UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap
Introduction:
semiconductors – Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic
semiconductors - Carrier concentration in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation
of carrier concentration with temperature – Carrier transport in Semiconductors: Drift,
mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and devices – Ohmic contacts – Schottky diode.

A semiconductor is a solid which has the resistivity in between the conductor and the insulator. It
act as insulator at low temperature and act as conductors at high temperature. Examples:
Germanium, Silicon, GaAs, InP, etc. The resistivity of semiconductors are from 10-4 to 0.5 ohm
– metre. The study of semiconducting materials is essential for engineers due to their wide
application in semiconductor devices in engineering and technology.

Properties of semiconductors:

 The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meters.

 At 0K, they behave as insulators.
 They empty conduction band and almost filled valence band.
 The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and impurities.
 They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take part in conduction.

Classification of semiconductors:
Based on composition they are classified as

(i) Elemental semiconductors (ii) Compound semiconductors

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
(i) Elemental semiconductors: They are made from a single element of fourth group
elements of the periodic table. They are also called as indirect band gap semiconductors.
Examples: Germanium, Silicon, Diamond.

(ii) Compound semiconductors: They are formed by combining third and fifth group
elements or second and sixth group elements in the periodic table. They are also called as direct
band gap semiconductors. Examples: GaP, GaAs, MgO, ZnO, ZnS.

S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors

1 They are made up of single element. They are made up of compounds.
2 They are made from a single element They are formed by combining third and
of fourth group elements of the fifth group elements or second and sixth
periodic table. group elements in the periodic table.
3 They are called indirect band gap They are called as direct band gap
semiconductors. semiconductors.
4 Here heat is produced during Here the photons are emitted during
recombination. recombination.
5 Life time of charge carriers is more. Life time of charge carriers is less.
6 Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.
7 They are used in the manufacture of They are used for making LED’s, laser
diodes and transistors, etc. diodes, IC’s, etc.
8 Examples: Ge, Si, etc. Examples: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.

Types of semiconductors:
Depending on the impurity added, there are two types.
(i) Intrinsic semiconductor (or) pure semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor (or) impure semiconductors
(a) N-type semiconductor
(b) P-type semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor:

The semiconductor in extremely pure form, without addition of impurities is known as an

intrinsic semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor, holes and electrons are created by thermal
agitation. As there are no impurities the number of free electrons must be equal to the number of
holes. Examples: silicon and germanium.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

They belong to the fourth group element in the periodic table. They are tetravalent atoms since
they have four valence electrons. The neighboring atoms form covalent bonds by sharing four
electrons with each other so as to form a stable structure. At very low temperatures say 0 K, no
free electrons are available for conduction. Hence this semiconductor behaves as an insulator.

Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors:

The number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume of the material or the
number of holes in the valence band of the material is known as carrier concentration. It is also
known as density of charge carriers.

Calculation of density of electrons in conduction band:

The number of electrons in the energy interval E and E + dE is given by

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
dn = Z (E) F (E) dE ……………(1)

Where Z (E) dE → Density of energy states

F(E) → Electron probability occupancy.

The number of electrons in the conduction band for the entire region is calculated by integrating
the equation (1) from energy Ec to +∞.
+∞
n = ∫ dn = ∫𝐸𝑐 𝑍(𝐸)𝐹(𝐸)𝑑𝐸….. … (2)

Where
4𝜋
Z (E) dE = (2me*) 3/2E1/2dE ….…….(3)
ℎ3
The electrons in the conduction band are move in a periodic
potential , so m = me*
Where me* → Effective mass.
E c → The potential energy of an electron at rest.
E-E c → The kinetic energy of the conduction electron
at higher energy levels.

Equation (3) is modified as

4𝜋
Z(E)dE = (2me*) 3/2 (E- Ec) 1/2 dE …………(4)
ℎ3
1
Where F(E) = ………….(5)
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇

Substitute equation (4) and (5) in equation (2) we have

3 1
+∞ 4𝜋 1
n=∫𝑬𝒄 (2m∗e )2 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 dE
ℎ 3 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
3 1
4𝜋 +∞ 1
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 dE …………. (6)
ℎ 3 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇

Since kT is very small and𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 is very large compared to 1. 1 from the denominator of

equation (6) is neglected.

3 1
4𝜋 +∞
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 −(𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 dE
ℎ3

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
3 1
4𝜋 +∞
n= (2m∗e )2 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)/𝑘𝑇 dE
ℎ3
3 +∞ 1 𝐸
4𝜋
n= (2m∗e )2 𝑒 𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫𝑬𝒄 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇 dE …….….(7)
ℎ3

Take E − 𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍, dE = d𝓍, E = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝓍
When E = 𝐸𝑐 , 𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍 , 𝓍=0

When E =+ ,+ −𝐸𝑐 = 𝓍 , 𝓍= +

Substituting the above values in equation (7) we have

3 1
4𝜋 ∗ 2 𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 +∞ (𝓍)2 e−(Ec +𝓍)/𝑘𝑇 d𝓍
n= 3
(2me) 𝑒 ∫𝟎
ℎ

3 1
n=
4𝜋
(2m∗e )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 +∞
∫𝟎 (𝓍)2 e−𝑥/𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 … … … (8)
ℎ3

3 1
1 𝓍
+∞ −( ) (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
Using the gamma function,∫0 (𝓍)2 e 𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 = … … … (9)
2
3 1
3 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
4𝜋
Substituting equation (9) in equation (8) we have n = (2m∗e )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇
ℎ3 2

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
n = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ……..(10)
ℎ2

This is the expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Calculation of density holes in the valence band:
If an electron is transferred from valence band to conduction band, a hole is created in the
valence band. Let dP be the number of holes in the valence band for the energy range E and
E+dE dP = Z(E) (1-F(E))dE ………….(1)
Where 1-F(E) → Probability of an unoccupied electron state i.e., presence of a hole
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
1 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
1-F(E) = 1 - [ (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) ] 1-F(E) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) 1-F(E) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ) …………(2)
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
E is very small compared to 𝐸𝐹 , 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 is very small. So the second term in the denominator of
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
equation (2) is neglected. ie, 1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ≈ 1

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
∴ 1-F(E) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …………(3)
4𝜋
Density of states in the valence band Z (E) dE = ℎ3 (2mh*) 3/2 E1/2 dE ………….(4)

Where mh* → Effective mass of the hole in the valence band.

E v → the potential energy of a hole at rest.
Ev - E → the kinetic energy of the hole at level below Ev.
4𝜋
∴Equation (4) is modified as Z(E)dE = ℎ3 (2mh*) 3/2 (Ev - E) 1/2 dE …………(5)

Substitute equation (3) and (5) in equation (1) we have

3 1 (E−EF )
4𝜋
dP = (2m∗h )2 (Ev − E)2 e kT dE …………(6)
ℎ3

Integrating equation (6) with respect to limit -∞ to Ev

3 1 (E−EF )
𝑬 4𝜋
∫ dP = ∫−∞𝒗 (2m∗h )2 (Ev − E)2 e kT dE
ℎ3
3 E 1 𝐸
4𝜋
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫−∞v(Ev − 𝐸 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 dE … … …...(7)
ℎ3

Take 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 = 𝓍 , dE = - d𝓍 , E = - 𝓍+𝐸𝑣
When E = 𝐸𝑣 , 𝓍 = 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣 , 𝓍 =0
When E = -∞ , 𝓍 = 𝐸𝑣 +∞, 𝓍 = + ∞
Substituting the above values in equation (7) we have
3 1 (−𝓍+Ev)
4𝜋 0
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹/𝑘𝑇 ∫∞ (𝓍)2 e kT (−d𝓍) ………(8)
ℎ3
3 1 (−𝓍)
4𝜋 ∞
P= (2m∗h )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ∫𝟎 (𝓍)2 e kT (d𝓍) ………(9)
ℎ3
3 1
1 𝓍 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
+∞ −( )
Using the gamma function,∫0 (𝓍)2 e 𝑘𝑇 d𝓍 = ..……(10)
2
3 1
3 (𝑘𝑇)2 π2
4𝜋
Substituting equation (10) in equation (9) we have P = (2mh∗ )2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ3 2
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT
P = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 …………(11)
ℎ2

This is the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Intrinsic carrier concentration:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
equal to the concentration of the holes in the valence band. We can rewrite n = p = ni
Where ni → Intrinsic carrier concentration
np = ni X ni and np = ni2
3/2
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 2𝜋m∗h kT
∴ ni2 = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 × 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2 ℎ2

2𝜋kT 3
ni2 = 4( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/2 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2

2𝜋kT 3
ni2 = 4( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/2 𝑒 (−𝐸𝑔 )/𝑘𝑇
ℎ2

where 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 , 𝐸𝑔 → Forbidden energy gap

2𝜋kT 3/2
∴ ni = 2( ) (m∗e m∗h )3/4 𝑒 (−𝐸𝑔)/2𝑘𝑇 ……….(12)
ℎ2

Limitations of intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors cannot be directly used to fabricate devices due to the following
limitations;

(i) Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 Ω−1 𝑚−1 which is nearly
107 times smaller than that of copper.
(ii) Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases exponentially as the
temperature increases.
In intrinsic or pure semiconductors, the carrier concentration of both electrons and holes is very
low at normal temperatures. In order to get sufficient current density through semiconductor, a
large electrical field should be applied. This problem is overcome by adding suitable impurities
into intrinsic semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductor:
Impure semiconductors in which charge carriers are produced due to the impurity atoms
are called extrinsic semiconductors. It is also known as doped semiconductor. The addition of
impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and added impurity is called as doping
agent or dopant. The addition of impurities increases the number of free electrons and holes in
semiconductor and hence increases its electrical conductivity. Some of the common doping agents
are arsenic, aluminium and boron.

Depending on the impurity atom they are classified in to two types

(i) n- type semiconductor and (ii) p- type semiconductor

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
n- type semiconductor: They are obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
pentavalent impurity atoms like phosphorous and arsenic. The four valence electron of impurity
atom will be bonded with four valence electrons of semiconducting atom and one electron is free
which is responsible for conduction. Majority carriers are electrons.

p- type semiconductor: They are formed by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent
impurity atoms like Galium and Indium. The three valence electrons of the impurity atom pairs
with three valence electrons of the semiconductor and one position of the impurity atom is left free
(vacant). The excess holes produced are the majority carriers.

S.no Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

Semiconductor in a pure form is called Semiconductor which are doped with impurity is
1 intrinsic semiconductor. called Extrinsic semiconductor
Example: Si, Ge Example: Si, Ge doped with Al, In,P
The charge carriers are produced only due The charge carriers are produced due to impurities
2
to thermal agitation. and may also be produced due to thermal agitation.
3 They have low electrical conductivity They have high electrical conductivity.
4 They have low operating temperature. They have high operating temperature.
At 0 K, Fermi level exactly lies between At 0 K, Fermi level lies closer to conduction band
5 conduction band and valence band. in n-type semiconductor and lies near valence band
in p-type semiconductor.

S.no n- type Semiconductor p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor is obtained by p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an
1 doping an intrinsic semiconductor with intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent impurity.
pentavalent impurity.
Here electrons are majority carriers and Here holes are majority carriers and electrons are
2
holes are minority carriers. minority carriers.
It has donor energy level very close to It has acceptor energy level very close to valence
3
conduction band. band.
When the temperature is increased, these When the temperature is increased, these
semiconductors can easily donate an semiconductors can easily accept an electron from
4
electron from the donor energy level to the the valence band to acceptor energy level.
conduction band.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the
5 the donor level and the bottom of the acceptor level and the top of the valence band
(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 )
conduction band 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹 =
2 2
Fermi level decreases with increase of Fermi level increases with increase of temperature.
6
temperature.

n- type semiconductor:
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor. Such
impurities are known as donor impurities because they donate free electrons to the semiconductor
crystal. In n- type semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority
charge carriers.

Let us consider, pentavalent impurity phosphorus is added to silicon as shown in below

figure. Phosphorus atom has 5 valence electrons and silicon has 4 valence electrons. Phosphorus
atom has one excess valence electron than silicon. The four valence electrons of each phosphorus
atom form 4 covalent bonds with the 4 neighboring silicon atoms. The fifth valence electron of the
phosphorus atom cannot able to form the covalent bond with the silicon atom because silicon atom
does not have the fifth valence electron to form the covalent bond.

Thus, fifth valence electron of phosphorus atom does not involve in the formation of covalent
bonds. Hence, it is free to move and not attached to the parent atom. This shows that each
phosphorus atom donates one free electron. Therefore, all the pentavalent impurities are called
donors. The number of free electrons are depends on the amount of impurity (phosphorus) added
to the silicon. A small addition of impurity (phosphorus) generates millions of free electrons.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Carrier concentration in n- type semiconductor:
In an n-type semiconductor, the donor level is just below the conduction band. 𝑁𝑑 denotes
the donor concentration and 𝐸𝑑 denotes the energy of donor level.

Density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
n =2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ………..(1)
ℎ2

Density of ionized donors = 𝑁𝑑 (1- F(Ed))

1
= 𝑁𝑑 (1 − [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ])
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
= 𝑁𝑑 [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
= 𝑁𝑑 [ (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

If 𝐸𝐹 lies more than a few kT above donor levels. So the

denominator may be neglected.
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
∴ Density of ionized donors = 𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(2)

At equilibrium density of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the density of ionized
donors.
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(3)
ℎ2

Taking log on both sides, we get

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
log [2 ( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/𝑘𝑇 ] = log (𝑁𝑑 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ])
ℎ2

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑑

Rearranging, = log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2

2𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 𝑁𝑑

= log [ ∗ kT 3 ]
𝑘𝑇 2𝜋me
2( 2 )2
ℎ

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

𝑁𝑑
2𝐸𝐹 = (𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 ) + 𝑘𝑇 log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
]
2( )2
ℎ2

𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + log [ 2𝜋m∗e kT 3
] ……..(4)
2 2
2( )2
ℎ2

Substituting the expression of 𝐸𝐹 from equation (5) in (1)

𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ log [ 3 ] − 𝐸𝑐
2 2 2𝜋m∗e kT
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 2(
ℎ 2 )2
n = 2( ) exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇

[ ]

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑 𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 −2𝐸𝑐

n = 2( ) exp [2𝑘𝑇 log [ 3 ] + ]
ℎ2 2𝜋m∗e kT 2
2kT
2( )
ℎ2

2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 1 𝑁𝑑 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐

n = 2( ) exp [2 log [ 3 ] + ]
ℎ2 2𝜋m∗e kT 2
2kT
2( )
ℎ2

1
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 (Nd )2 ( 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 )
n = 2( ) exp [ log 3 + ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( e )
ℎ2

1
2𝜋m∗e kT 3/2 (Nd )2 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐
n = 2( ) 3 exp[ ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( e )
ℎ2

3
1
2𝜋m∗ kT 4 −∆E
n = (2Nd ) 2 ( ℎ2e ) exp[ 2kT ] where ∆E = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑑

∆E → Ionisation energy of the donor. ie, The amount of energy required to transfer an electron
from donor energy level 𝐸𝑑 to conduction band 𝐸𝑐 .
3
1
2𝜋m∗ kT 4 −∆E
n = (2Nd ) 2 ( ℎ2e ) exp[ 2kT ]

It is clear that the density of electrons in the conduction band is directly proportional to the
square root of donor concentration.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
p- type semiconductor:
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes
p- type semiconductor typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium and indium. Such
impurities are known as acceptor impurities because the holes they create can accept electrons. In
p- type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.

Let us consider, trivalent impurity boron is added to silicon as shown in below figure.
Boron atom has three valence electrons and silicon has four valence electrons. The three valence
electrons of each boron atom form 3 covalent bonds with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms. In the
fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron, while the boron atom has
no valence electron to contribute. Thus, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of
one electron. This missing electron is called hole. This shows each boron atom accept one electron
to fill the hole. Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors. A small addition of
impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.

Carrier concentration in p- type semiconductor:

In p-type semiconductors, the acceptor level is just above the valence band. Let𝐸𝑎 represent
the energy of the acceptor level, and 𝑁𝑎 represent the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume.
Density of holes per unit volume in the valence band is given by
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT
P = 2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ………..(1)
ℎ2

1
Density of ionized acceptors = 𝑁𝑎 F(𝐸𝑎 ) =𝑁𝑎 [ (𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝐹 ) ]
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
(𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝐹 )
Since 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝐹 >> kT, 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 is very large quantity and thus 1 can be neglected from the
denominator.
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎 )
∴ Density of ionized acceptors = 𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] ………(2)

At equilibrium density of holes in the valence band is equal to the density of ionized acceptors.
3/2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎 )
2𝜋m∗h kT
2( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ]
ℎ2

Taking log on both sides, we get

3/2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎)
2𝜋m∗h kT
log(2 ( ) 𝑒 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 ) = log (𝑁𝑎 [𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ] )
ℎ2

Rearranging,

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐹 +𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎

= log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2

−2𝐸𝐹 +(𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 ) 𝑁𝑎

= log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
𝑘𝑇
2( )2
ℎ2

𝑁𝑎
−2𝐸𝐹 = −(𝐸𝑎 + 𝐸𝑣 ) + 𝑘𝑇 log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
]
2( )2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑎 +𝐸𝑣 ) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = − log [ 2𝜋m∗h kT 3
] ……..(3)
2 2
2( )2
ℎ2

Substituting the expression of 𝐸𝐹 from equation (3) in (1)

(𝐸𝑎+𝐸𝑣) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝑣 −
2
− 2 log 3
2𝜋m∗hkT 2
3/2 2( 2 ) ]
2𝜋m∗h kT [ ℎ
p = 2( ) exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇

[ ]

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎 2𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑣
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇 2kT
2𝜋m∗h kT 2
2( )
[ [ ℎ2 ] ]

3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT 1 𝑁𝑎 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 2 2kT
2𝜋m∗h kT 2
2( )
[ [ ℎ2 ] ]

1
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT (Na )2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
p = 2( ) exp log 3 +
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( h )
[ ℎ2 ]
1
3/2
2𝜋m∗h kT (Na )2 ( 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 )
p = 2( ) 3 exp[ ]
ℎ2 1 2𝜋m∗ kT 4 2kT
(2)2 ( h )
ℎ2

3
1
2𝜋m∗h kT 4 −∆E
p = (2Na ) (2 ) exp[ 2kT ] where ∆E = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑣
ℎ2

∆E → Ionisation energy of the acceptor.

ie, The amount of energy required to transfer an holes from acceptor energy level 𝐸𝑎 to
valence band 𝐸𝑣 .
3
1
2𝜋m∗h kT 4 −∆E
p = (2Na ) ( 2 ) exp[ 2kT ]
ℎ2

It is clear that the density of holes in the valence band is directly proportional to the square
root of acceptor concentration.
Variation of carrier concentration with temperature
In extrinsic semiconductors, the resistivity decreases linearly with increase in temperature. This
variation is considered under three different regions.

(i) Extrinsic or impurity range

(ii) Exhaustion range
(iii) Intrinsic range

For an n-type semiconductor, the variation of carrier concentration n and p with temperature is
shown in the graph. At 0 K, both conduction and valence bands are free from any charge carriers
and hence the electrical conductivity is zero.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

Now when the temperature is slowly increased, the donor atom gets ionized and
the electrons move towards the conduction band. Here the carrier concentration (ne) increases
slowly in the conduction band for electrons. Since this range is obtained due to impurity atoms, it
is called impurity range shown by the curve AB.

When the temperature is further increased to reach upto say room temperature, all
donor atoms is ionized and hence the carrier concentration increases in the conduction band and
reaches to a steady state. Since this range is obtained due to exhaustion of donor atoms, it is called
exhaustion range shown by the curve BC.

When the temperature is still further increased, due to thermal ionization, the
electron from the valence band is lifted up to go to the conduction band and hence there is an
increase in the carrier concentration (ne). In this case the number of electrons in the donor energy
level is almost exhausted, many number of electrons are shifted from valence band to conduction
band and hence the carrier concentration increases rapidly, tracing the curve CD. Since the material
practically becomes intrinsic in this range, this range is known as intrinsic range.

The dotted curve indicates the hole concentration in an intrinsic range.

Carrier transport in semiconductor

Random motion and mobility

In absence of an electrical field the free electrons move in all directions in an random manner.
They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core during the motion. This collision is
known as elastic collision.

As the motion is random the resultant velocity in any particular direction is zero. When an
electrical field is applied in a semiconducting material the free charge carriers such as free

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
electrons and holes attain drift velocity Vd. The drift velocity attained by the carriers is
proportional to the electric field 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐸.

Vd 𝛼 E Vd = µ 𝐸

Where µ is a proportionality constant and it is known as the mobility of the charge carrier. This
velocity Vd is different for different semiconductors and for different type of charge carriers.

If E = 1 V/m then µ = Vd.

Thus mobility µ 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 velocity of charge carrier per unit electrical field strength.
µn and µp denote electron mobility and hole mobility respectively. Since the types of drift of
electrons and of holes are different the mobility of an electron at any temperature is different from
that of hole.

The electrical conductivity 𝜎𝑖 of an intrinsic semiconductor having ni electron – hole pairs per unit
volume is given by

𝜎𝑖 = 𝑒 n𝑖 ( µ𝑛 + µ𝑝 )

Drift and diffusion Transport

The net current flow across a semiconductor has two components:
(i) Drift current (ii) Diffusion current.
Drift current
Definition: The electric current produced due to the motion of charge carriers under the influence
of an external electric field is known as drift current.
When electrical voltage is applied to a material, electric field is produced at every
point within the material. The charge carriers are forced to move in a particular direction due to
the electric field. This is known as the drift motion and the current is known as drift current.

Drift current in a semiconductor due to electrons 𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸

Drift current in a semiconductor due to holes 𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Where n and p are number of electrons and holes per unit volume. 𝜇𝑛 and 𝜇𝑝 are the nobilities of
electrons and holes respectively, e is charge of electrons and E is electric field.
So total drift current density J = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽𝑝 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡)
𝐽 = 𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝑒𝐸 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝑒𝐸
For Intrinsic semiconductor
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )𝐸
Diffusion current
Definition: the non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven
concentrations in the semiconductor.
The charge carriers move from the regions of higher concentration to the regions
of lower concentration. This process is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion
𝑑𝑛
current. Consider a semiconductor having a concentration gradient of electrons within the
𝑑𝑥
semiconductor. The electrons diffuse from high concentration to low concentration due to the
concentration gradient.

𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area ∞ − (𝑑𝑥 )
Here negative sign denotes that the electrons are diffusing from higher concentration to lower
concentration region.
𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area = −𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
Where 𝐷𝑛 is a proportionality constant and it is known as diffusion coefficient of electrons.

𝑑𝑛
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area = −𝑒 𝑋 − 𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area is the diffusion current density of electrons
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 (diffusion) = 𝑒 𝐷𝑛 (𝑑𝑥 )
𝑑𝑛
Similarly, the diffusion current density of holes is given by 𝐽𝑝 (diffusion) = −𝑒 𝐷𝑝 (𝑑𝑥 )
Where 𝐷𝑝 is diffusion constant of holes.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Hall Effect
Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of charge carriers. It is also used to
determine the charge carrier densities and the mobility of charge carriers.
Statement: When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current (I) is placed in a
perpendicular magnetic field (B) , a potential difference (electric field) is produced inside the
conductor in a direction normal to the directions of both the current and the magnetic field.

Hall effect in n-type semiconductor:

Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab. In such a
material current flows in the X-direction, magnetic field B is applied in the Z direction. As a result
Hall voltage is developed along Y-direction. The current flow is entirely due to the flow of
electrons moving from right to left. When a magnetic field is applied, the electrons moving with
velocity v will experience a downward force Bev.
Where B → Applied magnetic field
e → Charge of an electron
The downward force deflects the electrons in downward direction and therefore there is an
accumulation of negatively charged electrons on the bottom face of the slab.
∴ A potential difference is established between top and bottom of the specimen. This potential
difference causes an electric field 𝐸𝐻 called Hall field.This field will give rise to a force e𝐸𝐻
acting in the upward direction on each electron.
At equilibrium, downward force Bev will balance the upward force e𝐸𝐻 .
∴ Bev = e𝐸𝐻

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
𝐸𝐻 = Bv ……..(1)
The current density 𝐽𝑥 = nev
𝐽
∴ v = − 𝑛𝑒𝑥 ……..(2)
Where n → concentration of current carrier (electrons)
Substitute equation (2) in (1) we have
B𝐽𝑥
𝐸𝐻 =− …….(3)
𝑛𝑒

𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 B ……..(4)
𝐸𝐻
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐽𝑥 B
1
Where 𝑅𝐻 =− 𝑛 ….(5)
𝑒

Where 𝑅𝐻 → Hall coefficient or Hall constant.

Hall effect in p type semiconductor:

Consider a rectangular slab of p-type semiconducting material and the current flow in this case is
entirely due to the flow of positive holes from left to right. The current flow is along x- direction
and the magnetic field is applied in the z- direction. Due to applied magnetic field, the holes are
accumulated in the bottom of the slab and thus produce a potential difference.
1
Hall coefficient can be written as 𝑅𝐻 =+ 𝑝 …….(6)
𝑒

Where p → Concentration of current carriers(holes)

Hall coefficient in terms of Hall voltage:
If t is the thickness of the sample and 𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage, then 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑡 ….(7)
Where EH is the Hall field

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Substitute equation (4) in (7) we 𝑉H =RH Jx Bt ……(8)
If b is the breadth of the sample, then Area of the sample (A) = Breadth (b) x Thickness (t)
= bt
𝐼𝑥 𝐼
Current density 𝐽𝑥= 𝐽𝑥= 𝑥 ……..(9)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒(𝐴) 𝑏𝑡
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑡
Substituting equation (9) in (8) we have 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑏𝑡
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵
∴ 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑏
𝑉𝐻 b
Hall coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = ……….(10)
𝐼𝑥 𝐵

Mobility of charge carriers:

Electrical conductivity of a n-type semiconductor σe = n e μe
−1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = ……… (11)
𝑛𝑒
Where μe → mobility of charge carriers (electrons)

Electrical conductivity of a p-type semiconductor σh = p e μh

−1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = ……… (12)
𝑝𝑒

Where σh→ mobility of charge carriers(holes)

Determination of Hall coefficient:

A semiconductor material is taken in the form
of a rectangular slab of thickness t and breadth b.
A suitable current 𝐼𝑥 ampere is allowed to pass
through this sample along x- axis by connecting it
to a battery.The sample is placed in between two
poles of an electromagnet such that the applied
magnetic field is along the z-axis ie, perpendicular
to the plane of paper.

Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 is developed in the sample

is measured by fixing two probes at the centres of the bottom and top faces of the sample. By

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
measuring Hall voltage, hall coefficient is determined from the formula
𝑉𝐻 b
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝑥 𝐵

Applications of Hall Effect:

(i) Determination of semiconductor type: the sign of the hall coefficient is used to find whether
a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

(ii)Calculation of carrier concentration: by measuring hall coefficientR H , carrier concentration

1
is determined from the relation n=
𝑒𝑅𝐻

(iii) Determination of mobility: we know that electrical conductivity

𝜎𝑒
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒µe µe = µe = 𝜎𝑒 𝑅𝐻
𝑛𝑒
(iv) Magnetic field meter: Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 for a given current is proportional to B. Hence 𝑉𝐻
measures the magnetic field B.

(v) Hall effect multiplier: It can give an output proportional to the product of two signals. If current
I proportional to one input and if B proportional to the second input, then 𝑉𝐻 is proportional to
the product of two inputs.

Hall Devices

The devices which uses the Hall Effect for its applications is known as hall device. There are 3
types of hall devices.

1. Gauss meter
2. Electronic Multiplier
3. Electronic Wattmeter

a) Gauss meter
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼𝑥
The hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 = . In this 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝑩𝑍 for a given hall element; 𝑅𝐻 and t are constant.
𝑡
The current I through Hall element is also kept constant.

This principle is used in Gauss meter. It is used for measuring magnetic field. The variation of Hall
voltage with magnetic field is shown in fig. the voltmeter which is used to measure 𝑉𝐻 can be

P a g e 21 | 32
UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
directly calibrated in terms of gauss. The graph can also be used to measure any unknown magnetic
fields.

b) Electronic Multipliers
From Hall Effect, we have
𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑡

Since 𝑅𝐻 and t are constant for an element.

𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
But, the magnetic field 𝐵𝑍 is proportional to
current (𝐼2 ) through the coil.

i.e; 𝐵𝑍 ∝ 𝐼2

∴ 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑉𝐻 is a measure of the product of two currents.
This is the basic principle used in analog
electronic multipliers.

c) Electronic Wattmeter
Hall Effect is used to measure electrical power dissipated in a load. The instrument used to
measure the power in a circuit using Hall Effect principle is known as Hall Effect – Watt meter. S

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
is Hall Effect sample. It is placed in a magnetic field 𝐵𝑍 produced by the load current 𝐼𝐿 passing
through the coils CC.
𝑉𝐿
The voltage across the load 𝑉𝐿 drives the current 𝐼𝑦 = through the sample. R is a series
𝑅
resistance which is >> than the resistance of the sample and that of the load. Also 𝐼𝑦 ≪ 𝐼𝐿

If “t” thickness of the sample, then the measured hall voltage

𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝑍 𝐼1
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑡
𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐵𝑍 𝐼𝑦 (Since RH and t are constant).

Since 𝐵𝑍 ∝ 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝑦 ∝ 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿

This is the electric power dissipated by the load. The voltmeter that measures 𝑉𝐻 can be
calibrated directly to read power.

Metal – Semiconductor Contact

Metal – semiconductor contact plays e very important role in the present day electronics devices
and integrated circuit technology.

When a metal and a semiconductor are brought into contact, there are 2 types of junctions formed
depending on the work functions of the metal and semiconductor.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
Types of Metal – Semiconductor junction

(i) Schottky junction - 𝜙𝑚 > 𝜙𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖

(ii) Ohmic junction - 𝜙𝑚 < 𝜙𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖

Work function: energy required to raise the electron from the metal or the semiconductor to the
vacuum level.

Schottky Diode
When the metal has high work function than that of n-type semiconductor then the junction formed
is called Schottky diode.

Principle: Schottky diode is a unilateral device in which current flows from metal to semiconductor
(n-type) in one direction.

Consider a junction formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor. The Fermi level of the
semiconductor is higher (since its work function is lower) than the metal. The electrons in the
conduction level of the semiconductor move to the empty energy states above the Fermi level of
the metal. This leave a positive charge on the semiconductor side and due to the excess electrons,
a negative charge on the metal side, leading to a contact potential.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics

When a Schottky junction is formed between the metal and semiconductor, the Fermi level lines
up and also a positive potential is formed on the semiconductor side. Because the depletion region
extends within a certain depth in the semiconductor there is bending of the energy bands on the
semiconductor side. Bands bend up in the direction of the electric field.

The Schottky junction can be biased by application of an external potential.

There are two types of bias

1. Forward bias - metal is connected to positive terminal and n-type semiconductor connected
to negative terminal

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
2. Reverse bias - metal is connected to negative terminal and n-type semiconductor connected
to positive terminal

The current flow depends on the type of bias and the amount of applied external potential.

Forward bias:
In a forward biased Schottky junction the external potential is applied in such a way that it opposes
the in-built potential. The electrons injected from the external circuit into the n-type semiconductor
have a lower barrier to overcome before reaching the metal. This leads to a current in the circuit
which increases with increasing external potential.

Reverse bias:
In the case of a reverse bias the external potential
is applied in the same direction as the junction
potential. This increases the width of depletion
region further and hence there is no flow of
electron from semiconductor to metal. So a
Schottky junction acts as a rectifier i.e. it
conducts in forward bias but not in reverse bias

The I − V characteristics of the junction is shown

in figure. There is an exponential increase in
current in the forward bias (I quadrant) while
there is a small current in reverse bias.

Advantages of Schottky diode

 In Schottky diode, stored charges or depletion region is negligible. So a Schottky diode has
a very low capacitance.
 The Schottky diode will immediately switch from ON state to OFF state since the depletion
region is negligible.
 A small voltage is enough to produce large current.
 It has high efficiency.
 It operates at high frequencies.
 It produces less noise.

Applications of Schottky diode

 It can be used for rectification of signals of frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
 It is commonly used in switching device at frequencies of 20GHz.
 It is used in radio frequency applications.
 It is widely used in power supplies.
 It is used in logic circuits.
 Its low noise figure finds application in sensitive communication receivers like radars.
 It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits and in computer grating.

Ohmic Contacts
When the semiconductor has a higher work function the junction formed is called the Ohmic
junction.

Principle: An Ohmic contact is an non-rectifying contact which obeys Ohm’s law (V=IR). The
resistance of the Ohmic contact should always be low i.e., conductivity should be large.

Here, the current is conducted equally in both directions and there is a very little voltage drop
across the junction. Before contact, fermi level of the metal and semiconductor are at different
positions.

At equilibrium, electrons move from the metal to the empty states in the conduction band so that
there is an accumulation region near the interface (on the semiconductor side) from the metal to
the empty states in the conduction band so that there is an accumulation region near the interface
(on the semiconductor side).

Applications

He use of Ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC, or to connect
an IC to its external terminals.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
PROBLEMS
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 cm long, 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick at
300 K. For Ge, 𝒏𝒊 = 2.5 x 1019/m3, 0.39 m2V-1 s-1 and 0.19 m2V-1 s-1 at 300 K.
Given:
ni = 2.5 x 1019/m3, µe =0.39 m2V-1 s-1,µh =0.19 m2V-1 s-1, e = 1.6 × 10−19 J
𝑙 =1 cm = 1 × 10−2 m, Width = 1 mm, thickness = 0.5 mm
Conductivity 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 = 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.39 + 0.19)
𝜎 = 2.32 Ω−1 𝑚−1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1 × 10−3 × 0.5 × 10−3
𝑙 1×10−2
𝑅= =
𝜎𝐴 2.32 ×(1×10−3 ×0.5×10−3 )

𝑅 = 8620.6 Ω

2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5×1016/m3.If the mobility of electron and hole are 0.13
and 0.05 m2V-1s-1calculate the conductivity.
Given: 𝑛𝑖 =1.5×1016/m3, 𝜇𝑒 =0.13m2V-1s-1,𝜇ℎ =0.05 m2V-1s-1
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 = 15 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 (0.13 + 0.05)
𝜎 = 4.32 × 10−4 Ω−1 𝑚−1

3. The donor density of an n-type germanium sample is 1021 /m3.The sample is arranged in
a Hall experiment having magnetic field of 0.5 Tesla and the current density is 500
ampere/m2. Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3 mm wide.
Given: ne =1021 /m3, B = 0.5 Tesla, t =3 mm =3 × 10−3 m, 𝐽𝑥 =500 ampere/m2
1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
1
𝑅𝐻 =
1021 × 1.6 × 10−19

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
𝑅𝐻 = 6.25 × 10−3
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝑥 𝐵𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = 6.25 × 10−3 × 500 × 0.5 × 3 × 10−3
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝐻 = 4.6875 × 10−3 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

4. In a p-type germanium, ni = 2.1x 1019 m-3, density of boron = 4.5 x 1023 atoms m-
3. The electrons and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2/volt sec respectively. What is its
conductivity before and after the addition of boron atoms?
Given: ni = 2.1x 1019/m3; μe = 0.4m2/volt; μh = 0.2m2/volt.sec
(i) Before including boron atoms, the semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor.
Therefore, Conductivity (σ) = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
= 2.1x1019x1.6x10-19(0.4+0.2)
σ = 2.016 Ω-1 m-1
(ii) After the boron atoms are included, each boron atoms are ready to accept one electron.
Therefore, Conductivity of p type semiconductor after boron atoms are included.
σ´ = p𝑒𝜇ℎ
σ´ = 4.5x1023x1.6x10-19x0.2
σ´ = 1.44x104 Ω-1m-1

5. A n-type semiconductor has Hall coefficient = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎−𝟑 𝒄−𝟏 .The conductivity is
108 ohm-1m-1. Calculate its charge carrier density ne and electron mobility at room
temperature.
Given:𝑅𝐻 = 4.16 × 10−4 𝑚−3 𝑐−1 , σ = 108 Ω-1m-1
1
For n-type the charge carrier density is 𝑛𝑒 = − 𝑒𝑅
𝐻

3𝜋 1
𝑛𝑒 =
8 𝑒𝑅𝐻

3 × 3.14 1
𝑛𝑒 =
8 1.6 × 10−19 × 4.16 × 10−4
𝑛𝑒 = 1.7690 × 1022 /m3.

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
𝜎𝑒 108
i) Electron mobility µ𝑒 = µ𝑒 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒 1.769×1022 ×1.6×10−19

µ𝑒 = 0.03816 m2V-1s-1

6. The Hall co-efficient of certain silicon was found to be -7.35 x10-5 m3C-1 from
100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found
to be 200 m-1 Ω-1, calculate the density and mobility of the charge carriers.
Since Hall coefficient is negative the given semiconductor is an ‘n’ type semiconductor.
For an n-type semiconductor, Conductivity σ = nee μe
𝜎
Mobilityµ𝑒 =
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
1 1
Here 𝑛𝑒 = − 𝑒𝑅 𝑛𝑒 = − 1.6×10−19 ×−7.35×10−5
𝐻

Charge density of electrons 𝑛𝑒 = 8.503x1022/m3

200
Thereforeµ𝑒 =
8.503×1022 ×1.6×10−19
Mobility of charge carriers µ𝑒 = 0.0147m2V-1s-1.

7. The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole mobilities at room temperature
are 0.48 and 0.013 m2V-1s-1.Evaluate its conductivity.

𝜇𝑒 = 0.48 m2V-1s-1 𝜇ℎ = 0.013 m2V-1s-1

2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 2 [ ] exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

2 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 − 1.1 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝑛𝑖 = 2 [ ] exp
(6.625 × 10−34 )2 2(1.38 × 10−23 × 300)
𝑛𝑖 = 1.4707 × 1016 /𝑚3
Conductivity 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
𝜎 =1.4707× 1016 × 1.6 × 10−19 × (0.48 + 0.013)

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
𝜎 = 1.160 × 10−3Ω-1m-1.

8. A patient with a pacemaker is mistakenly being scanned for an MRI image. A 10 cm

long section of pacemaker wire moves at a speed of 10 cm/s perpendicular to the MRI
unit’s magnetic field and a 20mV Hall voltage is induced. What is the magnetic field
strength?
Length of the path 𝑙 = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚, Velocity 𝑉 = 10𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 0.1𝑚/𝑠
Induced voltage 𝑉 = 20 mV = 20 × 10−3 V
Induced Hall voltage 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
𝑉
𝐵=
𝑣𝑙
20 × 10−3
𝐵=
0.1 × 0.1
𝐵 = 2 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
9. The Hall Co-efficient of a specimen of doped silicon is found to be3.66 ×10-4 m-3/C. The
resistivity of specimen is 8.93×10-3 Ωm. Find the mobility and density of charge
carriers.
3π 1
Charge carrier density ne = 8 eRH

3 X 3.14 1
ne = −19
8 1.6 X 10 X 3.66 X 10−4

ne = 2.0107 X 1022 /m3

σe 1
Electron mobility µe = µe =
ne e ρe ne e
1
µe =
8.93 X 10−3 X2.0107 X 1022 X 1.6 X 10−19
µe = 0.0348 m2 /Vs.

10. A silicon plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10 mm and length 100 mm is placed in a
magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If 10-2 A current flows

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UNIT III – Semiconductors and transport physics
along its length, calculate the Hall voltage developed, if the Hall coefficient is 3.66 × 10 4
m3/coulomb.
𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝐻 𝐵 3.66×10−4 ×10−2 ×0.5
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐻 = 1.83 × 10−3 Volts.
𝑡 1×10−3

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