construction has causative meaning. The

perfective verb forms used to describe what the snake did to the sailor continues in the
second clause with the perfective of “bring.” Its subject is the suffix pronoun
referring to # and its object, the dependent pronoun , refers to the sailor. (Although
can be translated by the English perfect gerund “(he) having brought you…” the
Middle Egyptian infinitive of is unlikely as the ending is missing.) The expression
rendered by Gardiner as “the phantom island,” lit. “the island of ka” sounds
mysterious.

The first clause has been discussed above. The second clause contains a simple subject-
stative construction with the transitive verb “fill,” and therefore has passive meaning.

The scroll determinative and the plural strokes indicate that stands for the

plural noun “good things” derived from the adjective “good, beautiful.”

The first (syntactically) adverb clause contains a pseudoverbal + infinitive construction

( of futurity) in which the snake predicts/prophesies the sailor a 4-month stay in the
phantom island. This construction expresses an involuntary future in the sense that the
sailor has no control over the length of his stay. In English translation this can be
reflected by using “you are to spend” instead of the simple future tense “you will stay.”

48
The verb form “until he (has/had) heard” as the object of the preposition is the
scribe’s perfect choice here.

%
The first clause grammatically identical with the one in the previous sentence and
promises the sailor the arrival of a ship from home. In the second adverb clause the scribe
this time does not miss the plural of the subject ; in the prepositional adverb the
suffix pronoun refers to the ship and is an easily recognizable perfect relative form
of “know.” Finally, in the last two clauses the predicates are in subjunctive again
projecting events in the future, but this time the future is the sailor’s voluntary action.
This is true even in the last clause not because the sailor wants to die (after surviving the
shipwreck and the snake), but because he wants to die in his own town to receive proper
burial.

49
4
Two Boundary Stelae of Senwosret III
“With mutual blood th' Ausonian soil is dyed,
While on its borders each their claim decide.
As wintry winds, contending in the sky,
With equal force of lungs their titles try:
They rage, they roar; the doubtful rack of heav'n
Stands without motion, and the tide undriv'n:
Each bent to conquer, neither side to yield,
They long suspend the fortune of the field.
Both armies thus perform what courage can;
Foot set to foot, and mingled man to man.”
Virgil, The Aeneid, translated by John Dryden

The First Semna Stela of Senwosret III

50
The Second (Semna/Uronarti) Stela of Senwosret III

! "# $ % & ' '

() *

'

'

'

51
+ +

' +

' '

'

'

52
'

'

53
Two Boundary Stelae of Senwosret III

Vocabulary

border, boundary King of Upper and

Lower Egypt
, south
, Re, Sun (god)
, southern
son
, not do
love, desire, want
pass ( by)
(adjective-verb) stable,
Nubian steady
travel by land dominion
boat (Nubian type) regnal year
herd (of cattle) go up, emerge, issue
except Growing (season)
price; do Inundation (season)
trade
Harvest (season)
trading post is
Nubia (possibly Mirgissa) majesty, incarnation
, mission, name of the Semna
assignment, message fortress
pass ( by) go forward, sail
south
, eternity,
forever (fore)fathers, ancestors
Edfu (town in Delta) hand over, pass on, assign
(office)
Horus
think (about), plan
Two Ladies
aggressive, angry,
divine savage
birth hasty, impetuous

54
, respect
successful, fortunate
, break
sleep, lie down, spend
the night ,
exaggeration
, intend, plan,
take thought of indeed

man of plunder, loot

inferior status
well, cistern
stand, attend, go on duty
plunder
mild, merciful
, cattle
kindly, merciful
pluck flowers/plants
enemy
, corn, grain
strengthen
fire, flame
brave, diligent,
speech, utterance
persevering
boast
wretched, vile, miserable
firm
flee, retreat, retire
strengthen, maintain
(compound verb)
retreat image
coward save, protect
, true, proper, protector, savior
correct
beget
drive away ( from)
leave, abandon
fall
fight
back
love
fall; fall into
condition

55
55
Two Boundary Stelae of Senwosret III

Grammar Points

Both stelae were discovered by Lepsius in 1844 in Semna, the second stela in two broken
pieces. The lower part of the second stela was sent to Berlin. After packing, the upper
part of the second stela and the first were forgotten. In 1886 the missing pieces were
rediscovered by Insinger, and ended up in Cairo for many years. In 1899 they finally
reached Berlin, and the two pieces of the second stela were joined after 55 years.

The First Semna Stela of Senwosret III

Senwosret III in his 8th regnal year (1862 BC) erected this stela just above the second
cataract of the Nile. Mentuhotep, a general of his great-grandfather Senwosret I, already
reached this point in the king’s 18th regnal year, but as the stela states, Senwosret III
intended to keep and maintain this position firmly.

The stela starts with the noun phrase , where is the adjective “southern”
modifying “boundary.” Just how important this “southern boundary” was to the
Egyptians is clear from its foremost position in the text; it precedes the regnal year and
the king’s name. The perfective passive participle “made” of the verb is easily
recognizable. As pointed out by Sethe, the threshing floor determinative makes the

difference between “regnal year,” and ordinary “year.” The

prepositional phrase followed by the king’s name is a typical construction:
“during the incarnation/reign of.” In Senwosret III’s throne name (prenomen)
the verb form of “appear” is an active participle and the whole phrase can be
translated as “Apparent one of Re’s life force/spirit.” The well-known participial phrase

56
“given life” is passive, and it is probably the abbreviation of : “to
whom life has been given.”

The object of the preposition is the negative verb followed by the negatival
complement of The preposition expresses purpose and should therefore be translated

as “in order.” The verb “pass” is in the subjunctive, and the object refers
to the border. The three prepositional phrases make the prohibition more specific: In the
first two, the verbal nouns and are derived from the verb “sail
downstream/north” and “travel by land.” In the adverbial phrase that follows the

Nubian type boat is specified (as opposed to Egyptian type vessels

). The prohibition also emphasizes three different kinds of cattle that are
displayed as determinatives after the feminine collective noun “cattle” for
emphasis.

is an Egyptian phrase for “except” doubtless derived from the verb

“part, separate.” The pseudoverbal + infinitive construction clearly indicates
purpose (of trading). The suffix pronoun of the prospective participle of “come”
refers to the excepted Nubians. The exact location of the trading post “Iken” is

57
debated; it is possibly Mirgissa. Finally, note that the infrequently used disjunction
is always placed after the second noun or noun phrase.

One would expect here the subjunctive of (with the impersonal suffix pronoun )
expressing future command “shall be done” with following object “all good things.”
However, the subjunctive of is and the presence of the double contradicts this.
Instead one has to accept that the verb form is the infinitive with as a dependent
pronoun: “all good things shall be done,” lit. “one’s doing all good things.” The second
clause starts with + infinitive indicating the negation of what follows. The particle
“but” is in its typical place here indicating contrast with the previous clause. It is

followed by a + subjunctive construction with the infinitive of . Heh is the

name of the Semna fortress, one of the famous Semna-Kumma double-fortress at the
southern end of the second cataract overlooking the Nile. Senwosret III clearly knew that
displaying rhetoric of royal power in this stela was apparently not enough to control

Nubia. , more frequently written as or , means “to eternity,

forever.”

The Second (Semna/Uronarti) Stela of Senwosret III

This stela dates at the 16th regnal year (1854 BC) of Senwosret III. A duplicate was
discovered in the island of Uronarti, now one of the treasures of the Archaeological
Museum of Khartoum. This duplicate stela was erected only 3 km from the first. They are
practically identical.

58
Behdetite, is an epithet of the winged solar Horus. (The name Behdet is shared by
two cities in Egypt, Tell el-Balamun (up until the New Kingdom), the northernmost town
in the Delta, and Edfu in Upper Egypt.)

! "# $ % & ' '

The royal titulary of Senwosret III is given here. His Horus name “Divine of

Evolution/Form” is a construction. The Two Ladies (the feminine dual

of “lady”) are the vulture-goddess Nekhbet and the cobra-goddess ' Wadjet;
they are the protective deities of Upper and Lower Egypt, respectively. The
construction continues with the Two Ladies name: “Divine of Birth.” The

participial phrases “given life” and (in the next line) '
“given life, stability, and dominion” are passive. His Gold Falcon name
contains the participle of “evolve” so that the name can be rendered as “the Gold

falcon which has evolved.” The perfective relative form or (for short) is
used in the expression X “beloved of X.” Here X can be a noun (usually a god’ name)
or suffix pronoun. Finally, his Son of Re name (nomen) can be translated as (
“Man of the powerful female one.” Wosret (also Woset or Waset) was a Theban goddess,
the earliest female companion of Amun. She may also have been an early form of Hathor.

)* +

In the Egyptian calendar there were 3 seasons: “Inundation,”

“Growing,” and “Harvest.” Each season was divided into four months. The
number 3 refers to the 3rd month of “Growing,” a season which is roughly spread from
mid-November to mid-March. So this is Senwosret’s 16th regnal year between mid-
January and mid-February. There is evidence that the month of a season as a number was

59
pronounced as an ordinal, so that “X regnal year and Y month of the season” was
probably read as “ X Y season.” The infinitive of “make” after the date
is typical in headings, it is narrative, therefore refers to past.

The perfect of used to express past tense is introduced by the particle . One

possibility here is the infinitive of the 4ae-inf. verb “go forward, sail south”

which has variant writings: and , or

. An example to the first spelling is in Kamose’s second stela:

1
' ! to be discussed later. An example to the second

spelling is again in Kamose’s second stela:

2
and in the tomb autobiography of admiral Ahmose:

3
once again to be
discussed later. In our present text ! has a suffixed subject and object “my
(fore)fathers/ancestors.” In a typical phrase to emphasize that he has outdone his
predecessors, Senwosret III states that he went farther south than his forefathers. At
closer inspection it is clear that the first clause (with the perfect of the verb as the
predicate) contains no new information (having already been stated in the previous
clause). So this clause could well be considered as a rheme of an emphatic sentence, with
the following theme specifying how the rheme was done. As such, the verb
form then should be a nonattributive perfective relative form used emphatically
(with an emphasized adverb clause). The presence of the suffix pronoun adds further
evidence this interpretation.

1
[Kamose Stela 2, 30]
2
[Kamose Stela 2, 19]
3
[Urk. VI, 5,5; 7,1]

60
'
In the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor the herald, after trying to draw the attention of the

commander, states . There (in a

construction) means “excess.” In our case means “increase,” lit. “do

more than.” The passive participle of the caus. 2-lit. verb ' “hand over” has a
ending and can be translated as “what has been handed over/bequeathed.”

'
The main clause is an A B nominal sentence with the independent pronoun as the
subject and is the predicate. The subordinate noun clause is also type A B, where
' is the imperfective relative form of ' , lit. “what (I) say,” and is the
imperfective passive participle of , lit. “what is done.”
“Hence the enlightened ruler is heedful,
and the good general full of caution.
This is the way to keep a country at peace
and an army intact.”
Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chapter XII,
translated by Lionel Giles.

This is an A B nominal sentence with A containing the imperfective relative form of

the verb “think about, plan” and subject The B part of the nominal
sentence contains the perfective relative form of lit. “what evolves.” Since they do
not refer to anything specific, both relative forms are feminine.

and ! are nouns of agent derived from the adjective-verbs “be

aggressive, angry” and ! “be hasty, impetuous.” (They cannot be active

61
participles because of the ending ). The pseudoverbal construction + infinitive in the
first syntactically adverb clause has the nominal subject and the verbal predicate has
the infinitive of “take possession (of).” In general in a pseudoverbal construction is
used to express planned/inevitable action. (In contrast, in a grammatically similar

4
sentence “a great lord is taking possession,” is used
to express the imperfect.) The grammar in the second clause is identical with that of the

first and uses the adjective-verb , or “successful,

fortunate.”

'
In the main clause the negative verb followed by the negatival complement of the verb
' is used to form the negated participle “(he) who is not slumbering.” In the

circumstantial clause not only means “word, speech” but also

“matter, affair.” The meaning of this sentence is that Senwosret III will not rest (with) a
matter on/in his mind/heart (until it is resolved).

We have again a pair of causes here describing Senwosret III’s character. is a

perfective active participle derived from the verb “intend, plan, take thought
of” and can therefore be translated as “one who is thoughtful of.” As a verb form it also

carries an object, the plural of “inferior.” Similarly, is a

perfective active participle derived from “stand, attend,” and can be translated

as “steady.” Finally, the + infinitive construction involving the adjective-verb

“mild, merciful” emphasizes the imperfect, ongoing action.

4
[Peas. B1, 123-24].

62
The Egyptians love for word-play is clear in the next passage. As before, the first
sentence starts with a negated participle using the negative word . In the negatival

complement of the adjective-verb “kindly, merciful” the ending

is written out, and the phrase can be translated as “(he) who is merciless.” The noun
clause after contains the active participle of “who attacks” and has the
object “him,” referring to the pharaoh.
In the second sentence, is an active participle (with a ending possibly indicating
that it is used as a noun) “(he) who attacks.” It is followed by ( a circumstantial
clause with in the passive form of the subjunctive: “(if/when) he is attacked.”

, ,
Continuing the description of Senwosret III’s character, the text now uses the noun of
agent , derived from the adjective-verb , “silent/quiet/still.” The participle , forms
a one-word circumstantial clause meaning “(when/if) it is silent/quiet.” Similarly,
is a noun of agent derived from the verb “he who responds.” As above, should
be promoted from “word” to “matter, affair,” and finally (with in the infinitive)
is an Egyptian idiom for “properly, (with) correct procedure,” lit. “as evolving.” The
feminine suffix pronoun attached to the final adverb refers to

' ,
A noun clause is introduced here with the marker which, in turn, is the object of the
preposition ' Together they correspond to the English “since/for.” is a marker of the
topicalized subject , , and this marker can be left un-translated or translated with
the usual meaning “as for.” In the topicalized subject , is an active participle of the
adjective-verb , that we just met, and the infinitive of “attack” (used as a noun) is the
object of “in the wake.” (This compound preposition we already met in the
Instructions to Kagemni.) The topicalized subject is followed by an A nominal
sentence (with moved forward within an indirect genitive). The causative verb

63
“strengthen” is in an active participle form with object This whole passage
points to the advantage of being aggressive and defiant in war.

!
This is a pair of A B nominal sentences. The A parts are “bravery, valor” derived

from the adjective-verb “brave,” and “cowardice” derived from the

adjective-verb ! “wretched, vile, miserable” The B parts are , an abstract

noun “aggression” derived from the adjective-verb “aggressive, angry,

savage,” and “retreat” derived from the verb “flee,

retire”.

Once again this is an A B nominal sentence. The A part is , where the noun

“coward” clearly related to the verb “flee, retire” above. The B part is
, in which is a perfective passive participle derived from the verb

“drive away” ( from). Being a strong verb, the passive participle is

indicated by the ending .
“When the general is weak and without authority;
when his orders are not clear and distinct; when
there are no fixed duties assigned to officers and men,
and the ranks are formed in a slovenly haphazard
manner, the result is utter disorganization.”
Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chapter X,
translated by Lionel Giles

' '

64
In the Semna stela only is shown for ' . As the phonetic complements

suggest the quail chick should be emended here to the -bird . The introductory
prepositional phrase ' involving the noun clause marker governs a noun clause.
There are two interpretations for the closing phrase . According to Sethe, it stands
for “to the word of mouth”. Janssen and Gardiner render it as “to fall at a word.” In either
case the sentence introduced by is probably emphatic. ' is a nonattributive relative
form in the rheme: “the Nubian listens” (which is a given), and the theme (containing the
new information) is

This sentence is a typical participial statement introduced by As such, should be

followed by a noun/noun phrase which in this case is with the infinitive of used
as a noun and the suffix pronoun as its object: “answering/responding him.” This is
followed by the masculine singular imperfective active participle of “(one that)
gives/makes.” Since it expresses causality, the subjunctive of the verb “flee” is used
here.

This is a pair of sentences starting with the subjunctives of the verbs and the
compound verb expressing contingency. (Because of the presence of the
subjunctives the introductory word is not needed.) The verbal predicates are followed
by imperfective relative forms and of the verbs and “fall ( into a
condition).” They can be rendered as “he shows his back,” lit. “he gives his back” and
“he falls into aggression.”

'
The first clause is a A B negated nominal sentence, where A is “people
of respect” and B is “they.” Notice that particle moved inside the indirect genitive.
The second clause is an (affirmative) A nominal sentence. ' is a

65
construction, where ' “broken” itself is a perfective passive participle derived from the

verb or '- ' “break.” Note that the Uronarti stela has

introduces the perfect as a past tense of in the main clause, and the sentence
strictly adheres to the Egyptian word order VoS with the object being the dependent form

of the 3N personal pronoun “it.” (The Uronarti stela has only

) The second clause is of type A, the negation of existence of A. Here A

is , an alternative spelling of “exaggeration. (This word is

derived from the enclictic particle “indeed” preposed with .) This is an

entire clause, as Middle Egyptian negates a single word by using a different construction.

!
Senwosret III recalls here his exploits in a pair of sentences with perfect verbal predicates.

The nisbe ! with the seated man and woman determinatives means
“dependents,” lit. “those who are under.”

Instead of stative, with the preposition “go to” and “plunder”

are both in passive because of their nominal subjects: ! “well, cistern”

and “cattle.”

'
The passive verb forms continue to be used in recalling Senwosret III’s exploits. In the

first clause the predicate “pluck flowers/plants” can be translated as

“cut down.” The out of place “postule gland” on the back of the –bird was influenced by

66
one of its phonetic values: . (The Uronarti stela has the perfect ) In the second
clause the phrase ' means “set fire to” with omitted object (shared by the previous
clause).

'
This is an oath with a typical initial nonattributive relative form of the verb “live.” (In

other texts the “speaking man” determinative follows this verb for further emphasis.)
In the following main clause an emphatic construction is used with the nonattributive
relative form of ' . What is emphasized here is the phrase : “I speak in truth!” lit.
“it is in truth that I speak!” (The Uronarti stela has ' .)

The negative word negates the adverb clause in which the prepositional

adverb is short enough to be moved forward. From the nouns “speech,

utterance” and “boast” the Egyptian idiom “exaggeration”

clearly follows. This is the subject of the adverb clause. Note the intrusive extra that the
scribe emphasized here for sound retention Further examples for this are

5 6
“”behold, me” and
“they will send for me.” This whole clause is modified by ( the perfective active
participle of the verb .

5
[Lac. TR. 78, 3]
6
[Sin. B 171]

67
The protasis of this conditional sentence is introduced by , “as for.” The topicalized

subject is modified by the prospective participle of the causative verb '

“strengthen, maintain” which itself is derived from '- “firm.” can

thus be translated as “he who will maintain.” The object is modified by the
perfective relative form of .
In the apodosis the repetition of essentially the same statement gives a clue that after the
simple A nominal construction the verbal predicate is emphatic and involves the
nonattributive perfective relative form of “bear.” In English, this emphasis can be
brought out by the cleft sentence: “it is from the majesty that he is born of.” That the son
is born is a given fact, but it is the son’s deeds following his father’s footsteps what will
make Senwosret III to accept him as his own offspring. That this is indeed the case is also
clear from a latter part of the text when this passage is put into negative using the
bracket, a clear sign of emphasis.

'
Senwosret III continues to remind his offsprings what it takes to be accepted by him. The
first clause is an A B nominal sentence in which A is “true son of mine,” lit.
“image/likeness of a son of mine,” and B is ' The second noun clause starts with
the participle derived from the verbs discussed above. The object is a direct genitive
AB, where A is and B is . In the latter, the verb form is yet another participle

of “beget.” The clumsy translation “who begot him” can be replaced by “his

begetter.” It is not known why the scribe changed the determinative to the frog
(in both the Semna and Uronarti texts). Senwosret III’s “true son,” actually his only
known son, Amenemhat III, did actually strengthen the Semna border and enlarged a few
border fortresses.

68
The dire consequence of being cast out is spelled out in this contrasting conditional

sentence. In the protasis there are two prospective participles: of the verb

“leave, abandon, displace,” and of the negative verb

“not do” (followed by the negatival complement of “fight”). The apodosis here clearly
contrasts the apodosis of the previous conditional sentence: Here
the first clause is a negated A nominal sentence with omitted . brackets ,a
negated nominal sentence. In the second noun clause, brackets As noted
above, it is therefore an emphatic construction; signaling that the negative construction
applies to the whole clause with emphasis is on Once again in English a cleft sentence
“it is not from me …” can bring out the emphasis. Finally, note the different relative

positions of and the determinative .

,
usually introduces an adverbial clause but here, other than from the context, the
connection with the previous sentence is not manifest. The following passage contains an

A B nominal construction. This is not uncommon, for example

7
“behold, he was my beneficent son.” In our case, A is
in which the perfect relative form of the verb is used (followed by the subjunctive
of ), lit.“what the majesty caused one make,” and B is “an image of the
majesty.” The adverbial phrase that follows refers to the border and the grammar therein
has already been discussed above.

The stela ends with a pair of adverb clauses of purpose. The compound preposition

means “in order that,” lit. “through love.” In the first instance is

7
[BH, i. 26, 166-7].

69
written instead of . Grammatically these are direct genitives in which the first part is
and the second part is a perfective nonattributive relative form (used nominally)
of and , respectively. (The prepositional phrase at the end refers to the
border.) Another example to this construction is the following excerpt of the Abydos stela
of Thutmose I8:

'

'
In the second line: contains the imperfective relative form of the verb
“love” used nonattributively as the second part of an indirect genitival phrase: “(it is)
through the greatness of (that) I love him” (followed by a comparative). The third and
fourth lines contain the perfective relative forms of and
“used again nonattributively: “(it is) through the love (that) my name remains and
my monuments endure.”

8
[Urk. IV, 100, 1-7].

70
5
The Second Stela of Kamose
Part I
“[1.11] Says Darius the king: Afterwards there was one man, a Magian,
Gaumata by name; he rose up from Paishiyauvada… he thus deceived
the people; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus brother of Cambyses; afterwards
all the people became estranged from Cambyses (and) went over to him,
both Persia and Media and the other provinces; he seized the kingdom…
afterwards Cambyses died by a self-imposed death.
[1.12] Says Darius the king: This kingdom which Gaumata the Magian
took from Cambyses, this kingdom from long ago was (the possession)
of our family; afterwards Gaumata the Magian took from Cambyses
both Persia and Media and the other provinces; he seized (the power)
and made it his own possession; he became king.”
The Behistun Inscription, Column I,
translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman

71
72
73
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part I

Vocabulary

report desert edge, margin of

cultivation
move/force away, drive
back, expel remainder
narrow bird of prey, kite,
sparrow-hawk
ask for, beg
uproot/pluck plants
rob, steal, seize wrongly
catch sight of
butcher block
conceive (child) peek, glimpse, peer
open, stir window, opening
remain enclosure
Apophis (Hyksos ruler) bank, shore
moment nose, nostril
wretched, wall
miserable, poor
young, nestling
think
attack
ships; the
fleet remainder, remnant
equip (ship with weapons) walk, tread
command (ship) fail, miss, escape
front, prow (of a ship) heartless,
cruel
steering-oar, rudder
wine
fly
vineyard, orchard
ship
strain mash, press wine
measure, probe
destroy, lay waste,
ravage

74
rest house hold (of ship)
cut off, cut down (trees) (span of) horses
trees, plantation

75
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part I

Grammar Points
The second stela of Kamose, recording his northern campaign was discovered in 1954 in
Karnak used as the base of a statue of Ramesses II.

The stela starts with an adverb clause setting the scene in Avaris. The Hykosos capital is
referred to as “town” and the simple suffix pronoun “your” refers to the Hyksos
ruler, Aauserra Apophis. It points to the fact that this stela is the continuation of a first
stela, the so-called Carnavon Tablet.
In the next clause the subject form of the 2MS personal pronoun is the topicalized
subject of a subject-stative construction involving the verb “move/force away, driven
back, expel.” Since this is a transitive verb, the stative expresses passive voice. The usual
meaning of the compound preposition “beside,” lit. “at the side of,” needs to be
mildly upgraded to “in the company/presence of.”

There are a few constructions using the adjective “narrow” such as

“narrow minded” and “stingy,” lit. “narrow of hand.” In this sense, the AB nominal
clause at the beginning (with used as a noun) may mean “your speech is mean,” lit.
“your speech is narrow.” On the other hand, with a bit of push “speech, utterance” may
be interpreted as “authority (through the mouth)” and with this the clause may express
restricted authority. The presence of the pronominal subject shows that the object of the
preposition is the perfective relative form of “make” (and not the infinitive ).
The passage can be translated as “in that you make me …”
Kamose’s first resentment is that Apophis (probably in a previous correspondence) refers
to him as “chief(tain)” (using an adverbial phrase), while he calls himself “ruler”
(introduced by the adverb clause marker and using a nominal construction). The
contrast can be brought out in translation by inserting “while” between the two clauses.

76
The + infinitive construction using the verb “ask for, beg” expresses
the future fate of the ruler of Avaris. The following object is the noun phrase
Clearly, is a noun here; its meaning, however, is subject to two interpretations. First,

it could be a perfective passive participle derived from the verb “rob, steal,
seize wrongly.” This would emphasize that Apophis is an aggressor of a foreign land.

Second, with the right determinative it can simply mean the “butcher block” awaiting
for the Hyksos ruler. In either case, is the antecedent of the following clause which
contains the (feminine) perfective relative form of “fall.” The preposition (with
suffix referring back to the antecedent) can be translated as “because of” or “through.”

The subjunctive of the verb with subject and object expresses another future
threat of Kamose. Since the spelling of as a noun and as an adjective-verb is the same,
less likely and with quite different meaning, can also be viewed as an adjective
modifying : “your evil back.” In this case, it is the object of the passive verb form
In either case, the second clause describes the corresponding adverbial circumstance, it
can be introduced by “when” or “since.”

The two clauses here contain the most typical negation of the subjunctive and should be
translated as future “will not.” The rope determinative is usually replaced by the door

determinative in the usual spelling of the verb “open,” and this is the first
part of the phrase “open the heart” with a clear sensual rather than physical meaning.

It is interesting to compare this sentence with the following:

1
… …

1
[Westcar, 5, 9, f].

77
This is an adverb clause employing the passive form of the concomitant imperfective of
the verb “hear” followed by a long object. It provides the reason why the women of
Avaris will not be able to conceive, and can be introduced by “when.” Note the late form
of the possessive pronoun.

The threats suddenly stop, and two subject-stative constructions describe Kamose’s
whereabouts (in the unfortunately unknown location ) and his state of mind. The

verb “remain” should be translated as “moor.”

A + subjunctive form is employed here (with in its subjunctive form, the base stem

) to turn Kamose’s attention back to “Apophis.” In the following A B

apposition A is the noun phrase once again pointing out that the Hyksos ruler
does not belong to Egypt, and B is construction “weak/feeble of arms”
stating that he unable to govern. The passage that follows further details this inability: The

active participle of the 3-lit. verb “think” has object in which the

determinative for abstract concepts indicates that the adjective-verb here is used
as a noun and in plural it should mean “brave things/deeds.” Finally, in the last unmarked
relative clause the suffix pronoun of the negated perfective (the negative counterpart of
the perfect) refers to the plural and the clause be translated using the word “never.”

The stative of the verb “arrive” and the following subject-stative construction once
again brings the narrative back to Kamose’s whereabouts. Although the determinative of

78
is the sun not the town must be a locality. As the name suggests it
may be a well-frequented depot/landing place to sail upstream. The next clause contains a
subject-stative construction (with topicalized subject form of the 1MS personal pronoun
) and the in the prepositional phrase the suffix pronoun refers to the inhabitants of
the town. The object of the infinitive of the 3-lit. verb , the dependent pronoun , has
no antecedent and we can just guess that it either refers to the town-folks again or to the
subject of Kamose’s investigation/questioning in general.

This passage describes the battle-array of Kamose’s navy. The perfect of the verb
“make, put” starts the first clause and the phrase clearly indicates that Kamose
lined up his ships one after the other. (Note that “ship(s)” with the definite article
means “fleet.”) The difficulty comes here in interpreting the verb in 3MS stative in

the middle. On the one hand, assigning only to the jabiru (in group writing can

stand only for ) it can be the verb “equip (ship with weapons), deploy.” On

the other hand, it can also be the (not attested) causative of the verb
“command (ship).” In either case the meaning of the sentence is clear. Next, the resulting
prow to steering-oar formation is expressed by the concomitant imperfective of the verb
Alternatively, the expression can also be translated as “take the lead.” The
collective noun (phrase) “the braves (of the king)” can refer to the king’s body-
guard or the group of most valiant warriors to spearhead the attack. The + infinitive

79
construction uses the verb “fly” (in a figurative sense), and

is a well-attested form of the usual spelling of “river.” The

object of the preposition is the infinitive of the 2-ae-gem. verb “be, exist” used as
a noun, and the metaphor has a clear meaning. (The only other possible verb
form for is an imperfective relative form, but the absence of expressed subject
indicates that it is not the case.) The phrase means the flagship of gold. The
last simple adverb clause reiterates that Kamose is spearheading the battle formation (with
the last metaphor repeated).

As its context indicates, this sentence can still be considered as part of the previous
passage, therefore the verb is in concomitant imperfective. Its object, the “ ship”
(introduced by the definite article ), is not attested before the linguistic evolution of the
Amarna Period2; in any case, the attached adjective claims it to be a “mighty” (possibly
a transport) ship. The + infinitive construction describes the (continual) task of this ship.

The object ! of the verb “measure” means “desert edge, margin

of cultivation” so that the phrase in question can be interpreted to sound/probe/investigate
or even thrust the desert edge.
The adverb clause specifies that “the remainder” of the fleet (indicated by the ship
determinative) is behind the -ship, the latter being referred to by the suffix pronoun
Based on the parallel between above and , the

noun is probably a variant spelling of “bird of prey,

carrion bird,” a carnivorous, scavenger bird in general. The 2ae-gem. verb

“uproot/pluck plants,” or “prey” is in a + infinitive construction, and the locality, the

2
[Davies, Amarna VI, 21, 12].

80
of Avaris, at which this is happening can be the “plateaux” in the area surrounding
Avaris.

This passage describes how Kamose with pride and the women of Apophis with awe were
watching each other with the fleet passing by. The actions start with the perfect of the verb

“catch sight of.” The masculine singular suffix pronouns refers to

Apophis. The + infinitive construction is used to describe the corresponding action (in

progress) of the women, where the verb is an earlier form of

having various meanings connected to “see, look” such as “peek,

glimpse, peer.” is an unusual spelling of “window, opening.”

As opposed to the previous appearance of the verb “open” in his threats and boasts,
here Kamose describes the real situation. Therefore the verbs that follow should refer to
the past. Accepting this, in the following the adverb clause is a negated infinitive
“not stirring” (less likely, negated perfective “did not stir” with playing the role of ).
Although it uses the base stem, is probably the infinitive of the verb with the
suffix pronoun as its subject. (The emphatic construction with as emphasized
adverb clause: “it is when the saw me they did dot stir” is less likely because it is the main
clause that contains the new information, therefore it is the rheme.) The same
holds for the next adverb clause. The description of the frightened Avaris women is made
quite vivid using the expression “peeking with the nose/nostril,” and one may
well imagine them in a prostrated position on the roof having their noses on the same level

as their eyes. The animal living in a hole is unknown, probably a kind of

81
lizard or mouse. Finally, the + infinitive construction is used to quote the women who
in an A nominal sentence acknowledge Kamose’s presence as being an attack.

In the first of this sequence of four clauses the subject-stative construction with the verb
“come” is used to call Apophis’ attention to Kamose’s presence. The adjective here
carries the seated man determinative, so it must be used as a noun “successful man.”
Adjectival quality with first person pronominal subject is expressed by a nominal
construction , so may assume that here the subject, Kamose himself, being the

same as in the previous clause, is suppressed. In the third, adverbial clause is a variant

spelling of “remainder, remnant.” What is left over is a reference to the

part of Egypt that Kamose rules over. Finally, the last clause has an adjectival predicate
, and should be understood as “situation, condition.”

"

!
This sentence contains a typical oath expressed by the initial nonattributive relative form
of “endure.” As such it is usually followed by a god’s or a king’s name. In our case it
is Amun with the attached adjective used as a noun. In this construction a main clause
always follows, which, in our case, contains the negated subjunctive of “leave (alone),
set aside, ignore” expressing negated future. Another main clause further details this. It
also contains the negated subjunctive of “let.” This, in turn, is part of a causative

construction with the verb “walk, tread” also in the

subjunctive. This along with the attached negated adverb clause (which can be translated
using “unless”) challenge Apophis to come out to the open and face him.

82
There is a scribal error in the phrase " and can be corrected in two ways. First, if
is swapped with the evil bird determinative, the new reading is , with the verb
meaning “fail.” In this case the sentence has an omitted subject (Apophis, repeated
several times previously), and his “epithet” is repeated at the end of the sentence
for emphasis. The verb form of is subject to interpretation. It can be perfective
(instead of transitive perfect) concluding the failure of Apophis, or subjunctive, to express
Kamose’s wish that the vile Asiatic will fail. (An emphatic construction involving a
nonattributive relative form does not sound probable since it would emphasize the
adverbial phrase :”it is in your heart/mind that you failed.) Second, less likely
(since this error is repeated below), is a well-known phrase meaning “heartless,
cruel,” lit. “wicked of heart” and it may be possible that the scribe (or the stone carver)
accidentally replaced with In this case this clause is adverbial with the adverb also
playing a role of emphasis.

The subjunctive of the verb “drink” is introduced here with the particle with
meaning of intention. (Due to the unusual details Kamose provides, one may also be
tempted to interpret the verb form here and below as perfective, playing the role of the
transitive perfect, describing actual events.) The preposition governs a noun clause
containing the nonattributive relative form of the verb “press (wine).” Finally, the
subject is the indirect genitive “my captured prisoners” in which is a
noun meaning “plunder.”

Following the previous passage, “destroy, lay waste” and “cut down” is interpreted
as intentional subjunctives. The verb form then suddenly changes to perfect which means
concrete completed action. Unfortunately the word is attested only here. Based on the
meaning of the whole clause a good guess would be “deposit, assign.” With this,

83
“take away, carry off” is in perfective (instead of the previous transitive perfect). Finally,

could mean “horses” or “chariotry” doubtless related to “(span of)

horses.”

84
6
The Second Stela of Kamose
Part II
“[1.13] Says Darius the king: There was not a man neither a
Persian nor a Median nor any one of our family who could
make Gaumata the Magian deprived of the kingdom;
the people feared his tyranny; (they feared) he would slay
the many who knew Bardiya formerly; for this reason he
would slay the people; "that they might not know me that
I am not Bardiya the son of Cyrus;" any one did not dare
to say anything against Gaumata the Magian until I came;
afterwards I asked Auramazda for help…
I thus with few men slew that Gaumata the Magian and
what men were his foremost allies…
I took the kingdom from him; by the grace of Auramazda
I became king; Auramazda gave me the kingdom.”
The Behistun Inscription, Column I,
translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman

85
!

" #$%

86
87
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part II

Vocabulary

perish
split, break open
as far as
plank
Eight-town (Hermopolis, the
cargo ship, galley
place of worship of the Ogdoad)
cedar
Per-Hathor
green, fresh (Gebelein)
lapis-lazuli provide, bring (tribute),
control
silver
(intransitive) fall out, be
turquoise
destroyed; (transitive) desolate (a place)
bronze
desolation
axe
burn
quantity, number
mound
moringa-oil
red
(made from seeds of the moringa-tree)
damage
incense
fat, unguents
summon
honey
willow (intransitive) run, overrun; (transitive)
abandon, forsake
precious wood
mistress
precious wood
capture
(3ae-gem.), (4-ae-
inf.) fine, special, noble , message,
mission, assignment
some, few, little
sky, upland
empty, lacking, missing,
free oasis, oasis region

88
document form, fashion, nature, manner
cut up, choose
writing
pestilence,
greet affliction, pouring rain
why here
see, catch sight of , road, path, way
drive off, penetrate, divide
perforate
joy
ground

89
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part II

Grammar Points

Negated perfective, the negative counterpart of the perfect, starts the passage. As the
context suggests, among the many meanings of the verb we need to choose “leave

aside, overlook, spare.” The object “plank” is derived from the verb

“split, break open.” The hundreds of cargo ships with the sign “hundred” in plural
(or exactly 300) may be a forgivable exaggeration, though it may show the extent of the
trade between Avaris and the Levant. usually means “fresh, green” but here is must

stand for “new, unused.” The stative of the transitive verb “fill” with pronominal
suffixed subject has passive meaning. It introduces a long list of booty captured from

these ships. Note that the adjective-verb “fine, special, noble” has two forms:

(3ae-gem.) and (4-ae-inf.), and the text uses a variant spelling of the latter. The
noun phrase can be viewed as the concluding summary of the list or as

the topicalized subject of the perfect of the (unattested) verb with possible

90
meaning “seize, carry off, confiscate.” In the latter case it is referred to by the dependent
pronoun “them.”

The negated perfective of is repeated here but turns the focus from the ships to Avaris.
The meaning of the first clause is clear, but the grammar and the translation needs the

usual meaning of the adjective-verb “empty, lacking, missing, free” to be

interpreted as a noun meaning “emptiness, destitution.” The 3F suffix pronoun refers back
to the feminine noun Avaris. Alternatively, this clause can be thought of a circumstantial
clause of causality introduced by the preposition “for, because.” As such it should be
followed by the nonattributive relative form of This would then be example for this
construction in the passive: : “it was emptied.”
The beginning of the next passage can be interpreted in two ways. First, as an
independent clause it may be a subject-stative construction involving the

intransitive verb “perish” confirming the fate of Apophis in past tense. At

this point of history this statement “The Asiatic has perished!” counts a little more than
wishful thinking. Second, it can be viewed as a noun phrase with being a perfective
active participle “fallen.” The clause that follows has been analyzed
previously. If is viewed as a noun phrase then the alternative interpretation
is even more possible here as it (and even the next phrase) is an extension of the long
subject: “fallen Asiatic, wicked of heart, wicked Asiatic.” In either case the noun phrase
is the subject of the perfective active participle of the verb This latter
allows in turn the + infinitive construction to function as a participle: “who used to
say,” lit. “who existed saying.”

91
Apophis’ boasting starts with a simple A B nominal sentence. It is followed by the
negative construction A. Since A has a suffix pronoun, it is negation of possession, lit.
“my second is not.” As such, it can be translated using the word “without.” Thus, along
with it is gives the typical phrase: “lord without equal.” The following adverbial
phrases detail his control and might over an extensive domain. The compound preposition

literally means “beginning to” but means “as far as.” The +

infinitive construction applied to the verb “provide, bring (tribute), control”

(written here with a graphic transposition) asserts Apophis’ authority, and the two rivers
refer to two sizable branches of the Nile Delta flowing by Avaris.
In the last clause the predicate is intentional subjunctive of the verb “leave” (as the
destruction of Avaris did not happen for quite some time, actually, between the regnal
years 18 and 22 of the succeeding Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th Dynasty). The
subordinate clause that follows is adverbial since it describes an adverbial circumstance.

The noun “desolation” is derived from the verb Used

intransitively it means “fall out” (as the hair determinative suggests), but as a transitive
verb it means “desolate (a place).”

The perfect of the previously used verb “destroy, lay waste” governs the main clause,
and the next clause with the perfective of the verb “burn” closely following. The
clause introduced by the passive participle “which have been/were made” of the verb
further details the state of these places after the inferno. As Habachi points out, the
feminine plural noun “red mounds” is also the modern Arabic name of several
ruins including Hierakonpolis.

92
The preposition “because of, for” introduces the reason of Kamose’s action, and
governs a long phrase that follows. In its immediate vicinity, it governs the noun phrase
in which the feminine after the masculine “damage” is a scribal error. Reference
to the guilty party, the Hyksos, is given by the imbedded clause starting with ! the
perfective relative form of and modifying The demonstrative pronoun in front
of points to “that (part of) Egypt,” where they ruled.
The perfect of the transitively used verb " “abandon, forsake” has a long topicalized
subject. It starts with the masculine plural perfective active participle “they/those who
let” of the verb “let, allow” following the pronominal object “them(selves)” used
reflexively. They are the new target of Kamose’s scorn: the Hyksos allies as well as to
those who paid tribute the Hyksos. What they did is given in a + infinitive construction
of the verb The object of this infinitive is an indirect genitive in which the first part is

the infinitive of the verb ! a variant of “summon.”

“…the strong help he has in his friend can be made use
of both in his own country and in his marches; that he
has to be absent only for a short time, and actual fight
is more than treacherous fight; that having made
his friend's army to occupy wild tracts, cities, or
plains and to fight with the enemy's ally, he, himself,
would lead his own army to fight with the enemy's army;
that his work can be accomplished by his friend as well;
that his success depends on his friend…”
Kautilya's Arthashastra, Book IX, The Work of an Invader,
translated by R. Shamasastry

93
Two perfect verb forms describe the actual events in the past with simple grammar. The
object of the first verb is “message” (not messenger), and it is referred in the second

clause by the feminine suffix pronoun is a variant spelling of

Kush (northern Sudan). The infinitive has been discussed in the grammar of the
second Semna stela of Senwosret III. The direct genitive can be translated as

“written dispatch,” lit. document of writing.” in an Egyptian idiom for “as

follows/the following.”
Auserra Apophis (with an honorific transposition in the first) is the full
name of Apophis. (One may hesitate to call these the cartouche names, the prenomen and
the nomen, as it would mean to acknowledge that he was a genuine pharaoh of Egypt.)
The + infinitive construction employing the verb is the first part of an indirect
genitive, lit. “upon greeting of.”

#
The two questions of Apophis here set the initially reproaching tone of the message.
These are good examples for the two kinds of questions with verbal predicate that exist in
Middle Egyptian: adjunct and predicate questions. In a predicate question the very action
of the verbal predicate is questioned, whereas in an adjunct question the inquiry is directed
to some other part. In an adjunct question such as the first one here the interrogative
pronoun is used. In our case it is part of an (uncommonly topicalized) prepositional
phrase “why?” lit. “on account of what?” In this kind of sentence the verbal
predicate is usually a nonattributive relative form which here is “you become,” lit.
“you stand up.” Imbedded in the question is an of predication, asserting the ruling
authority of the Kushite king. (Note that of predication identifies the person by function,
“in capacity,” not by essence.) The reproach is compressed in the clause containing +
infinitive applied to the verb “let,” which can be translated as “not/without letting.”
The clause itself contains the + subjunctive construction with the verb “know” in
the subjunctive.
In a predicate question such as the second one, the interrogative particle is employed.
Here, it is augmented with the particle and the following verb form of # “see” is

94
imperfective. Finally, the perfect relative form of the verb with subject can be
translated as “what Egypt has done.”

$ %&'

This passage starts with a long but simple topicalized subject, Kamose himself. The
imbedded relative clause (marked by the relative adjective ) is most typical as it
contains an adverbial predicate, in which the suffix pronoun refers to Egypt. The +
infinitive construction with the verb “drive off, penetrate, perforate” describes
Kamose’s action and the adverbial phrase at the end ironically claims Apophis’ ruling
domain in Egypt as his own. Note the irrigated canal determinative that makes
“land” (and not the sun-disk). This noun is not attested before and is doubtless related to

the noun “ground.”

With a negated perfective of the verb “attack” Apophis starts claiming his innocence.
The preposition governs an unmarked noun clause. It contains an indirect genitival
phrase in which the second part is the nonattributive perfect relative form of the
verb . The literal translation “like the manner of he has done against you” needs to be
polished into better English. In this clause Apophis reminds the Kushite king “what he
(Kamose) has done” against the Nubian.
The perfective of the verb “cut up, choose” with object “the Two Lands” is the
predicate of the next clause. This object is further detailed in the phrase
“my land and yours” in which the use of the possessive pronouns is only attested from the
Second Intermediate Period onwards. It is placed between the last two clauses for
emphasis and is referred to in the second by the dependent pronoun Apophis finishes
his accusations with the perfect of the previously used verb

95
Apophis’ message suddenly turns positive with the imperative of “come” and the
negative imperative of the verb which unfortunately is not attested elsewhere. The
context, especially Apophis’ reassuring words that follow allow to guess the meaning
“afraid, hold back.”

In the first adverbial sentence with a simple grammar Apophis tells the Kushite king that
he has a hold on Kamose.
In the next clause the negative particle indicates that the relative adjective (that
marks the beginning of a relative clause) is used here as a noun “one who,” and together
means “there is none who.” This serves as a preposed subject for the following
subject-stative construction. The verb here is and depending on the interpretation of
this passage, the literary translation “stand up” can be kept or changed to “expect, wait.”
The negated subjunctive with the verb “give” with future meaning is imbedded in the
phrase “let go, set free,” lit. “give the road.” Finally, note that the object of the
preposition is the verb form meaning “until he has/had heard.” We already met

the negative of this verb form in the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor

1
.

1
[Sh.S. 32].

96
The particle “then” marks the beginning of Apophis’ wish here, as a result of the
preceding clause. As such, the fitting verb form is subjunctive. The plural demonstrative
pronoun is used here to refer to those towns of Egypt that are still under Kamose’s
rule. In the last clause the subjunctive of makes the adverbial predicate function as a
future wish “in joy,” lit. “under joy.” The subject is a place (though it lacks the
correct determinative), and one would expect here the Two Lands, but among the few, the
most possible restoration ! is not a well-understood locality.

97
7
The Second Stela of Kamose
Part III
“[1.14] Says Darius the king: The kingdom which was taken away
from our family, this I put in (its) place; I established it on (its)
foundation; as (it was) formerly so I made it; the sanctuaries which
Gaumata the Magian destroyed I restored; for the people the revenue
and the personal property and the estates and the royal residences
which Gaumata the Magian took from them (I restored); I established
the state on (its) foundation, both Persia and Media and the other provinces;
as (it was) formerly, so I brought back what (had been) taken away;
by the grace of Auramazda this I did; I labored that our royal house
I might establish in (its) place; as (it was) formerly, so (I made it);
I labored by the grace of Auramazda that Gaumata the Magian
might not take away our royal house.”
The Behistun Inscription, Column I,
translated by Herbert Cushing Tolman

98
"

! "

! !

"

99
% &'

100
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part III

Vocabulary

control, punish, moor, move

subdue, suppress slowly/quickly, move about
(adjective-verb) concerned; district of Thebes
(noun) care
(adjective-verb) bright, white
flame, scorch
game, abundance
seek
riverbank, shore, quay
protection, defense, aid
become excited
turn/bring/come back,
return Thebes

Atfih (Aphroditopolis) festival

messenger male, man

, Cynopolis tears

send cense, perfume with/burn

incense
troop of soldiers
place
travel by land, march
scimitar
Baharia Oasis
, ka
Sako (el-Qes)
, (hereditary)
enmity, opponent, prince, member of the elite
tilting (of balance)
high official, lit. he
behind, around whose arm is in front
destroy , master
of the privy matters, lit. he who is over
what the secrets
question (someone), chief, nomarch
inquire into (a matter)
seal
, companion
valuables, treasure
weep

101
, king of Lower Egypt , stela
treasurer/seal bearer
of the king of Lower Egypt Karnak, lit. Most Select of Place(s)
star/conductor of the Two , eternity, forever,
Lands eternal/continual repetition
leader, lit. who is in front
, , overseer
, courtier

102
The Second Stela of Kamose: Part III

Grammar Points

The unusual epithet following the usual after the throne name of
Kamose is just the beginning of the several ways Kamose describes his power as a king.
Due to the many meanings of the epithet in question can have essentially two

translations. To begin with, is a variant spelling of

“control, punish, subdue, suppress” and due to its position in the

text it must be in an active participle form. Combined with translations of the epithet
can vary from the mild “he who controls (the controller of) the events” to the more
aggressive “the punisher of the misdeeds.”

The phrase lit. “put under” has the obvious meaning of “taking possession.” The
verb itself is in perfect indicating competed action. here clearly means “desert
land” and not “foreign land” as Kamose is still struggling to unite just Egypt. Depending
on the interpretation of the noun “front, beginning,” the location can mean
“Southland,” lit. “front of the land” (Faulkner), or “border land,” lit. “before the land”
(Lichtheim). For see the discussion at the beginning of the Story of the Shipwrecked
Sailor.

The negated perfect of “find” with the impersonal suffix pronoun and object
“way, path, road” has passive meaning of inability, lit. “one was unable to/cannot find.”
For the second part of the indirect genitive that follows Habachi notes that a few nouns of

103
Middle Egyptian are formed by prefixing a verb with the so-called “formative”

(and dropping an initial weak consonant or if needed). For example,

“anoint” gives “oil” and “clothe (oneself)” gives

“clothing.” The noun can then be viewed as derived from the verb
“fall, slip, go astray” (after a graphic transposition) via prefixing it with the
“formative” With this, it could mean “downfall.”
In the next negated perfect the adjective-verb “weary, lazy” should mean “negligent.”
It appears in an adverb clause giving the reason why the previous clause is true. Being in
negated perfect, it should express a general statement: Kamose is never negligent of his
army.
The next clause is short but not without difficulty. First of all, the
irrigated canal determinative points to location, and the seated man should be a suffix

pronoun, so that a direct interpretation of the noun phrase is “my north.” Then
is a preposition, and along with the negated perfective of with impersonal suffix
pronoun the whole clause can be interpreted as the one (Apophis) on north of me (Kamose)
has not seized/acquired. On the other hand, it is tempting to recall the idiom “avert
attention,” lit. “take away the face.” Accepting this, the difficulty then lies in

understanding the noun (phrase) On the one hand, (ignoring the irrigated canal

determinative and possibly replacing with ) it can be considered as derived from

the adjective-verb “concerned.” Attached to as a direct genitive, the whole clause
could express the general statement that a concerned man has not averted his attention
(from taking care of his army, in Kamose’s case), lit. “the face of a concerned man has not

been taken away.” Finally, emphasizing the irrigated canal determinative, may
have to be augmented to “north” or even “northerner.” With this, the literal
meaning is that “the face of the north(ener) has not been averted” from Kamose’s sight.
The last three clauses present no grammatical problems. The main clause starts with the
perfect of the verb “become afraid” and the suffix pronoun is refers to Hyksos ruler.

104
The two circumstantial clauses state that even when Kamose was far away from Apophis,
and with the negated construction “(even) before we fought” both
emphasize the Hyksos ruler’s frightened state of mind. Note the archaizing presence of
instead of .

!! ! "

"
Another construction continues the previous line of thought, and the perfect of
the transitive verbs “see” and ! “send, send word” emphasize Apophis’ panic to

Kamose’s impending arrival. The use of the noun !! “flame, scorch” should be
understood only figuratively. The + infinitive construction applied to the verb

“seek” is used to tell the purpose of sending a messenger.

The feminine dependent pronoun obviously refers to “the message” as a previous
line " is repeated here with the object replaced by In the last clause one
would have expected the negated perfective (or the perfect). The perfective of however

uses the base stem Thus, this should be negated subjunctive with interpreted as

, and meaning: “I would not let/allow.” This is the first part of a

construction with the subjunctive of the verb and with suffixed subject , lit. “I would
not allow that it may arrive.” This once more emphasizes Kamose’s great catch.

!
A further humiliation for the Hyksos ruler is expressed by the + subjunctive
construction (with also in subjunctive) applied to the verb which, along with the
preposition means “take (back) to.” The subject in question is again referred to by
the suffix pronoun

In stative, 2ae-gem. verbs such as “turn/bring/come back, return” (usually)

use the base stem. Being transitive, the stative has passive meaning. The 3FS stative suffix

105
once again refers to . The verb form of is a perfective active participle “which
is/was left” serving as an adjectival predicate and modifying . This reference is
repeated one last time in the form of a dependent pronoun . The construction is an
alternative (and not very frequent) substitute of the stative . Finally, note the peculiar

spelling of the (feminine) nisbe “the East,” here meaning “the east side”

to/at “Atfih.”

Apophis’ state of mind and body is described here when he heard what Kamose did to

Cynopolis , the 17th Nome of Upper Egypt. This is north of Cusae, the boundary
between the Egyptians and the Asiatics during the Second Intermediate Period, Hyksos
territory. Presumably Apophis already heard the news at the time so that the perfective of
the verb # in the Egyptian idiom # “astound,” lit. enter/penetrate into the heart” is
used for the Hyksos ruler’s state of mind, and the passive of the verb “wreck” detail
the state of his body, the object . The imperfective of the verb “relate” is
employed in the following circumstantial clause describing concomitant action. What (lit.
“that (which)” expressed by ) the messenger told Apophis is introduced by a perfect
relative form of (modifying ). Finally, the last clause containing the perfective active
participle of the verb reminds him of his lost possession.

" #
Kamose dispatched a strong force described by the perfect of the verb “send,
dispatch.” The attached relative clause contains a subject-stative construction in which the
preposed subject is the feminine relative adjective (referring to the feminine antecedent

106
). The verbal predicate is “travel by land, march.” Since its stative stem ends with
in the 3FS stative suffix the is omitted. The objective of the force is expressed by the +
infinitive construction.
The next adverb clause states that Kamose stays in " “Sako” (el-Qes) and his own
purpose is described by another + infinitive construction. The infinitive in question is
actually negated with the negative verb + negatival complement of the verb This is
the first part of a + subjunctive construction employing the base form of The
whole sentence is made clear by the object " “enmity, malice” and the final
prepositional phrase.

" "
Kamose’s final cleanup operations are summarized here in four clauses with simple

grammar. The scribal error in (the transitive use of) the verb " “destroy” has been

emended to the correct biliteral . The verb form " is concomitant imperfective (with
omitted subject).

!
Once again a simple grammar describes Kamose’s return to the capital. The interjectional

“what!” should be related to the interrogative “what?” but this is its only
appearance before the 19th Dynasty. It introduces an adverbial sentence with a long
subject, an indirect genitival phrase A B in which A is the noun phrase with

the infinitive of (as a noun) and B is # lph. (The abbreviated phrase

“alive, sound, and healthy” is abbreviated as lph.)
The adverbial predicate emphasizes Kamose’s triumphal march in front of his army. The
three clauses are all negative constructions. The first is a negated adverb clause a variant
of which we already met at the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor

107
1
! The last two adverb clauses have verbal
predicates, the negated perfectives of the verbs “question (someone)” and “weep.”
They describe the benevolent comradeship among the soldiers.

$
A change in the narrative, Kamose’s arrival to home, is indicated in the main clause by the
narrative infinitive of the verb “moor” or “move slowly/quickly.” The time is the

season of Inundation, where is a variant spelling of “season.”

Although is a clearly understood construction meaning “cheerful,” lit. “bright
of face,” the particle and the word order tells that the next main clause contains a subject-
stative construction applied to the adjective-verb “bright” expressing the state of the
people welcoming Kamose. In fact, the four clauses in this passage split into a pair of
subject-stative constructions and a pair of clauses with adverbial predicates intertwined.
The subject-stative construction continues in the next passage describing the curious
Thebans and an imbedded + infinitive construction expresses their purpose: “to look.”
The joy of women seeing their loved ones to come home is expressed in yet another
subject-stative construction, this time applied to the transitive verb “embrace.” Once
again, the stative suffix is suppressed since the verb stem ends with A negated adverb
clause containing the possessive construction $ “in tears,” lit. “under tears” ends this
beautiful passage.

1
[Sh. S. 7].

108
& '(

"
here is not the noun “incense” but the verb “cense, perfume with/burn incense” in
infinitive stating that Kamose, after the successful campaign, makes offerings to Amun.
(The sings indicating the god have fallen victim to iconoclasm in the Amarna period and
have only been partially restored.) The place at which this is performed is the Holy of the
Holies, the sanctuary, indicated by the Egyptian ditto sign to be applied (only) to lit.
“the enclosure of the enclosure(s).” (With the exception of magical spells, % applies
only to the preceding word.) Concomitant to the action , the imperfective of “say”
is used to introduce the imperative “Receive good things!” The preposition
governs an unmarked noun clause containing the nonattributive imperfective relative form

“he gives” of “give” (where the original sign is emended to ). Here

Amun, is indicated only by the suffix pronoun and the recipient of the scimitar is the the
victorious son of Amun lph.
The rest of this passage contains a number of common epithets and phrases for Kamose.
The verb forms of “endure,” “subdue,” “overthrow,” ) “seize” are all

active participles. As opposed to the typical subject-stative construction

above, in the last clause is an adjectival predicate.

109
The infinitive of “command” introduces Kamose’s order to set up the stela which we
have been analyzing and which is about to end here. (Alternatively, can also be the
noun “decree,” the first part of the direct genitive ) The command/decree is
directed to whose name is preceded with a long list of his titles. Although the

middle part in the name is badly eroded in this part of the stela, one seems

to make out the bottom of . In this case, the name is an alternate spelling of

The + subjunctive construction introduces the royal decree in which is in

imperative and the subjunctive of with the impersonal suffix pronoun has
passive meaning, lit. “have one put.” The object is introduced with the perfect relative
form of This relative form itself has a modifier and subject: “all that my
majesty has done.”
The perfective relative form of “set, rest” is used to point to the location where the
stela will be located. The coreferent of this relative clause is with the suffix pronoun
referring to the stela, lit. “which its place shall rest.”

A verb form applied to introduces Neshi’s speech which is unfortunately in a

badly eroded part of the stela. The verb form of is still visible, and given the context it
is the nonattributive imperfective relative form with the (conjectural) emphasized
prepositional phrase … “(it is) according all that was commanded (that) ...”
(The lacuna can easily be filled with the (conjectural) dative ) A similar example to this

110
construction is # "2 The rest of the sentence is
less obscure. In an indirect genitival construction the clash of the indirect genitive with the
preposition (followed by “king”) is well-attested, and the literal meaning “of with” can

be mended as “from.” For example, at the end of The Story of Sinuhe we find

3
(with honorific transposition), and also

4
$ Finally, the insertion of the (conjectural)
preposition makes the whole reconstruction now feasible.

2
[Peas. B1, 299].
3
[Sin. B. 310].
4
[BH. i. 24, 115-116]

111
8
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose
“And these were the great rewards that were promised
to him if he consented to make that combat and fight:
a chariot of the value of four times seven cumals,1
and the equipment of twelve men with garments of all
colours, and the length and breadth of his own territory
on the choice part of the plains of Maw Ay; free of tribute,
without purchase, free from the incidents of attendance
at courts and of military service, that therein his son, and
his grandson, and all his descendants might dwell in safety
to the end of life and time; also Finnabar the daughter of
Maas his wedded wife, and the golden brooch which
was in the cloak of Queen Maev in addition to all this.”
Táin Bó Cúailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley)
from the Ulster Cycle as Translated by A. H. Leahy

Part I
Introduction

1
The cumal is the measure for the basic unit of land in Ireland comprising about or 13.85 hectares,
sufficient to graze three cows there.

112
Youth

" # $%&' !

Expulsion of the Hyksos

((

113
"

"

114
) * +

, )

115
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part I

Vocabulary

(up)on Nekheb (El Kab)

row, transport (by boat) father
crew soldier
moon, Thoth son
justified , strength
men, mankind replace
( in exchange for)
favor
ship, boat
reward, endow
wild bull
gold
time, vicinity,
(male) servant area, affairs
(female) servant little
endow ( with) woman, wife
field lie down, spend the
night, sleep
many
wake, aftermath;
very
after, future
name, identity
set up, establish
(adjective-verb) brave,
, take (possession of)
diligent, persevering
northern
perish
follow
land
sovereign
forever, eternity
lph
form, shape, stages of
growth foot
town, quarter, abode, walk about,
quay travel, journey

116
chariot
prisoner of war
sit, sit down, besiege
man
Avaris (Hyksos
capital in the Delta) go down, head ( for)
presence water
incarnation, majesty hold
bow, appoint apart from, besides
appear, rise cross (water), ferry
Memphis under
fight second
plunder
Pjedku (canal at Avaris)
plunder
grasp, make capture,
seize woman

hand unite, total, sum

report total
repeat head, top
gold of Sharuhen
valor (town in the Negev Desert)
place, throne year
south, southern

117
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part I

Grammar Points
Introduction

The nisbe “upper, lying on” is derived form of the preposition “(up)on.” It is an
adjective used here as a noun “chief, commander, master,” lit. “one who is above.” The

double-stroke sign is not shown but the sky/above determinative clearly points to the

meaning. There is a graphic transposition in “crew”, a collective noun

derived from the verb “row.” The title “crew commander” can be upgraded

to “naval commander.” or originally meant the moon god but

eventually became Thoth, the god of writing and knowledge. It is an ibis (less frequently

a baboon) headed anthropomorphic deity (sometimes holding the sign: ). In the

following speech the creator makes Thoth to embrace the two skies (the world and the

Duat below) and with this act makes the “moon of Thoth” evolve:

1
. (Here in the last A noun
clause the nonattributive perfective relative form of “evolve” is used as the predicate;
note that moved forward in side the indirect genitive “the moon of Thoth.”)
The name “moon/Thoth is born” contains the passive form of “give birth.”
has been translated as Ibana, Eben, Abana, Abena, and Abina. The adjective

phrase usually translates as “justified,” lit. “true of voice.” It

signifies that the person in question lived a just life, passed the weighing the heart
1
[E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh: eine Ätiologie des
Unvollkommenen, Academic Press Fribourg, 1991]

118
ceremony, made a successful transition to afterlife, and joined the society of the dead.
The long topicalized subject is followed by the narrative infinitive of

The two clauses here have verbal predicates of the verbs and both in intentional
subjunctives: “I will tell” and “I will let.” The feminine form of reveals that, instead of

“people”, its collective form “men, mankind” is used here. In the second
clause the construction “let him hear,” lit. “cause/give that he hear” is used with
and, by construction, in the subjunctive. Note the archaizing writing of the plural of

the (feminine) noun Matching this, the perfective active participle of the
verb is in feminine plural form “which came” lit. “which happened.”

In stative the transitive verb “reward” has passive meaning. The compound
preposition can be translated as “in the presence/sight of,” lit. “before the face of.”
The prepositional phrase lit. “to the limit” is best translated as an (apparent) adjective
“whole, entire.” The next two nouns (in apposition) “the male and female servants” are
still governed by the preposition The plural of the closing phrase “as well” lit.
“the like/similar pertaining to it” is composed of two nisbes from the prepositions and

2
We met this in the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor:

The sentence here matches with the previous with identical grammar. Namely, the stative
of the transitive verb “endow” has passive meaning, and is used to recount that “great

2
[Sh. S. 21].

119
many fields” came into Ahmose’s possession. Note that the plural strokes in
“many” is always a determinative.

The first main clause is an adverbial sentence of identity introduced by the particle
The subject is the noun phrase “the name of the brave,” with “brave (one)”
also a military title3. The “ of predication” is given by the perfect relative form of
“that which (he) has done.” According to Goedicke, the alternate reading is also
possible with being the perfective passive participle of : “what is done.”
Note that in Middle Egyptian, of predication is used for temporary or acquired identity
or profession. In contrast, for unchangeable or natural identity nominal sentences are used.
In English and, say, in Russian this distinction does not exist. Fore example, oн отец “he
is a father” (unchangeable identity) and oн учитель “he is a teacher” (acquired profession)
use the same construction. In Chinese, however, the same sentences are 他是爸爸 (tā shì
bàba) and 他当老师 (tā dàng lăoshī), and the distinction is made by the use of different
verbs: 是 (shì) “is” and 当(dàng) “act as.” It is interesting to note that in Chinese one can
also say 他是老师 (tā shì lăoshī) to indicate that the teacher is well-established, and 他当
爸爸 (tā dàng bàba) means that he is not really a father only tries to be either pretending
or having been asked to be one (temporarily).
The second sentence is a typical + subjunctive construction and as such it has future
meaning. The subject is omitted since it is the same as in the previous sentence.
This sentence is a proverb used also in the Thutmose III Inscriptions4.

Youth

3
[Urk. IV, 34, 2].
4
[Urk. IV, 684, 17; 780, 14-15].

120
This is a break in the narrative since after the introduction Ahmose now begins to talk
about his youth and upbringing. It starts with the narrative infinitive of It is followed
by the prepositional phrase which introduces subsequent statements and can be
translated using “as follows,” lit. “with respect to (the fact) that.” As we saw in the Story

of the Shipwrecked Sailor already twice:

5
! and
6
, the verb (in perfect here) not only means “make, do” but also “pass/spend time.”

means “form, shape, stages of growth.” With these, the Egyptian

phrase can be rendered as “he spends his youth in” or “he has his upbringing

in,” lit. “he passes his stages of growth in.” is the ancient Nekheb, near the
present day El Kab, south of Luxor.

"#$ $ %
This is another adverbial sentence of identity, an of predication. "#$ $ % “Whom Re
has made brave” is Sekenenre Taa II, a local Theban ruler and the next-to-last king of the
17th Dynasty, Second Intermediate Period, c.1560 BC. The verb form in the name is a
perfect relative form (of the causative) of the verb “brave.”

This is a typical A B nominal sentence used by Ahmose to tell his father’s and his

(paternal) grandmother’s names. Note the use of the Egyptian ditto sign & in the
name

5
[Sh. S. 41].
6
[Sh. S. 117].

121
$' ()*+ %
The presudoverbal construction , lit. “upon doing” describes the action in progress:
Ahmose being a soldier or serving as an officer. The compound preposition “in
exchange for,” lit. “in order to replace” here with the suffix pronoun has the meaning
“in his service.” At this stage of the language is no longer a demonstrative pronoun but

the definite article “the.” “Wild Bull” is the name of the ship.
The typical epithet “Lord of the Two Lands” refers here to the pharaoh $' ()*+
% “The lord of strength is Re.” This is the prenomen of Ahmose I (1550-1525 BC), the
founder of the 18th Dynasty, after he assumed the throne. Note that in the king’s name the
double is not but a peculiar way of writing , the so-called “sportive dual.”

Alternative spellings of “strength” are and .

Another adverbial sentence of identity here is followed by an unmarked relative clause

employing the construction. We have already met this in the Story of the
Shipwrecked Sailor. This construction carries the meaning that the action has not
happened yet which, in this case, means that at this point Ahmose has not been married,
lit. “has not made a wife.”

The particle introduces the imperfective of the verb referring to habitual action in
the past. In English this can be rendered inserting “used to” in front of the verb. The
meaning of the phrase is unknown. There is some support to the argument that it
should mean some typical garment of youth7 or a net of hammock (Gardiner and Gunn).

Expulsion of the Hyksos

7
[Breasted, II, p.6].

122
This is a good example for one of the basic functions of the particle as a converter to
let the prepositional phrase “after,” lit. “in the wake” stand in front of the sentence.
Together they can be translated as “then later.” The usual meaning of the noun
“house,” the object of the perfect form of the verb , should be “household” here.

In the subject-stative construction the transitive verb - has passive meaning, “was
transferred.” The nisbe “northern” is derived from “northwind,” and it is the

name of the ship. Alternatively, though the plural strokes are missing, may be the
ideogram for “ship(s)” and together with the demonstrative pronoun may
mean “the fleet” (with being an adjective). The preposition “because” governs a
clause of causality in which is a nonattributive relative form of the adjective-verb
“be brave” used emphatically.

“then” introduces the pseudoverbal + infinitive construction indicating action in

progress: “then I followed,” lit. “then I existed upon following.” Note that is used

only after the 18th Dynasty onwards. is another spelling of ,

“sovereign” that we met before.
In the adverbial phrase introduced by the compound preposition the verbal noun
“journey, travel” is derived from the rare 5-lit. verb “walk (about),
promenade.” Having plural ending, it cannot be infinitive. Nevertheless, a possible
rendering could use a verbal predicate: “when he was riding about,” lit. “in the wake of
his journeys.” Note that “chariot” is used in Egyptian history the first time during the
Hyksos period.

123
“sit down, reside” also means “besiege” and the imperfective verb form with the
impersonal suffix pronoun indicates that the action happened in the past; the English
past imperfect “was besieged” is a good way to render this construction. Note that

not only means “harbor, quay” but also “town.” is the name of the
Delta town Avaris, the Hyksos capital at the time. It has been identified with the site Tell
el-Dab‘a.

The grammar of this sentence is similar to the one above. This time it is applied to the
adjective-verb . It means that at the time of the siege of Avaris Ahmose fought bravely,

lit. “existed upon being brave.” Note also the different spelling of
“in the presence of.”

Once again a subject-stative construction involving the transitive verb “appoint” has
passive meaning. is a perfective active participle of “rise” and is Memphis,

lit. “Established and Beautiful.” The ship determinative shows that

“Rising in Memphis” is the name of the ship. The first (pyramid)

determinative is for the town of Memphis (because of its necropolis), usually written

as . Goedicke argued that means a secondary coronation

ceremony of Ahmose in Memphis, thereby the name of the ship may commemorate this
event.

For a change, here it is the impersonal suffix pronoun that makes the sentence having
passive meaning. The pseudoverbal + infinitive construction means action in progress,
and the literal meaning “one was fighting” can be improved to “there was fighting.” The

124
determinative reveals that is a canal, less likely a harbor town or a quay.
Excavations at Tell el-Dab‘a point to the fact that the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, along
with smaller tributaries were close to the city, and thus may be the name of one
of there waterways.

is a variant of “grasp, make capture, seize.” Depending on

whether the phonetic complement (of the stem) of is present or absent, can
be considered as the perfective: , or the (transitive) perfect: The perfective is
supported by the fact that elsewhere in the text (in similar clauses) the scribe did use
phonetic complements. The perfect is supported since it matches the previous perfect.
The issue is a bit academic, since in either case, the meaning is past tense. Finally, to
show the number of enemies a warrior slew he had to cut off and bring back the right
hands of the slain. The flesh determinative attests this gruesome practice.

The verb form of the caus. 2-lit. verb “report” (with base stem ) is problematic.

(A few lines below the same sentence appears with the predicate which
is clearly passive.) The ending can be considered an archaizing , therefore could
either be an infinitive or, equally likely, a perfective passive participle attached to the
previous passage: “that which was reported.” (in honorific transposition) is
the royal herald, where itself is a noun of agent derived from “repeat.”
is the “gold of valor”, a military reward for courage and prowess. It is a golden
necklace with fly-shaped pendants.

125
The transitive verb appears first in the passive and then in a pseudoverbal +
infinitive construction. The objects are the infinitives of and used as nouns. Both
clauses can be translated using the word “again,” lit. “fighting has been repeated” and
“(upon) repeating capturing.” The last clause with the perfect(ive) of concludes the
events.

This sentence has already appeared and has been discussed previously with the added
remark that the adverb is an Egyptian phrase for “a second time, again.”

At least from the point of view of grammar, the biography here is repetitive. The tongue

of land determinative indicates that is a noun, therefore the location

is “Egypt, (which is to) the south of this town”, where by town Avaris is meant.

.
This time Ahmose concluded the fight by carrying off (in perfect) a prisoner of war. The

passive participle of the verb “smite, strike down” is used in the noun

“prisoner of war,” lit. “(one) who is smitten alive.”

Examining the three clauses we can reconstruct the sequence of events as follows.
Ahmose went down to the water: , lit. “head for the water” (with the perfect of

126
), captured/carried off a prisoner , lit. “bring/carry as holding”

(with the imperfective of expressing concomitant action and the infinitive of

”hold”) on the side of the town , where the compound preposition

(with omitted ) stands for “besides,” lit. “apart from.” Therefore

the Egyptian army was on the other side of the town. The exact situation in this feat of
bravery is further emphasized in the last clause by stating that he crossed the water

(with the perfect of ) carrying the prisoner on his back , lit. “under
him.”

The passive of the verb without an expressed subject starts the sentence “(it) was
reported.” We now meet a strange peculiarity of this inscription, namely that before the
infinitive of the verb we would expect the preposition but find the particle

, a scribal error (possibly a hieratic confusion) which needs to be emended

to here. In the suffix pronoun is the object of the infinitive, lit. “upon
rewarding me.” The phrase “second time” involves the cardinal number

“second” used as a noun, lit. “upon its second.” Note the extra in the suffix pronoun
copied from the dual.

The fate of Avaris is described here (with a simple grammar) by the use of the verb
“plunder” and the collective noun “plunder” derived from it.

. ! /

127
Ahmose recounts here his gains: - stands for “total”, a word derived from the

verb - “unite, total, sum.” Note also that the captives were counted by

“head” (and, as we saw above, the slain by “hand”).

“And the second lot came forth to Simeon,
Even for the tribe of the children of Simeon
According to their families: and their inheritance
was within the inheritance of the children of Judah.
… And Beth-leb’a-oth, and Sha-ru’hen;
Thirteen cities and their villages:”
Joshua 19:1, 6
The Bible (King James Version)

!
The earlier imperfective is changed here to , a pseudoverbal
construction after , with the only difference in meaning is that (and )
emphasize subsequent action. According to the Book of Joshua, Sharuhen is in southern
Canaan, Simeon’s tribal territory. Although many arguments have been put forward,
there is not enough archaeological evidence to pinpoint its exact location. There is also a
debate about the exact number of years of the siege of Sharuhen; the readings vary
between 3, 5 or 6. In any case, the stubborn resistance of the retreating Hyksos is
apparent.

A sentence similar to this appeared above; the subject of the infinitive is expressed
( therefore its pronominal object has the dependent form .

& .

128
Most of the grammar here has been discussed above. In the last clause, the verb form of
(with the impersonal suffix pronoun ) is perfective, an infrequent way to express

the passive. The seated man can be read as a determinative, and can then be
rendered as “captives.” Alternatively, it can be read as a suffix pronoun emphasizing that
they are Ahmose’s own captives.

129
9
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose
Part II
Aaron. Titus Andronicus, my lord the Emperor
Sends thee this word, that, if thou love thy sons,
Let Marcus, Lucius, or thyself, old Titus,
Or any one of you, chop off your hand
And send it to the King: he for the same
Will send thee hither both thy sons alive,
And that shall be the ransom for their fault.
Titus: O gracious Emperor! O gentle Aaron!
Did ever raven sing so like a lark
That gives sweet tidings of the sun's uprise?
With all my heart I'll send the Emperor my hand.
Good Aaron, wilt thou help to chop it off?
William Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus

King Ahmose’s Nubian Campaign

130
The Two Rebels: Aata and Tetian

131
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part II

Vocabulary

, seize, grasp
Beduin
find
Asia
go (imperative)
destroy
plunder, booty,
bow
easy prey
desert bowman
Nubian ,
inexperienced/young warrior
corpse
seize, capture
heap of
corpses share, portion

sail, travel by boat field, arable land

valor, power , , aurora (0.68 acre)

, victory town

, southern enemy

northern collect, assemble

approach, draw near truncate

bring on (down) estranged

fate kill, destroy

Upper Egypt

132
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part II

Grammar Points

King Ahmose’s Nubian Campaign

The phrase introduces an initial adverb clause signaling an emphatic construction.

Therefore is a nonattributive perfect relative form of the verb “kill, slay,
destroy.” In English a cleft sentence can bring out the emphasis: “Now, it was after that
his majesty had slain…” (Since this action is prior to the action of the following main

clause, English past perfect should be used.) is a variant spelling of

“Beduin.” Combined with the noun “Asia” in

a direct genitive, the whole phrase can be translated as “the Beduins of Asia.” In the main
clause King Ahmose now turns south to conquer Nubia. Admiral Ahmose’s narrative uses
the pseudoverbal construction + infinitive after the introductory word to

expresses this subsequent action. The infinitive of the 4ae-inf. verb “sail

upstream/south, go forward” is usually spelled as , and here

is another variant. Recall that the shorter form of this

infinitive also occurs. is a region in Nubia, south to the second cataract of the

Nile. The 4-lit. verb “destroy” is reduplicated from the root of the 2ae-

inf. verb with the same meaning. Here it appears in the + infinitive

construction and expresses planned action. The noun is a variant of the plural of

133
“desert bowman” which, in turn, seems to have been derived from

“bow.” The archaic bow has phonetic value and with the “throw-stick”

determinative it serves as the adjective/noun “Nubian.”

The grammar in this passage has been discussed previously. The brutality of the Nubian

campaign is clear from the noun derived from “corpse,” an

alternative spelling of “heap of corpses,” Just like any soldier,

Ahmose had to offer/present his two prisoners of war to the pharaoh. As a reward for his
valor, he then received two female servants.

The change in the narrative (King Ahmose’s return home) is signaled by the narrative
infinitive of “sail,” and its subject, the pharaoh, is introduced by the preposition . The
king’s state of mind is described in the next clause with the stative of the adjective-verb
“long,” employing the Egyptian idiom “happy,” lit. “long of heart.” His
successful (completed) campaign is summarized by the perfect of the verb “seize,
take possession of.”

1
[Sh.S. 132].

134
The Two Rebels: Aata and Tetian

However brutal the Nubian campaign of Ahmose may have been, it was not decisive. As
the current passage shows, the king had to return to annihilate new rebel forces and
capture their leader Aata, possibly the succeeding king in Kerma, the Nubian capital.
The establishment of the new Nubian king to contend with is given by a subject-stative
construction of the verb “come, return.” The caus. 3-lit. verb “bring on (down),”
lit. “cause to approach” is in the infinitive. The subject of this infinitive, the fate of Aata,

, is not explicitly described in the text, but the its object with the

determinative of “die” and the somewhat unusual appearance of the sign for
“swelling, unhealthy” makes little doubt of Aata’s doom.
Divine help is acknowledged in seizing the rebel in the + infinitive construction. Due to
the fact that the object of the infinitive is an attached suffix pronoun, the 2ae-gem. verb
“seize, grasp” uses only the base stem. The attention then shifts to the pharaoh, the
representative of the divine forces, who, as a result of the gods’ help expressed by the
subjunctive of the verb “find,” pins down the rebel. The location of
Tinet-taa-mu is unknown. Based on the literal rendering “she of the land of the water

supply” it must be a district of the first cataract region. The presence of the obtrusive
in the + infinitive construction of the verb “bring, carry off” is unclear. The noun
(with the imperative “go!”) means here “plunder, booty, easy prey.”

135
! !

!" "

The grammar in this passage has already been discussed. Ahmose now claims another feat
of bravery of capturing two young warriors from the rebel’s ship. The determinative of the

variant spelling of indicates inexperienced/young

warriors or para-military force, originally a tribal name. The verb “seize,

capture” clearly indicates that the meaning of the phrase is “carry off as captive.”

The noun with variant spellings and “aurora” is the standard unit of

area measure, approximately 0.68 acre. “done” is the perfective passive

participle of the verb “do, make.”

! "
Once again there is very little new grammar here. A subject-stative construction
introduces another enemy, Tetian. His name, given in an A B nominal sentence, suggests
that he was Egyptian, in fact, during this time period the use of this name is well-attested.

The passive participle of the verb “truncate” is used in the Egyptian

idiom “estranged, trouble-maker,” lit. “(one) who is

truncated of heart.” Tetian’s troops were annihilated, and this is expressed by a negated
participle: the (feminine) participle of the negative 2-lit verb followed by the negatival
complement ! , lit. “one who did not come into being/happen.” Although in the last

136
sentence several things have been omitted, an almost identical sentence above makes its
grammar and meaning clear.

137
10
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose
Part III
Lucius. Stay, father! for that noble hand of thine,
That hath thrown down so many enemies,
Shall not be sent. My hand will serve the turn,
My youth can better spare my blood than you,
And therefore mine shall save my brothers' lives.
Marcus. Which of your hands hath not defended Rome
And rear'd aloft the bloody battle-axe,
Writing destruction on the enemy's castle?
O, none of both but are of high desert!
My hand hath been but idle; let it serve
To ransom my two nephews from their death;
Then have I kept it to a worthy end.
William Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus

The Nubian Campaign of Amenhotep I

138
!

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The Nubian Campaign of Thutmose I

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139
& …

The Syrian Campaign of Thutmose I

& "

140
&

"!

" ! …

&

141
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part III

Vocabulary

Kush (northern Sudan) stife,

rebellion, civil war
broaden, widen
subdue/repel (enemies),
border, boundary drive out, expel
Egypt, lit. Black (land) (transitive) introduce;
(intransitive) enter
(noun) middle
presence;
strangle-hold,
in the presence of
choke
water
fugitive
bad, evil
kill, destroy,
dispose of, show partiality drive back,
repel; force/tow ship over rapids
reality, true
being ships; the
fleet
fight
cataract
head, top
rage
bring, present
leopard, panther
seek, pursue
place, set, throw, shoot
herd (of cattle)
(arrow)
, day, daytime, (day’s)
arrow
duty
, first
well, cistern
firm, established;
apart from, besides
fixed to, attached to
warrior
breast, chest
, ruler
become faint, weak,
destroy, crush; (noun) exhausted
destruction
uraeus

142
moment (of attack) Naharin (Mesopotamia)
carnage, slaughter tie, knot
grasp troops
(adjective-verb) wretched, number, quantity
miserable, vile
grow old
upside down;
head downwards , old age

falcon favor

Karnak temple (adjective-verb) content, calm,

pleased, happy, peaceful
Retjenu
(Lebanon and Syria) tomb

wash

143
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose: Part III

Grammar Points

The Nubian Campaign of Amenhotep I

“And it came to pass, when Joshua and the children of Israel
had made an end of slaying them with a very great slaughter,
till they were consumed, that the rest which remained of them
entered into fenced cities.”
Joshua 10:20
The Bible (King James Version)

There are only a few new grammar points in this passage. We learn here that Ahmose
served under Amenhotep I since is the throne name of Amenhotep I; lit.

“Sacred is the ka of Re.” The verb form of “bring” in is (transitive) stative

expressing state: “they were carried off in chains/fetters,” lit. “in strangle-hold/choke.”
(There is a possibility of the passive with subject “that Nubian bowman”
since it is a noun phrase (not a pronoun). On the other hand, in the next adverb clause the

144
enemy appears in plural as indicated by the suffix pronoun . ) The phrase can
be compared with a similar phrase in the Story of Shipwrecked Sailor:

In our present translation “missing” is more

fitting than “loss.” In the following adverbial sentence ( of predication) the phrase

has the first of its two meanings: “kill, destroy, dispose of” and
“show partiality,” lit. “put/place on the side.” The verb form of here is a perfective
passive participle. Finally, in the last relative clause (with suppressed subject)
stands for , where the suffix pronoun refers back to “the fugitives, the fleeing.”
This construction is a negated perfective. Note that the existence of survivors is in
apparent contradiction to the previous total devastation. (Joshua 10:20 above depicts a
similar situation.) It is interesting to compare the two negations of in the text:

(negated participle), and (negated perfective).

!
The particle marks an adverb clause that follows. When the subject is a personal
pronoun, after it is always the dependent form that is used. Ahmose once again shows
his valor in front of the army, with true ( ) fighting spirit expressed by the perfect of
the verb “fight.” His bravery once again is noticed by the pharaoh (in perfect of the
verb of ), and he presents the (right) hands of the two slain (with ! “bring” in the
infinitive) to the king.

"

145
! #

Once again the text is somewhat repetitive, and in this passage there is not much new

grammar. The meaning of the 4-lit. verb “seek” that appears in the +
infinitive construction should be changed to the more aggressive “pursue.”

The name of the ship is a noun phrase of apposition, where the first noun is

“well,cistern” and the second is “top, the upper part” clearly

related to the prepositional nisbe “upper.” This name can be translated as

“Upper-Well.” The adverb + preposition combination (with omitted

) has the literal meaning “apart from.” The title that Ahmose received at the end is an
indirect genitive with the first noun being a variant spelling (and containing a graphic

transposition) of “warrior.”

The Nubian Campaign of Thutmose I

$%

146
!
The grammar here is almost identical with the initial passage in the Nubian campaign of
Amenhotep I. $% is the throne name of Thutmose I, the successor of
Amenhotep I to the Egyptian throne. The two + infinitive constructions express purpose
and have the meaning: “in order to.” The verb ! is used here intransitively in an active
participle, and the literal meaning “(he) who enters” can be translated as “intruder.” lit.
“through the hand” has the same meaning as the compound preposition “from.”

The + infinitive construction applied to the adjective-verb “being brave” has been
discussed previously. The meaning of the noun phrase & lit. “bad water” becomes
clear in the subsequent passage when Ahmose relates that they towed the fleet over the
cataract. The infinitive of the verb is used as a noun as it receives the demonstrative
pronoun (definite article): “in the towing.” It is this act of rescuing the fleet for which he
receives the title “crew/naval commander” mentioned at the very beginning of his
autobiography.

' …

The ' verb form applied to the verb “rage” expresses subsequent action, but
what the pharaoh was reacting to is hidden in the lacuna. One may only guess that his rage
was triggered by having learned some action of the Nubians. Narrative infinitive is

147
applied to the verb “shoot” and as such it signifies the beginning of the real action.
The noun phrase “his first arrow” serves as an object of as well as the
preposed subject of the subsequent subject-stative construction. The verb in question
should be intransitive here (expressing past or perfect), and along with the preposition it
carries the literal meaning “be attached to/stuck in.” The situation is quite clear in that the
(first) arrow of Thutmose I pierced the enemy’s chest.

The determinative is suggestive to the meaning of the verb “become

faint, weak, exhausted.” Despite the lacuna, it is clear that it is in stative referring to the
subject … “those [enemies].” What causes the enemy to be exhausted is the royal

serpent ( ! “the uraeus” (with an alternative spelling) and a fitting

choice of the translation of the preposition is “because of.” The passive of the verb
with object depicts the situation: “carnage/slaughter was made,” and the adverbial
phrase (moved forward) specify where and when this happened. In a perfect
unison the passive of the verb relates what happened to the “underlings.”
The break in the narrative once more is marked by the narrative infinitive of the verb
This is followed by an adverb clause describing the gruesome fate of “that Nubian

bowman” with the suggestive determinative . The ship determinative clearly indicates

148
that “falcon” is the name of the royal vessel, therefore “front”
must be the bow.

with the verb in passive means “land,” lit. “it was put to

land.” Finally, “Ipet-sut” is the name of the temple of Karnak, lit.

“most select-of-places.”

The Syrian Campaign of Thutmose I

' "

'

"!
The object of the compound preposition is the demonstrative pronoun used by
itself. In the first clause the verb form of ' is narrative infinitive with suppressed
subject (the Pharaoh). In the + infinitive construction expressing purpose, the Egyptian
idiom means “vent (one’s) wrath,” lit. “wash (one’s) heart.”
The next adverb clause is initial hence emphatic so that the verb form of is a
nonattributive perfective relative form. The verb form of in the main clause clearly
indicates that it is infinitive again, and its object, as we have seen previously, is the
adversary referred to as “that enemy,” a singular noun phrase. In the last clause the
suffix pronoun attached to the verb " ! “tie, knot” refers to this, and the Egyptian idiom
"! means “raise/marshal troops.” The verb form itself is imperfective expressing
concomitant action. It is important note here that the object of is and not " !
since otherwise the latter would be a relative form. An example to the first case

149
1
is with in

concomitant imperfective, and to the second is

2
with being an imperfective relative form.

The first line is identical to one discussed previously. The particle is used in the next
typical negated adverbial sentence in which can be translated as “innumerable,” lit
“no number/without number.” The relative form of the verb “bring” governs the
subsequent dependent clause.

Most of the grammar has been discussed previously. The suffix pronoun refers to the

chariot (with a variant spelling ), and the relative adjective that introduces
a relative clause is used here as a noun “he who…”

" ! …

'
In the last two lines of his autobiography Ahmose describes himself as an old man. The
first line is a good example of the fact that the stative for intransitive verbs (such as
1
[CT V, 99b-d].
2
[Westcar 5, 4].

150
“grow old”) and the perfect for transitive verbs (such as “reach” with object “old
age”) are counterparts of each other. For the nisbe the preposition should be
translated as “before.” The bottom part of the text where the verbal predicate supposedly
was written is damaged but the clearly visible “tomb” suggests an appropriate verb
form of “rest.” Finally, Ahmose emphasizes that his tomb was created by himself with
the perfect relative form of the verb

151
11
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III
Part I
“In war: Resolution;
In defeat: Defiance;
In victory: Magnanimity;
In peace: Goodwill.”
Sir Winston Churchill,
The Second World War

Prologue

152
!

" " #

"

"

" "

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153
"

% "

154
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part I

Vocabulary

recitation roaring,
battle cry
Amun
bow
seat, throne
unite, gather,
become excited, aroused total, sum
rise, shine grasp
temple, chapel, shrine extend, stretch
(transitive) join, unite; rope
(intransitive) be united,
associated/ endowed with bind (enemies)
, protection bind together
(adjective-verb) sweet bow
grace, charm desert bowman
breast Nubian
sanctuary smite, strike down

wonder, marvel prisoner of war

valor, power ten-thousand
, victory thousand
might, impressiveness incline, turn aside, defy
(noun) fear opponent
terror, dread sandal
support, column, pillar , /
crush, trample down
make great, increase,
magnify foe (of the king)
respect, awe

155
truncate fear
estranged (noun) fear,
dread
command, assign, bestow,
ordain, decree uraeus-serpent
East destroy, (noun)
destruction
eastern, easterner
(noun)
West plunder
western, westerner
(plural noun) evil of character, enemies
supervision, control,
of Egypt
command
shape,form, manner,
trod, step on,
character
trample down
burn up
turn back; face
(aggressively) flame
vicinity, area cut off (head)
guide, leader throw-
stick
arrive, attain
Asiatic
ferry, cross (water)
totter
turn, go around
power, might
Naharin (Mesopotamia)
go around, course
victory
through
power, might
victory, valor,
enter strength

hole, hiding place gleam, brighten

, uraeus
(adjective-verb) narrow, constricted,
rebellion
lack; (transitive verb) deprive ( of);
(noun) absence, lack encircle
, nose produce, products
air, wind, breath back, spine

156
bowing burn
(adjective- tremble
verb) weary, lazy
attackers

157
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part I

Grammar Points
Prologue

with the infinitive of is a very common heading. It introduces the speaker

“Amun-Re” who asserts his support of Thutmose III in creating the “Empire,” the
dominance of Egypt over the world known to them. This stela was erected at Karnak after
Thutmose III achieved this goal. lit. “speaking words” can be translated many
ways (or can be left un-translated), including “recitation,” “speech of,” etc. The epithet
“lord of the thrones of the Two Lands” emphasizes that it is Amun-Re who
provides authority to the king to rule over Egypt.

Amun-Re speaks to the pharaoh using the statives of the verbs “come” and “become
aroused, excited.” The second-person suffix shows that they both express
wish/command, and therefore can be translated as imperatives: “welcome!” and
as “be aroused/exulted!” Alternatively, according to Lichtheim, the statives should
emphasize the state resulting from these actions, in particular, should be translated as
“in joy.” The infinitive of the 2-ae-gem. verb is the object of the preposition and it
uses here the base stem The noun “savior” is derived from the verb “save,
protect.” is the pharaoh’s throne name. The epithet “alive forever”
includes the stative of the verb “live,” and is typically placed after the king’s or
queen’s name.

158
The adverbial phrase can be translated as “for the sake of,” lit. “for/through love.”
Note also that, unlike the English possessive adjectives, may not only mean “love
of yours” but also “love of you/your love.” In the first clause the theme of the sentence is
and the rheme is this prepositional phrase This is because that Amun-Re
shines is given, and what is important is that the god shines “through love of you.”
Therefore, the verb form of is a nonattributive relative form used emphatically, and
the emphasis is on the adverbial phrase. In English, a cleft sentence can bring out the
emphasis: “It is through love of you that …”
In the second clause the Egyptian idiom “happy, exulted” in the subject-stative
construction uses the adjective-verb “long,” lit. “long of heart.” The object of the
preposition is the plural of the adjectival phrase “your good coming” which
itself includes the verbal noun “coming.” ( cannot be a nonattributive relative
form because it is clearly plural.) Finally, “temple, chapel, shrine” is one of the many
phrases that can be obtained from “mouth, utterance, spell, door.”

Once again, the verb form of “endow/provide/associate” (used transitively) can be

interpreted as a nonattributive relative form and the emphasis is on the adverbial phrase
meaning “It is protection and life that …” The object “body” is, as usual, in
plural and the flesh determinative is incorporated in the plural strokes.

The exclamatory adjectival sentence is indicated here by the masculine dual form of the

adjective “sweet.” is the usual spelling of “grace, charm.”

159
"
Here and in many instances below, we encounter verb forms with the same suffixed

subject . In all these Amun-Re speaks to the pharaoh and his presence expressed by
this suffix pronoun. In many instances, the verb itself is and the verb form uses the
base stem . The only forms that use this stem are the imperfective and the
subjunctive. The most obvious choice for the verb form is the imperfective because of the
meaning of the imperfect (Amun-Re’s continual support of the pharaoh), and also

because of its appearance in captions such as: … …

1
(with Amun-Re replaced by Nanuet, and Thutmose III by Hatshepsut). On the other
hand, some authors interpret the god’s speech as a prophecy, and consequently translate
these verb forms in future tense. This fits very well with the subjunctive expressing
future. Moreover, in general, the use of the first-person singular suffix pronoun in the
subjunctive also expresses the actor’s intention.
In what follows, without explicit mention, we will interpret these verb forms as
imperfectives.

With this note, the current passage poses no grammatical problems. is a

variant of “wonder, marvel.” Note the different translations of the

predicate “give, set” in the next two clauses. In the last adverb clause using the
preposition Amun-Re indicates that the “Empire” stretches to the “limits” of the entire

(known) world. The alternative spelling of is “support, column,

pillar,” and for graphical reasons, in the 4 pillars of heaven, the ideogram is
repeated to designate the number 4.

1
[Lacau and Chevrier, Une chapelle d’Hatshepsout, 291 and pl. 14 (55)].

160
is an alternative spelling of the caus. 3ae-inf. verb
“make great, increase, magnify.”

# # $
The object of “make” is the noun phrase # # with direct genitive, where

# # means “roaring, battle cry.” Alternatively, according to

Lichtheim, # # here means “fame, renown.”2 The object of the preposition

“throughout” is the “Nine Bows,” the traditional enemies of Egypt. They usually
included Asiatics and Nubians but their exact identity depended on the specific era.

In this sentence the absence of the subject indicates that %

“gather ,unite, total, sum” is passive. Due to its length, the object is
topicalized. Here the adjective “great, elder, important” is used as a noun, and its
plural means the “nobles, princes,” lit. “great ones.” This kind of topicalization is not

uncommon, as we have seen in the Story of Shipwrecked Sailor:

is an alternative spelling of the 3ae-inf. adjective-verb

“extend, stretch.” The 3-lit. verb “bind (enemies)” is derived from

the noun “rope.” The pronoun “them” refers to in the previous

sentence.

2
This opinion is based on a study by J. Spiegel, WZKM, 54 (1957).
3
[Sh. S. 3]

161
!

The term was discussed in Ahmose’s autobiography. The nisbe

“northern” used as a noun in plural designates “the men of the north” or “the northeners.”
The noun phrase ! “prisoner of war,” lit. “(one) who is smitten alive,” was also
treated in Ahmose’s autobiography.

&

In the first clause the construction starts with the imperfective of and is
followed by the subjunctive of “fall” with causative meaning. The noun of agent

“opponent” is derived from the verb ! “incline, turn

aside, defy,” and the plural has a peculiar spelling here (instead of ).
The Nine Bows were often depicted on royal sandals (in the text & is the feminine dual

of & “sandal” and it is better translated as “sole”) and footstools to symbolically

express the king’s treading on Egypt’s enemies.

In the second clause the verbal predicate or & & with either of the

determinatives or means “crush, trample down.” It is in subjunctive to express

result, and in the English translation “so that” can be inserted” in front of it. The passive

participle of the verb “truncate” is used in the Egyptian idiom

“estranged,” lit. “(one) who is truncated of heart.”

Instead of the principal meaning of “command” we should choose “assign, bestow.” It
is a nonattributive perfective relative form governed by the preposition The meaning
of the Egyptian idiom “in its length and breath” is “whole, entire.” The

subjects of the second adverb clause are plurals of two nisbes “western”

and “eastern” used as nouns: “easterner” and “westerner.” These nisbes are

162
in turn derived from the nouns “West” and “East.” The
Egyptian idiom means “supervision, control, command.”

In the fist clause the verb “trod, step on, trample down” is in
imperfective. The following unmarked adverb clause contains a subject-stative
construction which once more uses the Egyptian idiom “happy, exulted.” In the
third clause the negated perfective construction involving the perfective of the verb
is a common way to express general negation of existence “there is not,” “there does

not exists.” The usual meaning of the verb with the preposition means
“face (aggressively).” The verb form is imperfective active participle, and it is indicated
by the double stokes.
The infrequently used particle always introduces an adverb clause which is subordinate
to the following main clause. The subordinate clause in question is an adverbial sentence

of identity ( of predication). The more frequent alternative spelling of

is , a noun of agent, and it identifies Amun-Re as a

guide/leader of Thutmose III. The imperfective verbal predicate of the main clause
with the preposition needs to be translated to match the context: “attain,
overwhelm” are fitting choices.

#
In the narrative the predicate suddenly turns into perfect, and for the transitive verb
“ferry across, cross” this not only means a completed action but action in the past.
The intestine ideogram is suggestive to the meaning of the verb “turn, go around.” It
is a participle here, and the “great water that goes around/the great turning water” is the
winding Euphrates. In a similar vein, # “Naharin” is ancient Mesopotamia, the land

163
between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. The perfect relative form of “ordain, decree”
once again reminds the pharaoh that the success of these military feats is due to the
support of Amun-Re.

# # !
The initial adverb clause “when they hear…” contains the nonattributive perfective
relative form of the verb The verbal predicate ! “enter” of the following main

clause expresses result so that it is subjunctive. It inherits the (suppressed) subject.

' &

The first clause starts with , a variant spelling of ' “lack.” Used
with the preposition it means “deprive of.” The verb form is perfect, and the strict word
order requires the object to follow. The indirect genitive & in the
adverbial phrase is typical and self-explanatory: “breath of life.” The next clasue once
again starts with the imperfective and the abstract noun “fear” is doubtless

derived from the verb “fear.” The plural genitival adjective is fooled by
this false plural.

! !

164
The first four lines of this passage use the subject-imperfective construction with a single
topicalized subject The goddess determinative is suggestive of the meaning
of “(the) uraeus-serpent,” one of the protective goddesses worn on the pharaoh’s
forehead. The subject also involves the feminine form of the prepositional nisbe lit.
“which is on/in.” By construction, these clauses express the imperfect. The predicates are
the causative verb “destroy,” and the verbs “make,” “burn up, consume,” and
“cut off.” The feminine suffix pronoun refers to the ureaus-serpent. The literal
meaning of the military expression ! “go and plunder” as a noun means here
“plunder, devastation.” The plural noun ! is a construction, lit. the plural
of “evil of character,” and it generally refers to the enemies of Egypt. Note that from the

11th Dynasty onwards the -pot determinative in ! “shape, form, manner,

character” is often replaced by . In addition, in ! the plural strokes are replaced

by the “foreigner” determinatives.

In the phrase the sign is a variant of and so its plural is

According to J. Vercoutter, it designates marshy areas in the north/east. The phrase itself
therefore can be translated as “(those) who are in the marshy areas of the north/east.”
Lichtheim translates this as the “lowlanders” as opposed to “islanders,” lit.
“(those) who are in the islands” (cf. “The Poem” in the next chapter). The throw-stick

frequently occurs (usually) as a determinative to all

foreign peoples. In “Asiatic” it generally designates an inhabitant of

Syria-Palestine. In the clause A the noun phrase A has a suffix pronoun that refers to
the enemies of Egypt in general. Therefore the negative particle can be translated as
“without.” The literal meaning of the whole phrase # is “without a loss of them,”
and it clearly indicates that none of them were able to escape their fate.
The introductory particle here is a statement auxiliary and signals inevitable
consequence/necessity expressed by the imperfective of the verb “totter” (with the
suppressed subject ). Written out, it should be The
preposition here should be translated as “because of.”

165
The + subjunctive construction with the verb “go around, course through,
encompass” in the subjunctive starts this passage. The second clause is an adverbial
sentence of identity. The subject is the direct genitive with the infinitive of the
caus. 2-lit. verb “gleam, brighten” used as a noun. The predicate is the adverbial
phrase with the verbal noun “savior, protection.” (Note that the infinitive of
the 2-lit. verb “save, protect” uses the base stem.)
The independent sentence that follows that uses the + subjunctive construction with
future meaning: “will not become.” The following phrase employs the (feminine)
imperfective relative form of the verb “encircle.” In the next clause the verb is
again imperfective and the following adverbial phrases depict a typical scene of the
foreigners carrying tributes on their backs bowing to the pharaoh. Finally, the
prepositional phrase “(in) bowing” uses the verbal noun (not the infinitive of
the 3-ae-inf. verb “bow”). The phrase has been discussed above.

' #

This passage poses no grammatical problems. The second (noun) clause uses the (plural)
perfective active participle of “come.”
“burn” is in the infinitive used as a noun. The last clause has a subject-stative
construction, where the 3PL of the stative of the verb “tremble” is written with extra
plural strokes.

166
12
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III
Part II
Medea: O Zeus, and Justice, child of Zeus,
and Sun-god's light, now will triumph o'er my foes,
kind friends; on victory's road have I set forth;
good hope have I of wreaking vengeance on those I hate.
Euripides, Medea, translated by E. P. Coleridge

The Poem

Quatrain I

Quatrain II

Quatrain III

Quatrain IV

167
Quatrain V

Quatrain VI

Quatrain VII

Quatrain VIII

Quatrain IX

168
Quatrain X

Epilogue

!" #$% %

169
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part II

Vocabulary

, / God’s land (south and

trample, tread on (foe) east of Egypt including Punt)
Djahi (Palestine, Syria and flash, glitter (star)
northern Mesopotamia)
thunderbolt,
spread out shooting star
shoot shoot, hurl
, flame
(sun)rays
fire, flame;
image, portrait, document firebrand
likeness rain
image, duplicate western lands
Asia Crete (possibly the
whole Mediterranean)
smite, strike down
Izy (probably Cyprus)
Retjenu
(Lebanon) respect, awe
equip, provide (adjective-verb)
young
be adorned
(adjective-verb) firm
(royal) insignia,
panoply sharp
weapons horn
fight; come/go down
weapons of war
Mitanni
chariot (kingdom east of the Euphrates)
eastern lands tremble
trod, step on, fear
trample down
crocodile

170
(preposition) among , the opener
of ways
approach
speed
(noun) middle
Apis bull
(preposition) under
runner
back, spine
traverse (region)
Libya
as far as
Utjentiu
(unidentified region) Shat (unidentified
region in Nubia)
power, might
grasp
might, impressiveness
sister, wife
lion
, protection, safeguard
wild
sky
, corpse
remove, drive away
valley (foes), remove, dispel, disperse
encircle, enclose evil
cartouche protection
enclose, include, bag , Thebes
grasp, make capture, make festive
seize
guide, lead
wing
(noun) fear
stretch
erect
Horus
beget
look, glance, see, behold
, (preposition)
(noun) front, beginning behind, around
bind do in the past
sand creation, original
time
jackal
unite
Upper Egypt

171
The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III: Part II

Grammar Points
The Poem
Quatrain I

The Poem consists of ten quatrains, stanzas of four lines. Each quatrain contains two
couplets (distichs) so that each couplet occupies two lines. For reasons of space, we
display each couplet in a single line. The two couplets in the ten quatrains start with the

same phrases. The first is beginning with the perfect of

“come.” “cause, let, empower” plus the subjunctive of “trample, tread (on foe),
crush” expresses the causative. The second contains another + subjunctive

construction: where the verb “see” in the

subjunctive is interpreted as “experience, know.” As discussed in the prologue we
consider in both cases as imperfectives. This also applies to any verb form with

the suffix pronoun being Amun-Re

There will be a lot of localities in The Poem, and for convenience, we list the previously
not discussed geographical terms as follows:

Djahi (Palestine, Syria and northern Mesopotamia)

Asia

eastern lands

God’s land (south and east of Egypt including Punt)

172
western lands

Crete (possibly the whole Mediterranean)

Izy (probably Cyprus)

Mitanni (kingdom east of the Euphrates)

Libya

Utjentiu (unidentified)

Shat (unidentified region in Nubia)

The noun , means “(sun)rays” is clearly related to the verb

“shoot,” and with this the phrase can be translated as “lord of

(sun)light.” In the last clause, the caus. 2-lit. verb “shine, brighten” is in the
subjunctive expressing the result of the previous action. Although the prepositional
phrase can be translated as “in front of/before them,” the plural stokes indicate
that is used here as the noun “face,” and the phrase literally means “in their faces.”

The noun “image, portrait, document” doubtless must be related to

“likeness” and “image, duplicate.”

Quatrain II

Once again the two causatives in the first line are governed by plus the subjunctives
of the verbs and “smite, strike down.” In the second couplet the adverb clause
contains the verb “equip, provide” in stative expressing passive voice. Another verb

“be adorned” directly gives passive voice, and it is used to derive the

173
noun “(royal) insignia, panoply (of war accoutrements).” In the

second adverb clause (de Buck) (Sethe) in the imperfective (expressing

concomitant action) can be elevated from “take” to “display, raise up (to show).” Note
the interesting sequence of the stative followed by the imperfective when the first
expresses the state and the second the action. Note also the coincidence that the war
chariot came to Egypt from Asia during the Hyksos period some 100 years before
Thutmose III.
Quatrain III

The grammar here and below is a bit repetitive so that we point out only the new

features. “God’s Land” (in honorific transposition) with the plural of

“region” is a vaguely defined geographic location south/east of Egypt. It usually
includes the exotic land of Punt (with main import of incense). Punt is conjectured to be
Somaliland which is a bit of misfit with “eastern lands.” More generally, can

designate far-off lands as in

. Here is an alternative spelling of “Byblos” in
Lebanon. In the second couplet the crocodile determinative is suggestive of the verb

“flash, glitter (star)” from which the noun “thunderbolt,

shooting star” is derived. “shoot, hurl” (written here with the rare

determinative ) is a perfective active participle with object In the last

adverb clause “give” is in concomitant imperfective again. The whole passage creates
the impression that the king’s appearance is like a celestial phenomenon. It is an
interesting coincidence that the most spectacular meteor shower, the Perseids, comes (in

174
mid-August) from the constellation Perseus which (at its start at midnight) is in the
easterly direction.
Quatrain IV

The current quatrain now turns to west with the explicit mention of

“Crete” and “Izy.” The identification of the latter with Cyprus may be
doubtful, in particular, here it is in the wrong direction from Egypt. The two
constructions lit. “firm of heart” and lit. “sharp of horns” are attached to

and compare the pharaoh to a “young bull.” In the last relative

clause the verb “come/go down” should here be interpreted as “tackle (a dangerous
animal).” It appears in negated perfect with the impersonal suffix carrying passive
meaning. The negated perfect itself expresses inability and should be translated in present
tense. The literal translation of the clause “he cannot be tackled” can be
turned into a single adjective “invincible” attached to the antecedent (The suffix
pronoun is the coreferent.) Finally, once again note the coincidence with the bull-cult of
the Minoan Crete.
Quatrain V

The phrase has been discussed in the “Epilogue” in the previous chapter. The
second clause of the first couplet contains a subject-stative construction expressing the

state of the “Lands/ Kingdom of Mitanni.” It uses the stative of the verb
“tremble” (with the –bird “egret” phonogram/determinative). The grammar of the

175
second line is similar to that of quatrain IV. The last (relative) clause of the antecedent
“crocodile” contains the negated perfect of the verb “approach” with
coreferent, the suffix pronoun Note that the preposition “among” governs plural
nouns, so that must carry plural sense: “waters.”
Quatrain VI

All the grammar here has been discussed previously. The plural of the noun
“middle” is the first part of the direct genitive with “sea.” Therefore
… designates seaborne people, lit. “those of the middle of the sea.”
Due to the aggressive nature of oppression, should be translated as “avenger” not
“protector, savior.” The stative describes the pharaoh as standing on the shoulders of
the “wild bull,” a reference to the defeat of Seth by Horus with the latter being
personified by the king. Alternatively, the replacement of the wild bull determinative

with the less aggressive may indicate that more likely mean
“victim.”
Quatrain VII

This passage has no new grammar.

Quatrain VIII

176
The plural direct genitive “earth’s limits/ends of the earth” is suddenly changed
to the (generic) feminine imperfective relative form with subject “ocean.” The

double role here is played by the verb “encircle, enclose” which is

characteristically also related to “cartouche.” The latter was (mis)named

such by Napoleon’s soldiers, and, providing the encircling loop around the king’s throne
and Son of Re names, it actually means the extent of the pharaoh’s royal domain.
Together they form the preposed subject of a subject-stative construction involving the
verb which also means “enclose” and “include.”

The noun “wing” is clearly related to the verb

“stretch,” and the phrase “lord/possessor of the wing(s) of Horus” or
shortly “Horus/falcon-winged” is yet another reference to Horus Thutmose III. The last
passage is governed by the perfective active participle of “seize, grasp.” Its object is
the imperfective relative form of “look, glance, see, behold” (feminine, referring to
generic objects) followed by yet another imperfective relative form of “love, desire”
(masculine, referring to the pharaoh). The whole phrase literally means: “who seizes what
he (only) glances at what(ever) he desires.” If one replaces “what he glances at” by “with
his glimpse,” then the meaning of the passage becomes clear. This construction is

reminiscent to the idiom “whenever he wills/likes he does”

mentioned at the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor as the name of the great primordial god.
The last relative form , being the object of the preposition , can be viewed as
nonattributive and this can be brought out with the translation “in that he desires (he)

takes what he glances at.” A variation of this is the common phrase

, lit. “the way he acts is according to the way he desires.”
Quatrain IX

177
The grammar in the first line is similar to that of quatrains II-III. The object of the verb
“bind” is with the plural of the nisbe used as a noun. Its literal meaning
is “those upon the sand” and should designate “desert nomads/Beduins.” The term
was discussed in the Prologue.

The “jackal of Upper Egypt” is , “the opener of ways,” the

jackal god of Abydos. The name is subject to several interpretations: opening the ways to
lead the king to military conquests or the deceased through the Netherworld, or assisting
in the opening the mouth ritual. The term “runner” is doubtless related to the

pharaoh’s running with the Apis bull ( ) during the royal jubilee, the
sed-festival. The verb “traverse” (used transitively here) is a perfective active
participle.
Quatrain X

The term was discussed in the Prologue. In the second adverb clause the
subject is the “Nubian bowmen as far as Shat,” where the prepositional phrase
with the infinitive of “remain” has the literal meaning “to remain in.”
The Two Brothers are Horus and Seth, and Amun-Re asserts that it was he who joined
their hands (with the perfect of “join, unite”) for the Pharaoh to symbolically
represent the victorious unification of Egypt. This reconciliation of power is often
represented by Horus and Seth tying together of the heraldic plants, the papyrus of Lower

Egypt and the reed of Upper Egypt, around the sign “unite.”

Epilogue

178
The two sisters (in feminine dual) refer to Isis and Nephthys, the two protective
goddesses of Osiris. They form the topicalized object of the predicate in perfect. The
preposition is usually translated as “around” or “behind.”
The direct genitive is the subject of the second adverb clause and also the
following + infinitive pseudoverbal construction. The latter involves the verb
“drive away, remove, dispel, disperse,” and, as it is often the case with caus. 3ae-inf.
verbs, the ending is omitted.

This passage asserts that Thutmose III is Amun-Re’s son and is Horus, the god of
kingship. The imperfective relative form of the verb “love” can be translated as
“my beloved,” lit. “(he) whom I love.” and are usual epithets of a king
(cf. the royal titulary of Amenhotep III discussed in Chapter 13).

Reference to the pharaoh continues with the perfect relative form of the verb ‘beget.”
is a construction in which “divine” itself is a nisbe derived from the
noun The context tells (the subject is not Amun-Re but the pharaoh) that the innocent

looking is not perfect but a participle followed by a prepositional phrase, lit.

“(he) who makes/performs for me.” The object is a (feminine) imperfective relative form
of the verb “love, desire.” Finally, “ka” crudely translated as “life force” here is
one of Amun-Re’s spiritual component which, by duty, the pharaoh has to nourish.

! "# $%& &

179
Amun-Re now recalls Thutmose’s accomplishments in reverence for him. The caus. 3-lit.
verb “erect” (obviously derived from “stand up”) is in perfect. The direct genitive
can literally be translated as “work of eternity.” As every pharaoh’s duty was to
erect monuments for the gods, can also be thought as given, the theme, and
put the emphasis on the adverbial phrase With this the construction becomes
emphatic and the verb form of is nonattributive perfect relative form.
The causatives of the adjective-verbs “long” and “wide” are “lengthen” and
“widen” are in passive here indicated by the ending in the first, lit. “made to be
long/wide.” This is followed by a comparative introduced by the preposition The
comparison is made with in which the noun “original time/creation” is

closely related to the verb “do in the past,” and is an acive participle of
the verb “happen, evolve.” The whole phrase indicates comparison with everything

that happened/evolved before, in the past. A similar construction is

1
“they were more beautiful than what existed before.” Putting the
Egyptian ditto sign after an adjective emphasizes the greatness of the temple’s door
“very great,” and the following noun phrase is simply the name of the door. Examples to

2 3
this construction are “very truly,” and “very often.”
After the pharaoh’s throne name, the caus. 3-lit. verb “make festive, celebrate” is a
participle used as a noun in an indirect genitive. The suffix pronoun is a forward
reference to Amun-Re.

This is a typical comparative adjectival sentence with predicate “great (in number),”
and subject “your monuments.” As usual, the comparative is introduced by the
preposition “with respect to” followed by the phrase , lit.“any/every king
who existed/evolved.” The phrase contains the active participle of the verb “evolve.”
The perfect of “command, decree” is followed by the dative indicating to whom

1
[Urk. IV, 168, 11].
2
[ÄZ. 45, Pl. vi, 16, 17].
3
[Eb. 40, 18].

180
the decree is directed. The command itself is expressed by the infinitive of with plural
object referring back to The happy state of Amun-Re is expressed by the stative
of “content,” and the suffix pronoun can either be viewed as an exceptional writing
of the 3PL suffix pronoun, or as a general reference using the neuter “it.”

This passage poses no grammatical problems. is the Horus-throne, once again

emphasizes Thutmose III’s authority as king. The second clause with the subjunctive of
“lead, guide, rule” is a clause of result of the previous one. As such, it can be
introduced by the words “so that.”

181
13
The Bull Hunt Scarab of Amenhotep III
He lunged from side to side
Watching for his chance to seize the horns.
The bull frothed in its rage at this dance
And suddenly Enkidu seized its tail
And twisted it around, until the bull
Stood still, bewildered, out of breath,
And then Enkidu plunged his sword behind its horns
Into the nape of the bull’s neck, and it fell dead.
Gilgamesh, translated by Herbert Mason

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182
& $% !$% ' !

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183
The Bull Hunt Scarab of Amenhotep III.

Vocabulary

regnal year go/sail

downstream/north; downstream,
(preposition) by, near, during north
bull time, season
victorious, mighty, dusk, evening
successful
receive, accept
appear, rise
journey
Maat (goddess)
arrive
set, fix
morning, tomorrow
law
horse
pacify, make
peaceful army, expeditionary force
Two Lands, Egypt (adjective-verb) complete
great, important wake, aftermath;
after, future
strong arm, strength,
power command
Asiatics official
woman, wife person, citizen
great, important child, boy
marvel, miracle royal nursery
exist, be watch, guard
wild bull pull, draw
desert hills, foreign land wall, enclosure
region ditch
sail, travel by boat count

184
knowledge , day
hunt total

185
The Bull Hunt Scarab of Amenhotep III

Grammar Points
The Bull Hunt

!
This scarab commemorates a wild cattle hunt led by Amenhotep III during his 2nd regnal
year. The prepositional phrase followed by the king’s royal titulary is a typical
construction meaning “during the incarnation/reign of.” Due to their compressed nature,
the names in a royal titulary are notoriously difficult to interpret. In the Horus name

“victorious bull” the ideogram representing is not the cattle but the wild

bull , and “victorious, mighty” is abbreviated to the mere sign .

The perfective active participle of the verb “appear (in glory), shine” is used (with
omitted ending), and accordingly the phrase can be translated as “shining in
truth,” lit. “(he) who shines/appears in truth/Maat.” In the Two Ladies name the causative
(2-lit. and 3-lit.) verbs and are both in perfective active participle forms. In the
Gold Falcon name, is an easily recognizable " construction, and again is
in perfective active participle form (with the ending omitted). The throne name can be
translated as “lord of the world-order/Maat of Re” and the Son of Re name as “Amun is
content.”

#$ %
The ‘great royal wife’ Queen Tiye was the most influential woman during Amenhotep
III’s reign, later deified in Upper Nubia. Her name appears in many inscriptions

186
(although not so much in the Karnak-Luxor temple complex). Note the feminine stative
suffix of the verb %

%"
Matching the feminine noun “marvel, wonder,” the perfective relative form of the
verb has a ending.

% &! %" '

The infinitive of “come” with impersonal suffix pronoun as subject starts the narrative:
“one came.” Another very similar example for the impersonal pronoun as the subject of

the infinitive is % &! %" 1 The pseudoverbal +

infinitive construction emphasizes purpose. The perfective of introduced by the
particle is used here to express general existence. Another example to this is the well-

known passage & && %" 2It can be

translated as “there is/are.” means here “desert hills,” not “foreign land.”
(with the tongue of land determinative) means “region.” According to Breasted, the

feminine indirect genitive should be replaced by “as far as.” “Sheta” or

Shetep is an unknown place, but interpreting the story that follows, it must be
somewhere near the Delta, probably in Wadi Natrun.

%" !
The narrative infinitive of the verb “sail, travel by boat” starts the action. In the
prepositional phrase ! “downstream, north,” ! is not the infinitive of ! “sail
downstream/north” but a verbal noun. Analogously, sailing in the opposite direction is
expressed by $ , where the verbal noun is derived from the verb “sail

1
[Urk. IV, 656, 14].
2
[Westcar 6, 26].

187
upstream/south.” The means of transportation of the king is the bark whose
royalty is expressed by the “sedge” on the deck. The name of the ship can easily
be made up from the royal titulary above.

" ' !
The absence of subjects indicates that the verbs “take, receive, accept” and

“arrive” are still infinitives. The feminine noun phrase is an Egyptian

idiom for “journey.” A similar example is … …

3
& %"… %"… ! %" " .

%" %" %"

Once again the predicate “appear” is infinitive. The hunting scenes in Medinet Habu
clearly show that the Egyptians did not hunt wild bulls on horseback. The prepositional
phrase “on horse,” which also appears on Stela S of Amenhotep IV Akhenaten
marking the southeastern boundary of El Amarna, needs to be interpreted as the king
appeared in a chariot driven by a horse. In fact, as the feminine ending in also
indicates, mares were the preferred chariot horses.

In the second adverb clause the adjective modifies %"%

% & %" !%" ( !

The infinitive of the causative verb “command” has again the impersonal pronoun
as its suffixed subject. The subject is, of course, the king, and this use of “One” is
reference to the pharaoh seems to be of occasional use in Late Middle Kingdom. The list
of objects include “the commanders,” lit. “the officials of the army,”
“ the common soldiers,” lit. “the citizens of the army,” and ( ! “the children

of the kap/nursery.” Note that in some 18th Dynasty writings resembles a wrist
and hand. The attached apparent adjectives & %" and !%" emphasize that the entire
3
[Sebekhu 1-2].

188
army with all its attachments was present. Finally, the pseudoverbal + infinitive
construction expresses the planned action to watch over/guard the wild cattle (with
in the infinitive used as a noun).

&% %" ! % !$
The particle introduces the sentence in which the king commands (in perfect) to drive
the wild cattle into a walled enclosure with a ditch. The command itself employs the ! +
subjunctive construction with ! (as the object of &) itself in the infinitive. Notice the

(suddenly) missing genitival adjective after in the plural demonstrative, a

practice that started before the 18th Dynasty. In Thuthmose III’s siege of Megiddo we can

read ) * !$
4
& % . The Egyptian army surrounded the town with a ditch
and walled it up (with new timber from fruit trees). As Breasted pointed out, the situation

and the choice of the words “surround, net, catch,” !$ “inclosure,

ditch,” and “wall” are reminiscent to ours here. While the situation is

analogous, it is not the same. The static meaning of the verb should be

contrasted with the dynamic meaning of + and it is more likely that the wild
cattle were driven (drawn) into a walled enclosure (with a ditch) rather than surrounded
by a wall.

&% %" %
The & % %" form applied to the verb & emphasizes subsequent action, the king’s next
command. The command’s missing predicate makes little sense unless we follow

Breasted’s suggestion and replace with “count.” The apparent adjective

with the plural suffix pronoun once again emphasizes that all the wild cattle had to be
accounted for.

4
[Urk. IV, 660, 15-6].

189
,-. % %" /0
The verbal noun “knowledge” is derived from the verb “learn, know.” This,
combined with the prepositional nisbe is usually translated as “statement thereof,” lit.
“knowledge thereof.” Although “hunt” is a verb, as the object of the preposition , it
is a verbal noun since the pseudoverbal + infinitive construction in the New Kingdom
was used for the imperfect.

% %" 1 ! " %"

As above, the & % %" verb form indicates subsequent action. In the adjective-verb
“unoccupied (of time), free” the hair determinative is because of the alternative meaning
of as “fall out, missing (hair).” The object of the infinitive of ! is " “passion,
warmth, temperature” in a spiritual context means that the king let his horses regain their
strength/spirit.

( %" % %" 1. ! ! 20
All the grammar involved here has been treated above.

190
14
Two Harpers’ Songs
“Don't ask, Leuconoe! What business have you and/or I to know
When death comes from the gods? Neither consult soothsayers and the like!
So much better to take whatever comes, whether this winter is
One of many that Jove's given us, or whether we're seeing for
One more time how the sea batters the cliffs, how they are tumbling down.
Let's be wise above all, get out the wine, and never make big plans!
Let small hopes be enough! While we two speak, time, reckless time, flies by.
So seize this very day, and never count on what the future holds.”
Horace Ode 1.11, translated by Walter Baumann

Stela of Nebankh

191
Song from the Tomb of King Intef

192
! " !

193
Two Harpers’ Songs

Vocabulary

sing , bury
singer , build
who, what
tomb
literary works,
offerings quotation
provisions entirely,
quite
pass (by), surpass, transgress
wall
treasurer/seal bearer
of the king of Lower Egypt destroy, fall to ruins
northwind rush, hurry
honored form, state, manner, character
song condition
harp . help, relieve
, official forgetful, neglectful
fate spiritualize (deceased),
glorify (god), beautify (tomb)
destroy, injure, disobey (heart)
myrrh
destruction
put on (dress), be
, generation clothed
pass on, send fine linen
time, era anoint
ancestors, lit. excess, more
those who are in before
beauty, perfection,
pyramid happiness
noble, dignitary weary, lazy
akh cry, wail

194
(noun) cries, tomb
wailing
new thing
(verb) weary, tire
again
mourning, plural
wailings

195
Two Harpers’ Songs

Grammar Points
"Why, O Gish, does thou run about?
The life that thou seekest, thou wilt not find.
When the gods created mankind,
Death they imposed on mankind;
Life they kept in their power.
Thou, O Gish, fill thy belly,
Day and night do thou rejoice,
Daily make a rejoicing!
Day and night a renewal of jollification!
Let thy clothes be clean,
Wash thy head and pour water over thee!
Care for the little one who takes hold of thy hand!
Let the wife rejoice in thy bosom!"
Gilgamesh (Babylonian version), translated by Albert T. Clay

Stela of Nebankh

A subject-imperfective construction introduces Tjeniaa, the singer of this song. The song
itself starts with an exclamatory adjectival sentence. The subject, the deceased is

addressed in the form of the dependent pronoun is an alternative spelling

of or and its meaning “tomb” can be

elevated to “monument.”

196
The abundance of offerings in the tomb is described with a subject-stative construction
using the transitive verb “fill” having therefore passive meaning. (The preposed suffix
pronoun refers to a feminine noun.) The preposition “under” followed by

should be translated as “of” or “with.” The perfect of the verb “contain,

enclose, include” denoting completed action further emphasizes that the tomb has
everything that the deceased needs. A further comfort to him, the presence of his spiritual
element , is emphasized in a short adverbial clause. In the last clause, the negated

infinitive, qualifying the previous statement, starts with the negative particle only

indicated by . (Note that the context shows that the last clause is not a negated
construction which would mean “before/not yet heard.”) Another example for the negated

infinitive with suffixed subject is

1
.

A well-wish from the singer to the deceased whose name and titles are listed here is
given in an adverbial clause with simple grammar.
The next clause starts with a participial statement the beginning of which can be translated
as “It is his singer.” This is followed by the active participle of the causative verb
“make live, nourish, keep alive” asserting the singer’s duty. The relationship of respect

between the singer and the deceased is given by the adjective “honored” (a

1
[Urk. IV 498, 7-9].

197
phrase usually applied to two individuals) and that of affection by the perfect relative form

“whom he loved” of the verb “love.” Finally, the active participle of

“sing” specifies how the name of the deceased will be kept alive, once again, a
reminder and assertion of the singer’s duty.

Song from the Tomb of King Intef

A common feature of Late Egyptian is the appearance of out-of-the-place weak

consonants and superfluous ’s and seated man determinatives. This passage is no
exception. The simple grammar here has the subject “song” modified by two typical

relative clauses with adverbial predicates. “enclosure” should be promoted to

“funerary chapel.” The evil bird determinative (for the feminine “evil, badness”)

is (probably) a scribal error and should be replaced with for “harp.”

This passage has been interpreted in different ways. The transliteration above follows
Federn and splits the passage into three parts. The first is an A B nominal sentence,
and the last two are adjectival sentences with the same predicate. Alternatively, one can
think of the first as modifying and split the passage into two parts only:
Depending on the meanings of the nouns involved and
whether this is considered connected to the previous clause or not, the second part, an A B
nominal sentence with A being “good/kindly fate” and B being
“destruction/death,” can be variously interpreted.
“One generation passeth away,
And another generation cometh;

198
But the earth abideth forever.”
Ecclesiastes 1:4
The Bible (King James Version)

The alternative spelling of “generation” shows that it is a collective

noun. “(an)other” refers to and that is why it received the plural strokes. The passing
of generations after generations is expressed by two pseudoverbal + infinitive

constructions. The presence of the determinative is due to its phonetic value

The determinative is suggestive to the meaning of the phrase

“ancestors,” lit. “those who are in before.” It is derived from the compound preposition
by replacing with the plural prepositional nisbe

The first two clauses contain subject-stative constructions with (the transitive use of) the

verb “rest (in tomb)” and the (transitive) verb , “bury” and
they have passive meaning. Note the plural of the perfective active participle of the verb

“happen, evolve.” is a Late Egyptian spelling of “under,” and

the compound preposition means “before.” The determinative suggests that

should be viewed as a (plural) noun (and not the adjective “blessed” whose determinative

is ) so that the noun in question refers to the “akhs,” the spiritual entities of the

199
Egyptian society, those who lived and made successful transition to afterlife. The
compound preposition “likewise” can be translated as “too” or “also.”
The tone suddenly changes and the song turns the attention to the tomb builders expressed

by the plural perfective active participle of the verb , “build.” As

noted in the analysis of the Poetical Stela of Thutmose III, with the perfective of
expresses negation of existence “there is not,” “there does not exists.”

The interrogative pronoun “who, what” (a contraction of the demonstrative

pronoun and the particle ) followed by the plural perfective passive

participle of “make, do” questions the fate of these dedicated workers. Since
+ is an Egyptian idiom of “become of, happen to,” the whole clause can be translated as
“what became/has become of them?”

In the first main clause, using the perfect of “hear, listen,” the singer claims
familiarity with the words of the famous Old Kingdom sages Imhotep, the vizier of Djoser,
and Hardededef, Khufu’s son. In the second clause the stative has no preceding subject.
The transitive caus. 2-lit.verb “recite, retell, relate” (+ “of”) receives the 3FS stative
suffix and carries passive meaning “recited.” The object is is more likely
“literary works” than “quotations as the adverb “entirely” emphasizes.
“We all envy the immortals because they are free,
But fame and fortune we cannot forget.
Where are the ministers and the generals of the past
and the present?
Under neglected graves overgrown with weeds.”
Tsao Hsueh-Chin, Dream of the Red Chamber
translated by Chi-Chen Wang

200
This passage now begins to question the fate of the “places” of these sages who are
referred to only by the nisbe lit. “pertaining to.” The response comes immediately first
in a subject-stative construction describing the state of the walls with the stative of the
transitive verb “destroy.” In the last two negative clauses, the second introduced by the
prepositional phrase , lit. “like ones which” (in which the relative adjective is
used as a noun) puts even more emphasis to the first. Finally, the negated perfective of the
verb the suffix pronoun refers back to the places and the clause be translated using

the word “never.” (Note that in Late Egyptian and are often interchanged.)

In Late Egyptian negation is often expressed by the negative word in place of

and in place of Here we actually see a double interchange as the

negation of the perfective active participle of the verb “return” requires a negated
existence using The adverb “from there” refers the realm of the dead. The three
adverb clauses that follow detail the (possible) purpose of return. The verbs are “relate,

tell” and “help, relieve” written wrongly as and emended as .

(Hoch remarks that the scribe may have mistakenly believed that the line was the passive
construction ) All the verb forms are in subjunctive and can be translated by
inserting first “(so) that.” Alternatively, Lichtheim bypasses the expressed subjects and
uses infinitives. The + construction “until he has/had heard” applied to the verb
“rush, hurry” (and suffix pronominal subject “we”) has an ironic tone. Finally, the
verb form of “walk, go” (with speed contrasting with ) is a (plural) perfective
relative form. (Note the space-filler above the walking leg determinative.) The

201
antecedent of this clause is and the coreferent is not expressed as it is the object of the
preposition

" # "

This passage starts with the subjunctive “rejoice, take heart.”

The feminine suffix pronoun is a general reference to the previous skepticism. The next

clause can be interpreted in two ways. If in the above the evil bird is
disregarded then this verb form is imperative with a Late Egyptian group-writing of

" “forgetful, neglectful.” Then " is a complete clause in which the

general reference to the skepticism continues with the suffix pronoun The next short
clause is then an adjectival sentence with a sarcastic tone.
On the other hand, if the is considered essential then " becomes a phrase for
“forgetfulness, negligence.” The syntactically adverbial sentence with

the infinitive of applied to a deceased as “spiritualize,” to a god as

“glorify,” and to a tomb as “beautify” can be interpreted as “advantageous.”
The imperative returns for the verb “follow” with a clear meaning. The last short
adverb clause (which can be introduced by “while”) contains the imperfective of
“exist, be.”

The imperative continues this time with more specific suggestions. In the first two clauses
the imperatives of the verb “put” and “put on (dress), dress” are employed while
in the third the imperative (as a command) is expressed by the stative with the second
person suffix pronoun Note that the noun can also be used for luxury items, and
the phrase lit. “god’s things” can be translated as “fit for a god.”
“Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing better,

202
Than that a man should rejoice in his own works;
For that is his portion: for who shall bring him to see
what shall be after him?”
Ecclesiastes 3:22
The Bible (King James Version)

The imperatives continue first using the phrase “increase, heap/pile up” lit. “make

excess/more” and then with the negative imperative “do not” (abbreviated here

as ) followed by the negatival complement of the adjective-verb

$ “weary, lazy.” This is an example of a 4ae-inf. verb which, in addition to the
negatival complement ending , also receives an additional In the usual spelling of the

complement the scribe replaced the -bird with the flying

pintail duck

The “decorative” spelling of the imperative of the 4ae-inf. verb is a Late

Egyptian feature.

"

The initial adverb clause: “(when) the day of…” signals emphatic construction, so that the
verb form of is a (nonattributive) relative form. The subject is the indirect genitive "

203
in which the late form of demonstrative pronoun (with the compounded

determinative ) is moved forward. The next clause starts with the negated perfect of
the verb expressing negation of action or inability. As discussed previously, the Late

Egyptian negative word stands for The subject is the construction

“weary of heart.” In general, it means someone with inert heart or slow heart beat,
and here the god determinative clearly points to the dead Osiris.

The negated subjunctive of the verb “rescue, save” with in place of

should be interpreted as negated future. The late form of the demonstrative pronoun is
used in the subject The object is the direct genitive and the vague
adverb “from it” is made precise in the attached prepositional phrase .

"

The noun means “refrain,” lit. “a new thing,” and the out-of-place determinative

is possibly influenced by the spelling of “shaft.”

Imperative of governs the special phrase “make holiday” which has a dual reference:
one for everyday life and another for death and afterlife. In addition, ancient Egyptians
also employed this term for funerary festivities held on special days in the cemeteries.

204
Using the negative imperative and the negatival complement (of the verb ),
the singer (present only by the suffix pronoun ) makes a last effort to cheer up the
listeners.
Calling for their attention with the particle , he once more reminds his audience to
enjoy life for two principal reasons given in the last two clauses. (The second particle
should read not ) Grammatically, the first uses negated passive ( in place of
) of the verb expressing negation of action/ability “(it) is not allowed/permitted,” lit.
“(it) is not given.” Second, the negated perfective construction of the verb , lit.
“there is not” is followed by the perfective active participles of the verbs “go” and
“return.”

205
Appendix I
UNILITERAL SIGNS

SIGN DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION

Egyptian vulture
reed leaf or
or dual strokes
two reed leaves
arm
quail chick or
or cord of rope
foot
stool
horned viper
owl
or
water or
or red crown
mouth
enclosure
wick
placenta (?)
belly and udder
door bolt
bolt of cloth
pool
hill
basket
or
jar stand or bag
or
bread loaf
hobble
hand
cobra

206
BILITERAL SIGNS: PLATE I

SIGN TRANSL. SIGN TRANSL. SIGN TRANSL.

, ,

, , ,

, ,

, ,

, , ,

207
BILITERAL SIGNS: PLATE II

SIGN TRANSL. SIGN TRANSL. SIGN TRANSL.

, , , ,

, ,

, ,

, ,

, ,

, , ,

, , ,

208
TRILITERAL SIGNS

SIGN TRANS. SIGN TRANS. SIGN TRANS. SIGN TRANS.

209
Appendix II

Regular Root Classes1

ROOT CLASS SYMBOL CAUSATIVE SYMBOL

2-LIT AB, A CAUS. 2-LIT. AB
2AE-GEM. ABB CAUS. 2AE-GEM. ABB
3-LIT. ABC CAUS. 3-LIT. ABC
3AE-INF. AB , AB CAUS. 3AE-INF. AB
3AE-GEM. ABCC CAUS. 4-LIT. ABAB
4-LIT. ABCD, ABAB, A A CAUS. 4AE-INF. ABC
4AE-INF. ABC CAUS. 5-LIT. ABCBC
5-LIT. ABCBC, AB B

1
Rare cases are omitted.

210
Summary of Verb Forms and Constructions1

Infinitival forms and constructions

• Infinitive
o Narrative (past tense)
o (what he did) (what was
done)
o Negation (existence):
▪ ▪
• Negatival complement
▪ (fail, not)

Pseudoverbal construction
• + infinitive (action in progress)
• + infinitive (future action)
• + infinitive (planned or inevitable action)

Imperative and constructions

• Imperative
• Special forms:
▪ (come!) ▪ (give!) ▪ (take!)
• Negation
▪ + negatival complement ▪ + verbal noun

Stative (old perfective) and constructions

• Stative (for transitive/intransitive verbs the state of being
as a result of a previous completed action performed on/by
the subject)
• Subject-stative construction (past or perfect tense for
transitive/intransitive verbs with passive/active meaning)
o Question:
▪ + subject-stative construction

1
Only the most common verb forms and constructions are listed and emphasized.

211
Perfect (circumstantial
• (completed action, past/perfect tense of transitive
verbs)
• Negation (negation of action/ability/necessity, present
tense):
▪
• Question:
▪ ▪

Subjunctive prospective/perfective and

constructions
• Subjunctive (dependent, contingent, or desirable action;
wish, command, voluntary future):
o Conditional:
▪ (if)
o Negation:
▪
▪ (he should/may not hear)
▪
o Question:
▪

Perfective (indicative/perfective and constructions

• Not very common
• Negation (past, completed actions):
▪

Imperfective (circumstantial/perfective/imperfective
and constructions
• Imperfective (imperfective, repetitive action,
generalization)
• Subject-imperfective construction (generalization,
incomplete action)

212
Prospective perfective/imperfective and constructions
• Rare verb form
• (actions that have not yet happened)
• Conditional:
▪
• Negation:
▪
Prospective passive

Passive nominal/circumstancial
• Only for transitive verbs, completed action
• Negation (action, ability, necessity):
▪

Other suffix conjugations

(subsequent, consequent action)
(necessary action)
(future consequence)
(completed action)
• Negation:
▪ (before he has/had heard)

Participles
• perfective active
• perfective passive
• imperfective active
• imperfective passive
• prospective

Relative forms (nonattributive/attributive)

• perfective
• imperfective
• perfect

213
Appendix III

List of Verb Forms Occurring in the Texts1

The Infinitive

The infinitival forms are non-finite verb forms with no reference to any particular tense
(past, present, future), mood (indicative, subjunctive), aspect (perfect, imperfect), or voice
(active, passive). English has two infinitival forms: the infinitive and the gerund. Middle
Egyptian has three infinitival forms: the infinitive, the negatival complement, and the
(very rare) complementary infinitive. With some exceptions and variations in spelling, the
infinitive of a verb with a final-weak root is formed from the base stem plus , and the rest
of the infinitives are given by the root. The infinitive is a verbal noun and can appear as
the object of a preposition or a verb. In addition, the infinitive frequently appears in the
pseudoverbal construction + infinitive. The negatival complement of a verb with
non-geminated root is formed by the base stem plus and verbs with geminated roots use
the geminated stem. As the name suggests, the negatival complement is used in various
negative constructions including negation of the infinitive and the imperative.
2-LIT. hurrying [Pr. I, 3], said, says, saying [Sh.S. 1; 69

(narrative); Kamose Stela 2, 10; Urk. IV, 1, 16, 17; 2, 7 (narrative), Bull Hunt Scarab, 5],

to discover [Sh.S. 46], without knowing [Sh.S. 76], (being)

merciful [Semna Stela II, 7], retreating [Semna Stela II, 10],

commanded [Kamose Stela 2, 36 (narrative)], holding [Urk. IV, 4, 6],

to present [Urk, IV, 7, 10; 7, 14; 10, 2], to repel [Urk. IV, 8, 7],
staying [Harper II (vi, 2), 3]

1
Semna Stela I = Semna Stela of Senwosret III from regnal year 8; Semna Stela II =
Semna Stela of Senwosret III from regnal year 16; Harper I = Stela of Nebankh; Harper II
= Song from the Tomb of King Intef. (The line numbering follows Lichtheim’s rendering
of the text into full sentences.)

214
2AE-GEM. uprooting/plucking plants, preying [Kamose Stela 2, 7],

they seeing [Kamose Stela 2, 9], to see [Kamose Stela 2, 33;

Urk. IV, 611, 16], grasping him [Urk. IV, 6, 1]

3-LIT. embracing [Sh.S. 6], veiling [Sh.S.

19], reaching [Sh.S. 34], hearing [Sh.S. 74; Kamose Stela 2,

18], succeeed(ing) [Semna Stela II, 6], to beg [Kamose

Stela 2, 1] to address [Kamose Stela 2, 5], peeking

[Kamose Stela 2, 9], controlling [Kamose Stela 2, 16],

attacking [Kamose Stela 2, 21], to seek [Kamose Stela 2, 27],

its arriving [Kamose Stela 2, 27], to destroy [Kamose Stela 2, 28],

followed [Urk. IV, 3, 5], fighting [Urk. IV, 3, 10; 4, 3],

repeating [Urk. IV, 3, 17], rewarding me [Urk. IV, 4, 9; 5, 10; 7,

16; 10, 3], plundering [Urk. IV, 4, 10; 4, 15], slew him

[Urk. IV, 6, 13], smiting [Urk. IV, 7, 3], arrived, arriving [Urk.

IV, 9, 10 (narrative); Bull Hunt Scarab, 7], him raising (troops) [Urk. IV,

9, 12], receiving [Bull Hunt Scarab, 7]

3AE-INF. reciting [Pr. II, 6] , cut out [Sh.S. 54

(narrative)], taking [Sh.S. 80; Semna Stela II, 6], to spend, to let,
making [Sh.S. 117; Semna Stela I, 4; I, 5: II 3; Urk. IV, 2, 12; 5, 7; 9, 13; Bull Hunt

Scarab, 10], flying [Kamose Stela 2, 6], probing [Kamose

Stela 2, 7], being brave [Urk. IV, 3, 8; 8, 8], carrying off [Urk. IV,

215
4, 11; 6, 3], sailed [Urk. IV, 5, 12; 9, 3 (narrative); Bull Hunt Scarab, 6

(narrative)], transported (by boat) [Urk. IV, 6, 17; 8, 4],

shot [Urk. IV, 8, 14 (narrative)], to wash (vent) [Urk. IV, 9, 9],

found out [Urk. IV, 9, 11 (narrative)], appearing [Bull Hunt Scarab,

6], its passing [Harper I, 4], passing [Harper II (vi, 2), 3]

4-LIT. cracking [Sh.S. 59], quaking

[Sh.S. 59], I moved [Kamose Stela 2, 31], incense

[Kamose stela 2, 33], destroy [Urk. IV, 5, 6], to pursue [Urk.

IV, 7, 12], to crush [Urk. IV, 8, 6]

4AE-INF. my going/sailing (farther) south [Semna Stela II, 4,

Kamose Stela 2, 30], besiege [Urk. IV, 4, 14],

sailing south [Urk. IV, 5, 5; 7, 1]

5-LIT. stammering [Sh.S. 17]

CAUS. 2-LIT. soothing [Pr. I. 10], commanding

[Bull Hunt Scarab, 9], gleaming [Urk. IV, 614, 5]

CAUS. 3-LIT. tiring [Sh.S. 21], residing [Sh.S. 79],

bring on (down) [Urk. IV, 5, 17], to widen [Urk. IV, 7, 2]

CAUS. 3AE-INF. to disperse [Urk. IV, 618, 7]

ANOM. coming [Pr. II, 4; Sh.S. 62; 120], placing, letting, giving,

appointing [Pr. II, 6; Kamose Stela 2, 20; Urk. IV, 3, 15; 4, 2; 4, 13; 5, 1; 8, 2; 8, 10; Bull

Hunt Scarab, 10], one came [Bull Hunt Scarab, 5 (narrative)]

216
The Negatival Complement

2-LIT. aggressive [Pr. I, 9], great [Pr. II, 1]

3-LIT. thrust aside [Pr. I, 10], afraid [Sh.S.

111], pale [Sh.S. 112], slumber [Semna Stela II, 7],

fight [Semna Stela II 19], happen [Urk. IV, 6, 14; 614, 6],

weary [Harper II (vii, 2), 1]

3AE-INF. surpass [Pr. II, 5], destroying [Kamose Stela 2, 30],

disobey [Harper II (vi, 2), 2]

4AE-INF. talk [Pr. I, 2],

weary [Harper II (vi, 2), 11]

ANOM. let [Semna Stela I, 2; Kamose Stela 2]

217
The Imperative

The imperative is a verb form that expresses direct commands or requests. Apart from a
few anomalies, the Middle Egyptian regular imperative uses the verb root.

3-LIT. you eat [Pr. I, 8], you take [Pr. I, 9],

listen [Pr. II, 5; Sh.S. 12], accept [Kamose Stela 2, 34],

dress [Harper II (vi, 2), 10]

3AE-INF. do [Sh. S. 19; Harper II (vii, 2), 1], guard [Pr.

II, 2], wash [Sh.S. 13], fail [Kamose Stela 2, 16]

4AE-INF. hate [Pr. I, 4], , follow [Harper II (vi,

2), 12]

ANOM. let, put [Pr. I, 12; Sh.S. 13; Kamose Stela 2, 37; Harper II (vi, 2),

10; II (vi, 2), 11], come [Kamose Stela 2, 22]

218
The Stative (Old Perfective)
The stative is a verb form that generally expresses the resulting state of a prior action.
For transitive verbs the action is performed on its subject (passive); for intransitive verbs
the action is performed by the subject (active). The stative verb forms always come with
specific pronominal suffixes indicating person, number and gender:

SINGULAR SUFFIX PLURAL SUFFIX

1S 1PL
2S 2PL
3MS 3PL
3FS
Although the stative is tenseless, the subject-stative construction applied to intransitive
verbs expresses past or perfect tense.
2-LIT. in safety [Sh.S. 7], I had gone

[Sh.S. 23], I thought [Sh.S. 57-58], it was filled [Sh.S.

116; Kamose Stela 2, 13], I moored [Kamose Stela 2, 31],

has perished [Kamose Stela 2, 15], was shining [Kamose

Stela 2, 32], it stuck [Urk. IV, 8, 15], it is filled [Harper I,

3], they are destroyed [Harper II (vi, 2), 7], anoint

yourself [Harper II (vi, 2), 10]

2AE-GEM. it was returned [Kamose Stela 2, 27]

3-LIT. it is content [Pr. I, 9], it has passed [Pr. I,

7], it died [Sh.S. 38], I lied [Sh.S. 42-43],

it was brushed over [Sh.S. 63], you become [Sh.S.

73], I was uninjured [Sh.S. 79-80],

219
I arrived [Kamose Stela 2, 4], deployed [Kamose Stela 2, 5],

stand up [Kamose Stela 2, 23], she embraced [Kamose Stela

2, 34], I have been rewarded [Urk. IV, 2, 2],

I have been endowed [Urk. IV, 2, 4], I was appointed

[Urk. IV, 3, 9], they became weak [Urk. IV, 8, 17],

tremble [Urk. IV, 614, 12], equipped [Urk. IV,

615, 7], they tremble [Urk. IV, 616, 8], they encircle

[Urk. IV, 617, 7], I am content [Urk. IV, 618, 17], they

rest [Harper II (vi, 2), 4], they are buried [Harper II (vi, 2), 4]

3AE-INF. I had gone down [Sh.S. 24-25], it

came up [Sh.S. 32], I was alone [Sh.S. 41], you

are driven back [Kamose Stela 2, 1], , it is joyful [Kamose Stela 2, 8;

Urk. IV, 5, 13; Urk. IV, 612, 2; 613, 5], I crossed over [Kamose

Stela 2, 5], happy [Kamose Stela 2, 35], was

transferred [Urk. IV, 3, 3], I grew old [Urk. IV, 10, 5],

be exulted [Urk. IV, 611, 16], he stands [Urk. IV, 615, 15]

4-LIT. it was excited [Kamose Stela 2, 32]

4AE-INF. it was traveling overland [Kamose Stela 2, 19]

CAUS. 2-LIT. they are recited [Harper II (vi, 2), 6]

220
ANOM. it is placed [Sh.S. 4], it has returned [Sh.S. 7],

we returned [Sh.S. 10], I was put on [Sh.S. 39],

I have come [Kamose Stela 2, 10], they came

[Kamose Stela 2, 32], he came [Urk. IV, 5, 16; 6, 11],

welcome [Urk. VI, 611, 15]

221
The Perfect (Circumstantial )
The perfect is a tenseless verb form that expresses completed action (aspect). It is an
easily recognizable ( ) verb form of suffix conjugation. The perfect and the stative
often have complementary uses. The negated perfect is primarily used for present tense
negation of an action, inability, or negation of necessity.
2-LIT. one does not know [Pr. II, 2], he said [Pr. II, 4],

we reached [Sh.S. 2], you reached [Sh.S. 113],

I presented [Urk. IV, 8, 1], I reached [Urk. IV, 10,

6], commanded [Bull Hunt Scarab, 10], I ordered [Urk.

IV, 618, 16]

2AE-GEM. saw [Semna Stela II, 14; Urk. IV, 7, 9; 9, 16],

he saw [Kamose Stela 2, 26], he sent [Kamose Stela 2, 26]

3-LIT. I stretched [Sh.S. 45], I heard [Sh.S. 56;

Harper II (vi, 2), 6], I captured [Semna Stela II, 14],

I caught sight of, I found [Kamose Stela 2, 8],

I destroyed [Kamose Stela 2, 17], they betrayed

[Kamose Stela 2, 18], I captured [Kamose Stela 2, 18],

he devastated [Kamose Stela 2, 22], he was fearful [Kamose Stela

2, 27], I established [Urk. IV, 3, 2], I

captured [Urk. IV, 3, 12], I fought [Urk. IV, 7, 8] I

deprived [Urk. IV, 613, 13], I joined [Urk. IV, 618, 3],

it contains [Harper I, 3], heard [Harper II (vi, 2), 6; II, 13]

222
3AE-INF. we passed [Sh. S. 9], I spent [Sh.S. 41;

Urk. IV, 2, 9], I hugged [Sh.S. 44], I found [Sh.S.

47; 61], I made [Sh.S 55; Semna Stela II, 4], I uncovered

[Sh.S. 59], he opened [Sh.S. 67], I carried off

[Semna Stela II, 14; Urk. IV, 4, 4; 4, 16; 5, 8; 6, 5; 7, 13; 7, 17], I set, made

[Semna Stela II, 4; Kamose Stela 2, 5] , one finds [Kamose

Stela 2, 25], I dispatched [Kamose Stela 2, 29],

I went down [Urk. IV, 4, 5], I crossed [Urk. IV, 4, 7; Urk. IV,

613, 9], he took possession of [Urk. IV, 5, 14], he

is tackled [Urk. IV, 616, 4], he is approached [Urk. IV, 615, 10]

4AE-INF. he died [Pr. II, 8], I am

negligent [Kamose Stela 2, 25], I sailed south [Kamose Stela 2,

30], he gathered [Urk. IV, 6, 12]

CAUS. 2-LIT. he forgets [Pr. I, 7]

CAUS. 3-LIT. I created [Sh.S. ], you have

erected [Urk. IV, 618, 12]

CAUS. 3AE-INF. I satisfied [Sh.S. 53]

ANOM. let [Pr. II, 3], I put down, I placed [Sh.S.

53, Semna Stela II, 4], he made [Sh.S. 113], I have

placed [Kamose Stela 2, 25; Urk. IV, 618, 5], I have come [Urk. IV, 614, 151]

1
Throughout the “Poem” appears many times and will not be explicitly indicated.

223
1
The Subjunctive (Prospective/Perfective

The subjunctive is a verb form of the suffix conjugation used for statements that are
dependent, feasible, or desirable. The subjunctive frequently occurs in conditional
sentences. The + subjunctive construction has causative meaning.
2-LIT. they could foretell [Sh.S. 31], you find,

know [Sh.S. 72; Urk. IV 2, 1], you will go [Sh.S. 122],

(being) aggressive [Semna Stela II, 12] , will open [Kamose Stela 2, 2],

I will cut down [Kamose Stela 2, 12], I know [Kamose

Stela 2, 20], fall [Urk. IV, 612, 17], will enter [Urk. IV, 613, 12],

he would calm [Harper II (vi, 2), 8]

2AE-GEM. they would look, will know/experience [Sh.S. 28-29;

Urk. IV, 615, 12], will see [Kamose Stela 2, 2; 2, 4], shall be
[Kamose Stela 2, 24]

3-LIT. you drink [Pr. I, 8], you are

summoned [Pr. II, 3], make sound [Sh.S. 1], you should

answer [Sh. S. 14], you live [Sh.S. 114], you will die

[Sh.S. 123], you maintain [Semna Stela II, 19],

you fight [Semna Stela II, 21], will conceive [Kamose Stela 2, 2],

I will leave (alone) [Kamose Stela 2, 10], you tread

[Kamose Stela 2, 11], I will destroy [Kamose Stela 2, 12],

we shall divide [Kamose Stela 2, 24], it is taken back

1
The negations are suppressed.
2
Throughout the “Poem” appears many times and will not be explicitly indicated.

224
[Kamose Stela 2, 27], will perish [Urk. IV, 2, 6],

one pulls/draws [Bull Hunt Scarab, 10], encompass [Urk. IV, 614, 4],

you will smash [Urk. IV, 615, 6], you will trample down [Urk. IV,

615, 12], you will bind [Urk. IV, 617, 13], may
you rejoice [Harper II (vi, 2), 9]

3AE-INF. you must speak [Sh.S. 15], pass [Semna

Stela I, 2], he is begotten [Semna Stela II, 18], one set

[Kamose Stela 2, 37], he was found [Urk. IV, 6, 2], you will

make [Urk. IV, 615, 3], would save [Harper II (vi, 2), 13]

4-LIT. you will trample (down) [Urk. IV, 613, 1; 614, 163]

4AE-INF. you sit [Pr. I, 3; I, 8], you must

answer [Sh. S. 15], you delay [Sh.S. 70], pass

[Semna Stela I, 6], I will drink [Kamose Stela 2, 11]

CAUS. 2-LIT. I shall tell [Sh.S. 21], you will shine

[Urk. IV, 615, 2], he would relate [Harper II (vi, 2), 8]

CAUS. 3AE-INF. you will rule [Urk. IV, 619, 2]

ANOM. , I make, (would) let, give, establish [Kamose Stela 2, 11; 2, 27;

Urk. IV 2, 1]

3
Same note for as in footnote 2.

225
The Perfective (Indicative/Perfective )1
The perfective is a verb form of the suffix conjugation, carries no inherent tense or mood,
and expresses the action itself. The perfective almost always refers to the past and is
usually translated by past tense. The negated perfective is complementary to the perfect
and is used to express the negation of completed or past actions.
2-LIT. we reached [Sh.S. 8; 11], stirred [Kamose Stela 2, 8],

I cut down [Kamose Stela 2, 12], I attacked [Kamose Stela 2,

21], entered [Kamose Stela 2, 14]

2AE-GEM. it is seen [Sh.S. 73], there is [Bull Hunt

Scarab 5; Urk. IV, 613, 6; Harper II (vi, 2), 5; II (vii 2) 2]

3-LIT. they stood [Pr. II, 7], was raised [Sh. S.

34], he set down [Sh.S. 78], they come to pass, existed

[Kamose Stela 2, 4; Urk. IV, 7, 6; Harper II (vi, 2), 7], I destroyed

[Kamose Stela 2, 12], I carried off [Kamose Stela 2, 13], I

spared [Kamose Stela 2, 10], I burned [Kamose Stela 2, 17],

he chooses [Kamose Stela 2, 22]

3AE-INF. it made [Sh.S. 35], survived [Sh.S. 38], he

brought [Sh.S], he carried [Sh.S. 77], he was

hurt [Sh.S. 79], questioned [Kamose Stela 2, 31], weep

[Kamose Stela 2, 31], I carried off, brought back [Urk. IV, 3, 13; 4, 1; 7, 15; 9,
17]

4AE-INF. they sat [Pr. II, 7]

CAUS. 2-LIT. it was reported [Urk. IV, 1-10]

1
The negations are suppressed.

226
ANOM. he put [Sh.S. 76], were given [Urk. IV, 5, 2; 5, 11]

227
The Imperfective(Circumstantial/Perfective/Imperfective )
The imperfective is a verb form of the suffix conjugation and expresses the imperfect:
repetitive, ongoing, continual, or incomplete action. As such it is specifically used for
actions that carry a general sense or actions that are generally true. The subject-
imperfective construction is used to express generalizations.
2-LIT. they could foretell [Sh.S. 31], you are

silent [Pr. II, 1], he is attacked [Semna Stela II, 8],

it is said [Kamose Stela 2, 34], it consumes [Urk. IV, 613, 17],

it cuts off [Urk. IV, 614, 1], I will spread/lay low [Urk. IV, 614, 17],

he says [Harper I, 1]

2AE-GEM. you exist [Harper II (vi, 2), 9]

3-LIT. reproached [Pr. I, 5], it quenches

[Pr. I, 5], stands for [Pr. I, 6], you (are) questioned

[Sh.S. 15], it saves [Sh.S. 18], will be heard

[Kamose Stela 2, 3], you see [Kamose Stela 2, 21],

recounted [Kamose Stela 2, 28], I slept [Urk.IV, 2, 16],

I bind (enemies) [Urk. IV, 612, 14], I bind

together [Urk. IV, 612, 15], you will trample down [Urk. IV, 613,

4], you will overwhelm [Urk. IV, 613, 8], totter [Urk. IV,

614, 3], you display [Urk. IV, 615, 8]

3AE-INF. he was carried [Urk. IV, 4, 6], I

will extend [Urk. IV, 612, 13], it makes [Urk. IV, 613, 16]

4-LIT. roams [Pr. I, 7]

228
4AE-INF. passes, [Pr. I, 7], you speak

[Sh.S. 74], was besieged [Urk. IV, 3, 7], I marvel

[Urk. IV, 612, 6]

CAUS. 2-LIT. it strengthens [Pr. I, 6], I establish

[Urk. IV, 612, 5]

CAUS. 3-LIT. it destroys [Urk. IV, 613, 15]

CAUS. 3AE-INF. I will increase [Urk. IV, 612, 10],

ANOM. it makes[Sh.S. 19; Urk. IV, 615, 15], , I put/make

[Kamose Stela 2, 4; 2, 7; Urk. IV, 612, 7; 612, 8; 612, 11; 612, 17; 613, 14; 614, 4; 614,

10; 614, 161], they come [Urk. VI, 614, 7]

1
Same note for as in footnote 2.

229
The Prospective ( Perfective/Imperfective )
The prospective is a rare verb form of the suffix conjugation expressing an action that has
yet to happen.
3AE-INF. free (of) [Pr. I, 10]

ANOM. I shall make [Sh. S. 72]

The Passive (Nominal/Circumstantial Passive )

The passive is a verb form that shares many features with the perfect, in particular, it
expresses completed action. In voice it is complementary to the perfect. The passive suffix
is (or ) added directly to the verb stem.
3-LIT. power be given [Pr. I, 11], you be opposed

[Pr.], has been taken [Sh.S. 3], is thanked [Sh.S. 5],

cut down [Semna Stela II, 15], were devastated [Kamose

Stela 2, 29], has been repeated [Urk. IV, 3, 16]

3AE-INF. is praised [Pr. I, 1], has been staked [Sh.S. 4],

gone [Semna Stela II, 15], plundered [Semna Stela II, 15],

was reported [Urk. IV, 4, 8], were carried off [Urk. IV, 7, 4;

9, 2], was made [Urk. IV, 9, 1]

4-LIT. was raised up [Pr. II, 8]

4AE-INF. will be united [Urk. VI, 612, 12]

CAUS. 3-LIT. made to be broad [Urk. IV, 618, 13]

CAUS. 3AE-INF. made to be long [Urk. IV, 618, 13]

ANOM. was made [Pr. II, 8], is given, is allowed [Sh.S. 5; Harper

II (vii 2), 2] , was put [Urk. IV, 9, 6]

230
The verb forms are marked by the special suffixes and thereby
easily recognizable. The and the verb forms usually express
sub/consequent actions whereas the form is used to express necessity. The
verb form is used only is specific constructions to be detailed in the text.
2-LIT. he then said [Sh.S 111; Kamose Stela 2, 36],

until completed [Sh.S, 119] then commanded [Bull Hunt Scarab, 11-12],

until we rush [Harper II (vi, 2), 8]

3-LIT. before it happened [Sh.S. 32], until you

arrive [Kamose Stela 2, 23], before we fought [Kamose

Stela 2, 26], before I reached [Kamose Stela 2, 26],

then enraged [Urk. IV, 8, 13], then remained [Bull Hunt Scarab,
13]

3AE-INF. I have not made (yet) [Urk. IV, 2, 15]

ANOM. before it came [Sh.S. 31]

231
Participles

2-LIT. what has been ordained (perfective passive) [Pr. 2, 5],

active) [Semna Stela I, 1], , who attacks (active) [Semna Stela

II, 8], who is driven (passive) [Semna Stela II, 10],

broken (perfective passive) [Semna Stela II, 12], who will abandon

(prospective) [Semna Stela II, 19] who will not (prospective) [Semna

Stela II, 20], seized wrongly (perfective passive) [Kamose Stela 2, 2],

one who did not come into being/happen (negated) [Urk. IV, 6, 14],

who built (perfective active) [Harper II (vi, 2), 5]

2AE-GEM. who existed (perfective active) [Kamose Stela 2, 16],

which had been (perfective active) [Kamose Stela 2, 28]

3-LIT. he who is greedy (active) [Pr. I, 7], what (may)

happen (active) [Pr. 2, 1], bent (passive) [Sh. S. 66], which has

evolved (active) [Semna Stela II, 2], who is not slumbering

(negated) [Semna Stela II, 7], one who is thoughtful of (perfective active)

[Semna Stela II, 7], steady (perfective active) [Semna Stela II, 7],

merciless (negated) [Semna Stela II, 8], who begot

(active) [Semna Stela II, 19], who conceives (active) [Kamose Stela 2, 8],

punisher (active) [Kamose Stela 2, 24; 34], which was left

(perfective active) [Kamose Stela 2, 27], who endures (perfective active)

[Kamose Stela 2, 34], that came [Urk. IV, 2, 1], smitten (passive)

232
[Urk. IV, 4, 4], one who is estranged (passive) [Urk. IV, 6, 12; Urk. IV,

613, 1], that goes around (active) [Urk. IV, 613, 9], who evolved (active)

[Urk. IV, 618, 13; 618, 15], who evolved (active) [Harper II (vi, 2), 4]

3AE-INF. he who transgresses (active) [Pr. I, 3], who brought

(perfective active) [Sh. S. 69], made (perfective passive) [Semna Stela I, 1;

Kamose Stela 2, 17], done (imperfective passive) [Semna Stela II, 5],

who seized (active) [Kamose Stela 2, 34], that which was reported

(perfective passive) [Urk. IV, 3, 14], done (perfective passive) [Urk. IV, 6, 9],

one who enters/intruder (active) [Urk. IV, 8, 7], who faces

(aggressively) (imperfective active) [Urk. IV, 613, 6], that hurls/scatters/shoots

(perfective active) [Urk. IV, 615, 14], who grasps (perfective active) [Urk. IV, 617,

9], who does (perfective active) [Urk. IV, 618, 11] who shines (perfective

acive) [Bull Hunt Scarab, 2], who strikes (perfective active) [Bull Hunt Scarab, 3],

who sings (active) [Harper I, 8], what has become (passive) [Harper

II (vi, 2), 5], who departs (perfective active) [Harper II (vii, 2), 2]

4-LIT. who overthrew (active) [Kamose Stela 2, 34]

CAUS. 2-LIT. what has been bequeathed (passive) [Semna Stela II,

5], who establishes (perfective active) [Bull Hunt Scarab, 2]

CAUS. 3-LIT. who strengthens (active) [Semna Stela II, 9],

he who will maintain (prospective) [Semna Stela II, 17],

233
who guards (active) [Semna Stela II, 19], who

pacifies (perfective active) [Bull Hunt Scarab 3], who keeps alive (active)
[Harper I, 6]

ANOM. has been given (passive) [Semna Stela I, 1; Semna Stela II, 2],

that makes (imperfective active) [Semna Stela II, 12], they/those who let

(perfective active) [Kamose Stela 2, 18], put/place (perfective passive) [Urk. IV,

7, 6], who came (perfective active) [Urk. IV, 614, 10],

who comes back (perfective active) [Harper II (vii, 2), 2]

234
Relative Forms

2-LIT. I said (perfective) [Pr. 2, 5], we reached

(nonattributive perfect) [Sh. S. 8], whom you know (perfect) [Sh. S. 121],

what (I) say (imperfective) [Semna Stela II, 5], he falls

(imperfective) [Semna Stela II, 12] I speak (nonattributive) [Semna Stela II,

16], that I decreed (nonattributive perfective) [Urk. IV, 613, 2; 613, 10]

3-LIT. he punishes (nonattributive perfective) [Pr. 2, 2],

he understood (nonattributive perfective) [Pr. 2, 3],

you should answer (nonattributive perfective) [Sh. S. 16-17], that happened

(perfective active) [Sh. S. 22], what evolves (perfective) [Semna Stela II, 6],

listens (nonattributive) [Semna Stela II, 11], lives (nonattributive)

[Semna Stela II, 16], you maintain (nonattributive perfective)

[Semna Stela II, 21], you fight (nonattributive perfective) [Semna

Stela II, 21], endures (nonattributive) [Kamose Stela 2, 10],

pressed out (nonattributive) [Kamose Stela 2, 12], you become

(nonattributive) [Kamose Stela 2, 20], set (perfective) [Kamose Stela 2, 37],

had slain (nonattributive perfect) [Urk. IV, 5, 4], reached

(nonattributive perfective) [Urk. IV, 9, 10], I shine (nonattributive)

[Urk. IV, 612, 1], will endow (nonattributive) [Urk. IV, 612, 3],

235
they hear (nonattributive) [Urk. IV, 613, 11], whom I begot

(perfect) [Urk. IV, 618, 10], that happened (perfective) [Bull Hunt Scarab, 4-5]

3AE-INF. what (god) does (imperfective) [Pr. 2, 2],

we passed (nonattributive perfect) [Sh. S. 9], you should speak

(nonattributive perfective) [Sh. S. 15], (perfective) [Semna Stela II, 2],

(imperfective) [Semna Stela II, 5], made (perfective) [Semna Stela

II, 18; 21], he is born (nonattributive perfective) [Semna Stela II, 18;

20], caused (perfect) [Semna Stela II, 20], that you make (perfective)

[Kamose Stela 2, 1], that they have made (perfective) [Kamose Stela 2, 18],

has done (perfect) [Kamose Stela 2, 21; Kamose Stela 2, 37],

that he has done (nonattributive perfect) [Kamose Stela 2, 22], what I have

done (perfect) [Kamose Stela 2, 28], I will perform (nonattributive

imperfective) [Kamose Stela 2, 38], that which he has done (perfect) [Urk.

IV, 2, 5], I was brave (nonattributive) [Urk. IV, 3, 4],

that I made (perfect) [Urk. IV, 10, 4], what encircles (imperfective

active) [Urk. IV, 617, 7], what he sees (imperfective active) [Urk. IV, 617,

9], what he desires (imperfective active) [Urk. IV, 617, 9], my

beloved (imperfective active) [Urk. IV, 618, 9], what desires [Urk. IV, 618, 12],

whom he loved (perfect) [Harper I, 7]

4AE-INF. I went further south (nonattributive perfective)

[Semna Stela II, 4]

236
CAUS. 3-LIT. you have built (nonattributive perfect) [Urk. IV, 618, 12]

ANOM. what he gives (perfective) [Pr. I, 10], that it comes

(nonattributive imperfective) [Pr. 2, 9], what I might put (perfective) [Sh. S.

46], he gives/shows (imperfective) [Semna Stela II, 12; Kamose Stela 2, 34],

there comes (nonattributive perfective) [Harper II (vi, 2), 13]

237
Dictionary

, moment (of
attack), instant summon
pale, blanch , old age
long East
extend, stretch eastern, easterner
leopard, panther grapes
, month mourning, plural
wailings
bird
leeks, vegetables
gluttony,
intemperance, voracity; with the mound
determinative glutton, gourmand, pestilence,
gastronome, chowhound affliction, pouring rain
burn up come, return
seize, grasp wash
grasp , moon, Thoth
drive away ( from) (particle)
field island
akh reward, endow
uraeus-serpent flesh, meat
Inundation (season) ,
exaggeration
fever of appetite, greed
bow
perish
desert bowman
be savage, be aggressive,
be angry sanctuary
conceive (child)

238
ground do, make, pass/spend (time)
heart, mind , companion
be thirsty , (hereditary)
prince, member of the elite
thirst
wine
think, suppose
, cattle
Apophis (Hyksos ruler)
go (imperative)
Karnak, lit. Most Select of Place(s)
Izy (probably Cyprus)
kind, gentle
crew
honored
(noun)
grace, charm plunder, booty, easy prey

, , overseer excellent, trustworthy

ancestors, lit. cup, jar

those who are in before
, , father
ship
(fore)fathers, ancestors
Amun
, take (possession of),
West take away; avert attention

western, westerner sovereign

fetch, bring, get willow

produce, products oppose, be in opposition

eyebrows pull, draw

, Cynopolis rain

valley stand for, replace, serve

instead of
wall
(independent pronoun) I
also (preposition) hand, arm ( with, from)
with respect to, toward, against, from,
according to, if, as for great, big, important
here

239
Asiatic many
horn multitude of
persons, company of guests
command (ship)
enter; astound
boast
strain mash, press wine
become excited
safe
equip, provide
fat
throw-
stick desert edge, margin of
cultivation
again
turn/bring/come back,
return
region
live
fall; fall into
person, citizen condition
lph wave
myrrh Wawat (northern end
of) Lower Nubia
enclose, include, bag
set, place, remain, last,
bend endure, leave/set aside, ignore
know, perceive, gain full dominion
knowledge of, be wise
, Thebes
fight
, road, path, way
warrior
green, fresh
stand, attend, go on duty
sea (the
ships; the Mediterranean or the Red Sea), lit. the
fleet great blue-green
extinguish (fire) thrust aside, set aside,
quench (thirst) push away

fly (number) one

cedar be alone
soldier

240
rise, shine broad, wide
burn roam, travel freely
open, split, part (intransitive) fall out, be
destroyed; (transitive) desolate (a place)
, the opener
of ways desolation
, message, answer
mission, assignment
address, question
messenger
Utjentiu
open (unidentified region)
eat fugitive
exist, be beget
reality, true place, set, throw, shoot
being (arrow)
put on (dress), be late, dwadle
clothed
command, assign, bestow,
hold (of ship) ordain, decree
, great, much, many, elder, , stela
important
hale, prosperous,
very uninjured, be whole, intact
chariot take heart,
may it please you, introducing news;
(verb) weary, tire
from make
fail, miss, escape your heart sound
heartless,
cruel
pluck flowers/plants
might, impressiveness
repeat
cargo ship, galley
repetition
hole, hiding place
seek
presence;
(verb) strong, powerful; in the presence of
(noun) power, might

241
moringa-oil do in the past
(made from seeds of the moringa-tree)
creation, original time
(adjective-verb)
weary, lazy
Pjedku (canal at Avaris)
honey
fine linen
, king of Lower Egypt
cataract
character, qualities
come/go up, emerge,
(verb) issue; go to
wonder, marvel
Per-Hathor
(noun) (Gebelein)
miracle, marvel (also used for luxories)
Growing (season)
mining region,
mine reach, catch, attack

bad, evil end

falcon strength

place split, break open

harp plank

hunt turn, go around, course

through
town in Delta, Edfu
divide
(transitive) introduce;
(intransitive) enter back, spine

flame who, what

rebellion bow

become faint, weak, troop of soldiers

exhausted

raise, lift up, carry,

(intransitive) run, overrun; (transitive) support; sail lit. carry the wind
abandon, forsake
, nose
loose, leave, depart,
abandon, destroy, fall to ruins
sky

242
(adjective-verb) firm,
established, remain; fixed to,
attached to
, (preposition) in
mooring stake
overseer, steward
,
(interrogative pronoun) who
successful, fortunate
lion
trees, plantation
see, regard;
turquoise
look at
moor, move
, true, proper,
slowly/quickly, move about, quake
correct
herd (of cattle)
justified
Memphis
(goddess) Maat
beneficient, functional,
new thing
worthwile
burn
,
Beduin
tomb
pyramid
(preposition) like
love, desire, want
likeness
(river) bank, shore, quay
moor, die
love
axe
servants
brave
cubit (52.5 cm or 20.6 inches)
path
fill, be full of
Mitanni
hold
(kingdom east of the Euphrates)
seize, capture
water
forgetful, neglectful
mother
(adjective-verb) concerned;
die
(noun) care
(preposition) among
northwind

243
northern bind (enemies)
mouthful town
wake, aftermath all, each, every, any
bring, present gold
anoint gold of
valor
indeed
Two Ladies
child, offspring
birth (plural noun) evil of character, enemies
of Egypt
totter
beautiful, good, fine
dislike, hate
beauty, perfection,
army, expeditionary force
happiness
,
rob, steal, seize wrongly
inexperienced/young warrior
butcher block
modest, regular,
correct, straightforward, precise, (particle) not, no
trustworthy, loyal
fear
word, matter, affair
(noun) fear,
(noun) speech dread
(verb) speak, talk loss, need
a mere trifle
Naharin (Mesopotamia)
(particle) not, no
save, take away, carry
call, summon
off
stammer
, eternity,
sail, travel by boat forever, eternal/continual repetition
Nubian
peek, glimpse, peer
protection, defense, aid
wave, swell
Nekheb (present day
rope El Kab)

244
against, from, according to
, victorious, mighty,
successful; (noun) victory mouth, opening, speech, spell
victory, valor, , Re, Son (god)
strength
firm
uraeus
temple, chapel, shrine
seat, throne
fish
flame
weep
king
tears
King of the Upper and
Lower Egypt as far as

tempest, people
rainstorm
men, mankind
some, few, little
name
notched
year
sycamore figs
(adjective-verb) young
(relative adjective) who, which;
learn, know
that, that which exists
knowledge
god
entirely,
divine
quite
save, protect
, southern
greet
, south
(adjective-verb) sweet
watch, guard
protector, savior,
game, abundance
avenger
joy
commoner;
time, era
from little
incline, turn aside, defy
enmity, tilting (of
balance)
also (preposition) opponent
with respect to, toward,

245
beside, in the presence (noun) front, beginning, prow
of (of a ship)
Retjenu prow-rope
(Lebanon)
leader, lit. who is in front
foot
local prince, nomarch,
, give, put, cause mayor, commander, lord, high official,
lit. he whose arm is in front
seek, pursue
come/go down, head (
for) body (usually in plural)
time, vicinity, become excited, aroused
area, affairs
enclosure
law
hit, strike, smite
roaring,
battle cry plunder

, day, daytime, wretched,

(day’s) duty miserable, poor

be quiet, at peace Avaris (Hyksos

(noun) speech, word capital in the Delta)

flame, scorch embrace

Apis bull
runner
, (preposition)
behind, around snake

tomb incarnation, majesty

stife, woman, wife

rebellion, civil war
flee, retreat, retire
wealth, increase,
coward
excess, surplus
retreat
festival
steering-oar, rudder
plunder, loot
female servant
plunder
servant

246
sit, sit down, besiege singer
rush, hurry, attack song
(preposition) with count
mistress regnal year
narrow bronze
be greedy, covetous wild
tomb , ruler
face praise
(preposition) (up)on (intransitive, adjective-verb)
content, calm, pleased, happy, peaceful;
(up)on in peace, safety; (transitive) set,
rest, satisfy
(noun) middle
offerings
, master
of the privy matters, lit. he who is over perish
the secrets
(span of) horses
chief, nomarch
(adjective-verb) bright, white
sky, upland
silver
travel by land, march
damage
why
destroy, injure, disobey (heart)
Horus
destruction
apart from, besides
sky
terror, dread , thing, property

name of the Semna fortress fire

favor thousand

bless, praise measure, probe

turn back; face dusk, evening

(aggressively) desert hills/land, foreign
sing land

247
, first
before (of time) lit. upon the
hand figs

journey control, subdue,

uraeus pursue, suppress

Atfih self-denial,
restraint, self-control
move/force away, drive
back, expel , give, put, cause

, not do kill, destroy,

dispose of, show partiality
(adjective-verb) complete
praise, worship, thank
grow old
morning, tomorrow
time, season
go astray, stray, transgress, star/conductor of the Two
overstep (path) Lands
be drunk stretch out,
straighten knees
drive off, penetrate,
perforate ask for, beg
Libya ship
approach, draw near crocodile
attackers bind together
stretch
wing
young, nestling
reach, touch
male, man
town, quarter, abode,
air, wind, breath harbor, quay
veil unite, gather,
total, sum
tie, knot
total
vizier
cut off (head)
number, quantity

248
share, portion finger
subdue/repel (enemies), replace
drive out, expel ( in exchange for)
bow, appoint ten-thousand
knife point the finger ( at),
reproach
red
provisions
look, glance, see, behold
(verb) end up, (preposition)
walk, tread since, (noun) limit
bird of prey, kite,
sparrow-hawk
fire drill, fire stick
self
remainder
Baharia Oasis
cross (water), ferry
forever, eternity
young men
say
Djahi (Palestine, Syria and
recitation
northern Mesopotamia)
(adjective-verb) stable,
(wind)storm
steady
evil

249
General Bibliography

J. P. Allen, Middle Egyptian, An Introduction to the Language and Culture of

Hieroglyphs, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
A. M. Blackman, Middle-Egyptian Stories, 1932.
J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vols. I-V, University of Illinois Press, 2001.
A. de Buck, Egyptian readingbook, 2nd ed, Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije
Oosten, 1963.
A. Erman, Die Literatur der Ägypter, Leipzig, 1923; The Literature of the Ancient
Egyptians, London, 1927 (English translation by A. M. Blackman).
R. O. Faulkner, A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford,
2002.
A. H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, Griffith Institute, 1927.
B. Gunn, The Instruction of Ptah-Hotep and the Instruction of Ke’gemni, The Oldest
Books in the World, London-New York, 1909.
W. W. Hallo (Editor), The Context of the Scripture, Vols. I-II, Brill, 2003.
J. E. Hoch, Middle Egyptian Grammar, Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities
Publications, 15, Mississauga: Benben Publications, 1996.
M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol. I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms; Vol.
II: The New Kingdom, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974, 1976.
R. B. Parkinson, Voices from Ancient Egypt, An Anthology of Middle Kingdom
Writings, The British Museum Press, 1991.
J. B. Pritchard (Editor), The Ancient Near East, Vols. I-II, Princeton University Press,
1958.
K. Sethe, Ägyptische Lesestücke zum Gebrauch im akademischen Unterricht: Texte des
Mittleren Reiches, 67. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1928.
K. Sethe, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie, Hinrichs, Leipzig, 1906.
W. K. Simpson (Editor), The Literature of Ancient Egypt, The American University of
Cairo Press, 2005.

250
Selected Specific Bibliography1

The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni

Text: Papyrus Prisse, Bibliothèqe Nationale, Paris; G. Jéquier, Le Papyrus Prisse et ses
variants, Pl. I, Paris, 1911; A. Scharff, ZÄS, 77 (1941-42) 13-21; A. H. Gardiner, JEA,
32 (1946) 71-74; Sethe, Lesestücke, pp. 42-43 (abridged).
Commentaries/Grammar: J.W.B. Barnes, JEA 58 (1972) 159-160; W. Federn,
JEA, 36 (1950) 48-50; A. H. Gardiner, JEA, 32 (1946) 71-74; A. H. Gardiner, JEA, 37
(1951) 109-110; G. Posener, RdE 6 (1951), 32-33; A. Scharff, ZÄS, 77 (1941-42) 13-21;
J. Yoyotte, BSFE 11 (1952) 210-226.
Translations: Bissing, Lebensweisheit, 52-53; Erman, pp. 66-67; Gardiner (1946)
op. cit.; Gunn, pp. 61-64; Lichtheim, pp. 59-61; Simpson, pp. 149-151 (additional
references in the Bibliography).

The story of the Shipwrecked Sailor

Text: Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; de Buck, pp. 100-106; Blackman, pp. 41-48;
Erman, ZÄS, 43 (1906) 1-26; W. Golenischeff, Papyrus hiératiques, pls. 1-8. W.
Golenischeff, Le conte du naufragé, Bibliothèque d’étude, 2 (Cairo, 1912).
Commentaries/Grammar: A. M. Blackman, Notes on certain passages in various
Middle Egyptian texts, JEA,16, no.1/2 (1930) 63-72; G. Burkard, Überlegungen zur
Form der ägyptischen Literatur, die Geschichte des Schiffbrüchigen als literarisches
Kunstwerk, ÄUAT 22, Wiesbaden, 1993; A. H. Gardiner, ZÄS, 45 (1908) 65; Keimer,
Acta Or., 6 (1928), 288.
1
If the reference is already given in the General Bibliography, we provide here only the minimum
information needed. Simpson has an extensive Bibliography for the texts that are included in that volume.

251
Translations: Brunner-Traut, Märchen, pp. 5-10; de Buck, pp. 100-106; Erman, pp.
29-35; Keimer, Lefebvre, Romans, 29-40; Lichtheim, pp. 211-215; Simpson, pp. 45-53.

Two Boundary Stelae of Senwosret III

Text: Berlin Museum 1157; Khartoum Museum 3 (Uronarti Stela); Ägyptische
Inschriften, I, Leipzig (1913-1924) 257-258; J. Janssen, JNES, 12 (1953) 51-55
(Uronarti Stela); Sethe, Lesestücke, pp. 83-84.
Commentaries/Grammar: Ch. J. Eyre, The Semna Stelae: Quotation, Genre and
Functions of Literature, in Sarah Israelit-Groll (editor), Studies of Egyptology Presented
to Miriam Lichtheim I, Jerusalem, 1990, 134-165; W. Helck, Grenzsteine, LÄ II (1976)
897; J. Janssen, JNES, 12 (1953) (Uronarti Stela).
Translation: Breasted, §§653-660; Parkinson, pp. 43-46.
The Second Stela of Kamose
Text: Luxor Museum; L. Habachi, The Second Stela of Kamose and his Struggle
against the Hyksos Ruler and his Capital, Abhandlungen DAIK 8, Glückstadt, 1972.
Commentaries/Grammar: W. Helck, Historisch-biographische Texte der 2.
Zwischenzeit, 82-97G.; G. Posener, RdE 33 (1981), 138-140; Habachi, op. cit.; W.
Helck, Historisch-Biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit und Neue Texte der 18.
Dynastie, 2nd rev. ed., Wiesbaden, (1983) 82-98; H.S. Smith, A.Smith, A reconsideration
of the Kamose texts, ZÄS 103 (1976) 48-76.
Translations: Habachi, op. cit.; Pritchard, II, pp. 89-93;
The Autobiography of Admiral Ahmose
Text: Tomb of Ahmose, El Kab; Sethe, Urkunden IV, 1-10;
Commentaries/Grammar: C. Vandersleyen, Les Guerres d’Amosis, foundateur de
la XVIIIe dynastie, Monographies Reine Élisabeth, 1, Brussels (1971) 17-87;
Translations: Breasted, §§1-16, 38-39; 78-82; B. Gunn, A. H. Gardiner, JEA, 5
(1918) 48-54; Lichtheim, pp. 12-15; Pritchard, I, pp. 173-175; J. A. Wilson, ANET
233-234 (excerpts).

The Poetical Stela of Thutmose III

252
Text: Cairo Museum 34010; de Buck, pp. 53-56; Sethe, Urkunden IV, 611-619;
Commentaries/Grammar: P. Lacau, Stèles du nouvel empire, Vol. I, Catalogue
général …du Musée du Caire, Cairo, pp. 17-21, pl. vii; J. A. Wilson, ANET, 373-375.
Translations: Breasted, §§655-662; Erman, 254-258; Lacau, op. cit.; Wilson, op.
cit.; Simpson, 258-288 (poem only).

The Bull Hunt Scarab of Amenhotep III

Text: Cleveland Museum of Art; de Buck, pp. 65-66; G. Fraser, A catalogue of the
scarabs belonging to George Fraser, London. Bernard Quaritch. 1900;
Commentaries/Grammar: R. Ritner, JEA 72 (1986)193-4; C. Blankenberg-Van
Delden, The Large Commemorative Scarabs of Amenhotep III, 1969; D. O’Connor and
Eric Cline (Eds.), Amenhotep III, Perspective on His Reign, 2001.
Translations: Breasted, II, §§863-864.
Two Harper’s Songs
Text: Cairo Museum; Ramesside Papyrus Harris 500 British Museum 10060;
Cemeteries of Abydos, II, pl. xxiii, 5; W. Budge, Facsimiles, pls. xlv-xlvi, pp 23-24;
Hoch, Leiden Museum; 232-234; Holwerda-Boeser, Beschreibung, Vol. IV, pl. 6; M.
Lichtheim, The songs of the harpers, JNES 4 (1945) 178-212; pls. 1-7; Müller,
Liebespoesie, pls. xii-xvi pp. 29-30; Sethe, 87;
Commentaries/Grammar: Budge, op. cit.; Michael V. Fox, The entertainment
song genre in Egyptian Literature, Egyptological Studies,: Scripta Hierosolymitana 28
(1982 268-316; Lichtheim, op. cit.; Lichtheim, 193-197; Müller, op. cit.;
Translations: J. H. Breasted, The Dawn of Conscience, New York (1933) 163-164; F.
Daumas, La civilisation de l’Egypte pharaonique, Paris, 1965 404-405; Erman, 133-134;
M. Lichtheim, 194-197; J. A. Wilson, ANET, 467-468; Simpson, pp. 332-333.

253