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INTRODUCTION TO MYSQL

What is MySQL?

MySQL is an open source Relational Database Management System. MySQL is very fast reliable and
flexible Database Management System. It provides a very high performance and it is multi-threaded
and multi user Relational Database management system.

MySQL Features

1. MySQL are very fast and much reliable for any type of application.
2. MySQL is very Lightweight application.
3. MySQL command line tool is very powerful and can be used to run SQL queries against
database.
4. MySQL supports indexing and binary objects.
5. It is allow changes to structure of table while server is running.
6. MySQL has a wide user base.
7. It is a very fast thread-based memory allocation system.

8. MySQL Written in C and C++ language.

9. MySQL code is tested with different compilers.

10. MySQL is available as a separate program for use in a client/server network environment.

Advantages of MySQL:
Reliability and Performance: MySQL is very reliable and high performance relational database management system. It
can used to store many GB's of data into database.
Availability of Source: MySQL source code is available that's why now you can recompile the source code.
Cross-Platform support: MySQL supports more then twenty different platform including the major Linux distribution.
Mac OS X, Unix and Microsoft windows.
Large pool of Trained and Certified Developers: MySQL is very popular and it is world most popular open source
Database. So it is easy to find high quality staff around the world.
Powerful Uncomplicated software: The MySQL has most capabilities to handle most corporate database application and
used to very easy and fast

Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables
contain records (rows) with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

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2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and
City).

RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all
modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access. The
data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data
entries and it consists of columns and rows.

Keep in Mind That...

 SQL is not case sensitive
 Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Classification of SQL statements

SQL provides many different types of commands used for different purposes. SQL can be divided into following parts:

1.Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands

2.Data Definition Language (DDL) commands.

3.Transaction Control Language (TCL) commands.

DML commands: A DML is a language that enables users to access on manipulates data as organized by the appropriate
data model. The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:

 SELECT- extracts data from a database

 UPDATE- updates data in a database
 DELETE- deletes data from a database
 INSERT INTO- inserts new data into a database

DDL commands:The DDL commands, as the name suggests, allow you to perform tasks related to data definition. The
DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:

 CREATE DATABASE- creates a new database

 ALTER DATABASE- modifies a database
 CREATE TABLE- creates a new table
 ALTER TABLE- modifies a table
 DROP TABLE- deletes a table

TCL commands: The TCL commands used to manage and control the transactions of data in
database. The most important TCL commands are:

 COMMIT– it make all the changes made by statement issued.

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 ROLLBACK– it undoes all changes since the beginning of the transaction or since save point.
 SAVEPOINT– it marks a point upto successfully completed transaction.
 SET TRANSACTION– it establish properties for the current transaction.

SIMPLE QUERIES IN SQL

MySQL Data Types
In MySQL there are three main data types: text, number, and Date/Time.
Text types:
Data type Description

CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters,

numbers, and special characters). The fixed size is
specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters

VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters,

numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is
specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it
will be converted to a TEXT type

TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters

TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535

characters

BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 65,535

bytes of data

MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215

characters

MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to

16,777,215 bytes of data

LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295

characters

LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to

4,294,967,295 bytes of data

ENUM(x,y,z,etc.) Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to
65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that
is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted.

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Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.
You enter the possible values in this format:
ENUM('X','Y','Z')

SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64

list items and can store more than one choice

Number types:
Data type Description

TINYINT(size) -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum

number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

SMALLINT(size) -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The

maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis

MEDIUMINT(size) -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215

UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis

INT(size) -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295

UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis

BIGINT(size) -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807

normal. 0 to 18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis

FLOAT(size,d) A small number with a floating decimal point. The

maximum number of digits may be specified in the size
parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of
the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DOUBLE(size,d) A large number with a floating decimal point. The

maximum number of digits may be specified in the size
parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of
the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DECIMAL(size,d) A DOUBLE stored as a string, allowing for a fixed decimal

point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in
the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

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*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from a negative to positive value.
Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number.

Date types:
Data type Description

DATE() A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-

12-31'

DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to

'9999-12-31 23:59:59'

TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the

number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01
00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01'

UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC

TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to

'838:59:59'

YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format.

Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155.

Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing
years from 1970 to 2069

*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE
query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats,
like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.

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SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. The result is stored in a result table, called the
result-set. Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

and
SELECT * FROM table_name

An SQL SELECT Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName, FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName

Hansen Ola

Svendson Tove

Pettersen Kari

SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons

Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

The result-set will look like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

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2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to
list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

City
Sandnes
Stavanger

The WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfil a specified criterion.

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SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value

WHERE Clause Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.We use the following SELECT
statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Quotes Around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes). Although, numeric values
should not be enclosed in quotes. For text values:
This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

For numeric values:

This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965

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This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'

Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:
Operator Description

= Equal

<> Not equal

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal

<= Less than or equal

BETWEEN Between an inclusive range

LIKE Search for a pattern

IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the
columns

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

The AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition. The AND
operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true. And OR
operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.

AND Operator Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to "Svendson":
We use the following SELECT statement:

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SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to "Ola":
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions). Now we want to select only the persons
with the last name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

The ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column.The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in
ascending order by default. If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.

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SQL ORDER BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC

ORDER BY Example
The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by their last name.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
ORDER BY LastName

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons descending by their last
name.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
ORDER BY LastName DESC

The result-set will look like this:

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P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

The INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.

SQL INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

SQL INSERT INTO Example

We have the following "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:
INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')

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The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the "FirstName"
columns:
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)
VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

5 Tjessem Jakob

The UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.

SQL UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!

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SQL UPDATE Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

5 Tjessem Jakob

Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes

The DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.

SQL DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should
be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!

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SQL DELETE Example

The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes

Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
DELETE FROM Persons
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and
indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name
or
DELETE * FROM table_name

Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!

Try it Yourself
Test your SQL Skills
On this page you can test your SQL skills.
We will use the Customers table in the Northwind database:
CompanyName ContactName Address City

Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin

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Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå

Berglund

Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Sierras de México D.F.

Granada 9993

Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz

FISSA Fabrica Inter. Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, Madrid

Salchichas S.A. 86

Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Rambla de Barcelona

Saavedra Cataluña, 23

Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Cowes

Crowther Way

Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg

Laughing Bacchus Wine Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver

Cellars

Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Bergamo

Moro 22

North/South Simon Crowther South House 300 London

Queensbridge

Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Paris

Charonne

Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque

Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København

The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Portland

Suite 2

Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus

Wolski Zajazd Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Warszawa

Piestrzeniewicz

To preserve space, the table above is a subset of the Customers table used in the example below.

To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste them into the text area, or you can make your
own SQL statements.
SELECT * FROM customers

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SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM customers

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE companyname LIKE 'a%'

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'a'

When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a dictionary).
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName
FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'g'
AND ContactName > 'g'

SQL Constraints
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. Constraints can be specified when a table is created
(with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement). We will focus on
the following constraints:

 NOT NULL
 UNIQUE
 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY
 CHECK
 DEFAULT

The next chapters will describe each constraint in details.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values. The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to
always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this
field. The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept NULL values:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),

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Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints
both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of columns. A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a
UNIQUE constraint defined on it. Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY
KEY constraint per table.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one primary key.

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

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SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:
The "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3

2 44678 3

3 22456 2

4 24562 1

Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be
one of the values contained in the table it points to.

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

SQL CHECK Constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on values in other columns in
the row.

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SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created. The CHECK
constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0.
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CHECK (P_Id>0)
)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is created:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)

The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions like GETDATE():
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
)

The ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.

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SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't allow deleting a column):
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name

To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype

SQL ALTER TABLE Example

Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date

Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data type specifies what type of
data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server,
go to our complete Data Types reference.
The "Persons" table will now like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

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Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year

Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-digit format.

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