NOBA

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Robert Bornstein

Originating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes

unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we’re not fully
aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality. The
psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud’s time, and now includes
innovative new approaches such as object relations theory and neuropsychoanalysis. Some
psychodynamic concepts have held up well to empirical scrutiny while others have not, and
aspects of the theory remain controversial, but the psychodynamic perspective continues to
influence many different areas of contemporary psychology.

Learning Objectives

• Describe the major models of personality within the psychodynamic perspective.

• Define the concept of ego defense, and give examples of commonly used ego defenses.

• Identify psychodynamic concepts that have been supported by empirical research.

• Discuss current trends in psychodynamic theory.

Introduction

Have you ever done something that didn’t make sense? Perhaps you waited until the last
minute to begin studying for an exam, even though you knew that delaying so long would
ensure that you got a poor grade. Or maybe you spotted a person you liked across the room
The Psychodynamic Perspective 2

—someone about whom you had romantic feelings—but instead of approaching that person
you headed the other way (and felt ashamed about it afterward). If you’ve ever done something
that didn’t seem to make sense—and who among us hasn’t—the psychodynamic perspective
on personality might be useful for you. It can help you understand why you chose not to
study for that test, or why you ran the other way when the person of your dreams entered
the room.

Psychodynamic theory (sometimes called

psychoanalytic theory) explains personality
in terms of unconscious psychological
processes (for example, wishes and fears
of which we’re not fully aware), and
contends that childhood experiences are
crucial in shaping adult personality.
Psychodynamic theory is most closely
associated with the work of Sigmund
Freud, and with psychoanalysis, a type of
psychotherapy that attempts to explore
the patient’s unconscious thoughts and
emotions so that the person is better able
to understand him- or herself.

Freud’s work has been extremely

According to psychodynamic theory, a lot of our behaviors and
influential, its impact extending far preferences of adulthood are shaped by the experiences in our
beyond psychology (several years ago childhood. [Image: Rifqi Dahlgren, https://goo.gl/hx4Oeb, CC BY-
Time magazine selected Freud as one of NC 2.0, https://goo.gl/VnKlK8]
the most important thinkers of the 20th
century). Freud’s work has been not only influential, but quite controversial as well. As you
might imagine, when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by
psychological forces of which we’re largely unaware—that we literally don’t know what’s going
on in our own minds—people were (to put it mildly) displeased (Freud, 1900/1953a). When
he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age, and
that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents, people were more than
displeased—they were outraged (Freud, 1905/1953b). Few theories in psychology have
evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public.

Controversy notwithstanding, no competent psychologist, or student of psychology, can

ignore psychodynamic theory. It is simply too important for psychological science and practice,
and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside
The Psychodynamic Perspective 3

psychology (for example, developmental psychology, social psychology, sociology, and

neuroscience; see Bornstein, 2005, 2006; Solms & Turnbull, 2011). This module reviews the
psychodynamic perspective on personality. We begin with a brief discussion of the core
assumptions of psychodynamic theory, followed by an overview of the evolution of the theory
from Freud’s time to today. We then discuss the place of psychodynamic theory within
contemporary psychology, and look toward the future as well.

Core Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Perspective

The core assumptions of psychodynamic theory are surprisingly simple. Moreover, these
assumptions are unique to the psychodynamic framework: No other theories of personality
accept these three ideas in their purest form.

Assumption 1:Primacy of the Unconscious

Psychodynamic theorists contend that the majority of psychological processes take place
outside conscious awareness. In psychoanalytic terms, the activities of the mind (or psyche)
are presumed to be largely unconscious. Research confirms this basic premise of
psychoanalysis: Many of our mental activities—memories, motives, feelings, and the like—
are largely inaccessible to consciousness (Bargh & Morsella, 2008; Bornstein, 2010; Wilson,
2009).

Assumption 2: Critical Importance of Early Experiences

Psychodynamic theory is not alone in positing that early childhood events play a role in shaping
personality, but the theory is unique in the degree to which it emphasizes these events as
determinants of personality development and dynamics. According to the psychodynamic
model, early experiences—including those occurring during the first weeks or months of life
—set in motion personality processes that affect us years, even decades, later (Blatt & Levy,
2003; McWilliams, 2009). This is especially true of experiences that are outside the normal
range (for example, losing a parent or sibling at a very early age).

Assumption 3: Psychic Causality

The third core assumption of psychodynamic theory is that nothing in mental life happens by
chance—that there is no such thing as a random thought, feeling, motive, or behavior. This
has come to be known as the principle of psychic causality, and though few psychologists
The Psychodynamic Perspective 4

accept the principle of psychic causality

precisely as psychoanalysts conceive it,
most theorists and researchers agree that
thoughts, motives, emotional responses,
and expressed behaviors do not arise
randomly, but always stem from some
combination of identifiable biological and
psychological processes (Elliott, 2002;
Robinson & Gordon, 2011).

The Evolution of Psychodynamic

Our every thought and behavior —even something as seemingly Theory
random as which seat you choose on the bus —results from
biological or psychological influences. [Image: ryuu ji 竜次,

https://goo.gl/NrofGI, CC BY 2.0, https://goo.gl/BRvSA7]

Given Freud’s background in neurology, it
is not surprising that the first incarnation
of psychoanalytic theory was primarily biological: Freud set out to explain psychological
phenomena in terms that could be linked to neurological functioning as it was understood in
his day. Because Freud’s work in this area evolved over more than 50 years (he began in 1885,
and continued until he died in 1939), there were numerous revisions along the way. Thus, it
is most accurate to think of psychodynamic theory as a set of interrelated models that
complement and build upon each other. Three are particularly important: the topographic
model, the psychosexual stage model, and the structural model.

The Topographic Model

In his 1900 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud introduced his topographic model of the
mind, which contended that the mind could be divided into three regions: conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious part of the mind holds information that you’re
focusing on at this moment—what you’re thinking and feeling right now. The preconscious
contains material that is capable of becoming conscious but is not conscious at the moment
because your attention is not being directed toward it. You can move material from the
preconscious into consciousness simply by focusing your attention on it. Consider, for
example, what you had for dinner last night. A moment ago that information was
preconscious; now it’s conscious, because you “pulled it up” into consciousness. (Not to worry,
in a few moments it will be preconscious again, and you can move on to more important things.)

The unconscious—the most controversial part of the topographic model—contains anxiety-

The Psychodynamic Perspective 5

producing material (for example, sexual

impulses, aggressive urges) that are
deliberately repressed (held outside of
conscious awareness as a form of self-
protection because they make you
uncomfortable). The terms conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious continue to
be used today in psychology, and research
has provided considerable support for
Freud’s thinking regarding conscious and
preconscious processing (Erdelyi, 1985,
2004). The existence of the unconscious
remains controversial, with some researchers
arguing that evidence for it is compelling
and others contending that “unconscious” Dreams play an important role in psychodynamic theory, as they
processing can be accounted for without are often considered the central route through which the
unconscious expresses itself to the conscious mind. [Image:
positing the existence of a Freudian
Danmo, CC0 Public Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce]
repository of repressed wishes and
troubling urges and impulses (Eagle, 2011;
Luborsky & Barrett, 2006).

The Psychosexual Stage Model

Freud remained devoted to the topographic model, but by 1905 he had outlined the key
elements of his psychosexual stage model, which argued that early in life we progress through
a sequence of developmental stages, each with its own unique challenge and its own mode
of sexual gratification. Freud’s psychosexual stages—oral, anal, Oedipal, latency, and genital
—are well-known even to non-analytic psychologists. Frustration or overgratification during
a particular stage was hypothesized to result in “fixation” at that stage, and to the development
of an oral, anal, or Oedipal personality style (Bornstein, 2005, 2006).

Table 1 illustrates the basic organization of Freud’s (1905/1953b) psychosexual stage model,
and the three personality styles that result. Note that—consistent with the developmental
challenges that the child confronts during each stage—oral fixation is hypothesized to result
in a dependent personality, whereas anal fixation results in a lifelong preoccupation with
control. Oedipal fixation leads to an aggressive, competitive personality orientation.

The Structural Model

The Psychodynamic Perspective 6

Ultimately, Freud recognized that the topographic model was helpful in understanding how
people process and store information, but not all that useful in explaining other important
psychological phenomena (for example, why certain people develop psychological disorders
and others do not). To extend his theory, Freud developed a complementary framework to
account for normal and abnormal personality development—the structural model—which
posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id, ego, and superego.
The id is the seat of drives and instincts, whereas the ego represents the logical, reality-oriented
part of the mind, and the superego is basically your conscience—the moral guidelines, rules,
and prohibitions that guide your behavior. (You acquire these through your family and through
the culture in which you were raised.)

According to the structural model, our personality reflects the interplay of these three psychic
structures, which differ across individuals in relative power and influence. When the id
predominates and instincts rule, the result is an impulsive personality style. When the
superego is strongest, moral prohibitions reign supreme, and a restrained, overcontrolled
personality ensues. When the ego is dominant, a more balanced set of personality traits
develop (Eagle, 2011; McWilliams, 2009).

The Ego and Its Defenses

In addition to being the logical, rational, reality-oriented part of the mind, the ego serves
another important function: It helps us manage anxiety through the use of ego defenses.
Ego defenses are basically mental strategies that we use automatically and unconsciously
when we feel threatened (Cramer, 2000, 2006). They help us navigate upsetting events, but
there’s a cost as well: All ego defenses involve some distortion of reality. For example,
repression (the most basic ego defense, according to Freud) involves removing from
consciousness upsetting thoughts and feelings, and moving those thoughts and feelings to
the unconscious. When you read about a person who “blocked out” upsetting memories of
child abuse, that’s an example of repression.

Another ego defense is denial. In denial (unlike repression), we are aware that a particular
event occurred, but we don’t allow ourselves to see the implications of that event. When you
hear a person with a substance abuse problem say “I’m fine—even though people complain
about my drinking I never miss a day of work,” that person is using denial. Table 2 lists some
common ego defenses in psychodynamic theory, along with a definition and example of each.

Psychodynamic Theories: Where Are We Now?

The Psychodynamic Perspective 7

The topographic model, psychosexual stage model, and structural model continue to influence
contemporary psychology, but it is important to keep in mind that psychodynamic theory is
never static, ever changing and evolving in response to new ideas and findings. In the following
sections we discussion four current trends in the psychodynamic perspective: object relations
theory, the empirical testing of psychodynamic concepts, psychoanalysis and culture, and the
opportunities and challenges of neuroscience.

Object Relations Theory and the Growth of the Psychodynamic

Perspective

In recent years a number of new

psychodynamic frameworks have emerged
to explain personality development and
dynamics. The most important of these is
object relations theory. (In psychoanalytic
language, the term “object” refers to a
person, so object relations theory is really
something more like “interpersonal
relations theory.”)

Object relations theory contends that

personality can be understood as
reflecting the mental images of significant
figures (especially the parents) that we
form early in life in response to
Object relations theory holds that the impressions we develop interactions taking place within the family
of our parents and how they behave early in our lives serve a (Kernberg, 2004; Wachtel, 1997). These
scripts that guide our behavior in future relationships. [Image: mental images (sometimes called introjects)
geralt, CC0 Public Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce] serve as templates for later interpersonal
relationships—almost like relationship
blueprints or “scripts.” So if you internalized positive introjects early in life (for example, a
mental image of mom or dad as warm and accepting), that’s what you expect to occur in later
relationships as well. If you internalized a mental image of mom or dad as harsh and
judgmental, you might instead become a self-critical person, and feel that you can never live
up to other people’s standards . . . or your own (Luyten & Blatt, 2013).

Object relations theory has increased many psychologists’ interest in studying psychodynamic
ideas and concepts, in part because it represents a natural bridge between the psychodynamic
The Psychodynamic Perspective 8

perspective and research in other areas of psychology. For example, developmental and social
psychologists also believe that mental representations of significant people play an important
role in shaping our behavior. In developmental psychology you might read about this in the
context of attachment theory (which argues that attachments—or bonds—to significant people
are key to understanding human behavior; Fraley, 2002). In social psychology, mental
representations of significant figures play an important role in social cognition (thoughts and
feelings regarding other people; Bargh & Morsella, 2008; Robinson & Gordon, 2011).

Empirical Research on Psychodynamic Theories

Empirical research assessing psychodynamic concepts has produced mixed results, with some
concepts receiving good empirical support, and others not faring as well. For example, the
notion that we express strong sexual feelings from a very early age, as the psychosexual stage
model suggests, has not held up to empirical scrutiny. On the other hand, the idea that there
are dependent, control-oriented, and competitive personality types—an idea also derived
from the psychosexual stage model—does seem useful.

Many ideas from the psychodynamic perspective have been studied empirically. Luborsky
and Barrett (2006) reviewed much of this research; other useful reviews are provided by
Bornstein (2005), Gerber (2007), and Huprich (2009). For now, let’s look at three psychodynamic
hypotheses that have received strong empirical support.

• Unconscious processes influence our behavior as the psychodynamic perspective predicts. We

perceive and process much more information than we realize, and much of our behavior
is shaped by feelings and motives of which we are, at best, only partially aware (Bornstein,
2009, 2010). Evidence for the importance of unconscious influences is so compelling that
it has become a central element of contemporary cognitive and social psychology (Robinson
& Gordon, 2011).

• We all use ego defenses and they help determine our psychological adjustment and physical
health. People really do differ in the degree that they rely on different ego defenses—so
much so that researchers now study each person’s “defense style” (the unique constellation
of defenses that we use). It turns out that certain defenses are more adaptive than others:
Rationalization and sublimation are healthier (psychologically speaking) than repression
and reaction formation (Cramer, 2006). Denial is, quite literally, bad for your health, because
people who use denial tend to ignore symptoms of illness until it’s too late (Bond, 2004).

• Mental representations of self and others do indeed serve as blueprints for later relationships.
Dozens of studies have shown that mental images of our parents, and other significant
figures, really do shape our expectations for later friendships and romantic relationships.
The Psychodynamic Perspective 9

The idea that you choose a romantic partner who resembles mom or dad is a myth, but
it’s true that you expect to be treated by others as you were treated by your parents early
in life (Silverstein, 2007; Wachtel, 1997).

Psychoanalysis and Culture

One of Freud’s lifelong goals was to use

psychoanalytic principles to understand
culture and improve intergroup relations
(he actually exchanged several letters with
Albert Einstein prior to World War II, in
which they discussed this issue). During
the past several decades, as society has
become increasingly multicultural, this
effort has taken on new importance;
psychoanalysts have been active in
incorporating ideas and findings regarding
cultural influences into their research and
clinical work. For example, studies have
shown that individuals raised in individualistic,
independence-focused cultures (for example,
The culture in which a person has been raised has a significant
the United States, Great Britain) tend to influence on self-conceptions. For example, someone raised in
define themselves primarily in terms of North America is likely to describe themselves in very different
personal attributes (like attitudes and terms compared to someone raised in India. [Image: Harsha KR,

interests), whereas individuals raised in https://goo.gl/cNfV73, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://goo.gl/rxiUsF]

more sociocentric, interdependent cultures

(for example, Japan, India) are more likely to describe themselves in terms of interpersonal
relations and connections with others (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002). Our self-
representations are, quite literally, a product of our cultural milieu (Markus & Kitayama, 2010).

The Opportunities and Challenges of Neuroscience

Fifteen years ago, Nobel Laureate Eric Kandel (1998) articulated a vision for an empirically
oriented psychodynamic perspective firmly embedded within the principles and findings of
neuroscience. Kandel’s vision ultimately led to the development of neuropsychoanalysis, an
integration of psychodynamic and neuropsychological concepts that has enhanced
researchers’ understanding of numerous aspects of human behavior and mental functioning
(Solms & Turnbull, 2011). Some of the first efforts to integrate psychodynamic principles with
The Psychodynamic Perspective 10

findings from neuroscience involved sleep and dreams, and contemporary models of dream
formation now incorporate principles from both domains (Levin & Nielsen, 2007).
Neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) have begun
to play an increasingly central role in this ongoing psychoanalysis–neuroscience integration
as well (Gerber, 2007; Slipp, 2000).

Looking Ahead: Psychodynamic Theory in the 21st Century (and

Beyond)

Despite being surrounded by controversy, the psychodynamic perspective on personality has

survived for more than a century, reinventing itself in response to new empirical findings,
theoretical shifts, and changing social forces. The psychodynamic perspective evolved
considerably during the 20th century and will continue to evolve throughout the 21st century
as well. Psychodynamic theory may be the closest thing we have to an overarching, all-
encompassing theory in psychology. It deals with a broad range of issues—normal and
pathological functioning, motivation and emotion, childhood and adulthood, individual and
culture—and the psychodynamic perspective continues to have tremendous potential for

Table 1: The Psychosexual Stage Model

The Psychodynamic Perspective 11

integrating ideas and findings across the many domains of contemporary psychology.

Table 2: Some Common Ego Defenses

The Psychodynamic Perspective 12

Table 3: Conceptions of Personality within Psychodynamic Theory

According to Freud's theory of personality, the id, ego, and superego are three aspects of the adult mind that work together to create personality.

Id
The unconscious, impulsive, and pleasure-seeking part of the mind that drives sexual and aggressive energy.

Ego
The conscious, rational part of the mind that balances the demands of the id and the superego, and makes decisions. The ego is the "I" of the individual.

Superego
The judgmental, morally correct part of the mind that enforces societal and parental standards. The superego is established through identification with parental
figures or social groups.

The ego's job is to balance the conflicting demands of the id and superego, as well as serve reality. For example, if the id wants to buy an expensive item, the
superego might say "I shouldn't spend so much money". The ego might then try to find a compromise, such as saving up for a while and only buying the item if it's
still wanted.
The Psychodynamic Perspective 13

Outside Resources

Institution: Institute for Psychoanalytic Training and Research (IPTAR) - A branch of the
International Psychoanalytic Association, IPTAR plays an active role in supporting empirical
research on psychoanalytic theory and therapy.
http://www.iptar.org/

Institution: The American Psychoanalytic Association - The American Psychoanalytic

Association supports psychodynamic training and research, and sponsors a number of
workshops (as well as two annual meetings) each year.
http://www.apsa.org/

Institution: The American Psychological Association Division of Psychoanalysis - Division

39 of the American Psychological Association is the “psychological home” of
psychodynamic theory and research.
http://www.apadivisions.org/division-39/

Web: Library of Congress Exhibit – Freud: Conflict and Culture. This is a terrific website full
of photos, original manuscripts, and links to various Freud artifacts. Toward the end of
Section Three (From the Individual to Society) there is a link to Freud’s 1938 BBC radio
address; play it and you’ll get to hear Freud’s voice.
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/freud/

Discussion Questions

1. What is psychic causality?

2. What are the main differences between the preconscious and the unconscious in Freud’s
topographic model?

3. What are the three key structures in the structural model of the mind—and what does each
structure do?

4. Which ego defense do you think is more adaptive: reaction formation or sublimation? Why?

5. How do people raised in individualistic societies differ from those raised in more
sociocentric societies with respect to their self-concept—how do they perceive and describe
themselves?

6. According to object relations theory, how do early relationships with our parents and other
The Psychodynamic Perspective 14

significant figures affect later friendships and romantic relationships?

7. Which field has the potential to benefit more from the emerging new discipline of
neuropsychoanalysis: neuroscience, or psychoanalysis? Why?
The Psychodynamic Perspective 15

Vocabulary

Ego defenses
Mental strategies, rooted in the ego, that we use to manage anxiety when we feel threatened
(some examples include repression, denial, sublimation, and reaction formation).

Neuropsychoanalysis
An integrative, interdisciplinary domain of inquiry seeking to integrate psychoanalytic and
neuropsychological ideas and findings to enhance both areas of inquiry (you can learn more
by visiting the webpage of the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society at
http://www.neuropsa.org.uk/).

Object relations theory

A modern offshoot of the psychodynamic perspective, this theory contends that personality
can be understood as reflecting mental images of significant figures (especially the parents)
that we form early in life in response to interactions taking place within the family; these
mental images serve as templates (or “scripts”) for later interpersonal relationships.

Primacy of the Unconscious

The hypothesis—supported by contemporary empirical research—that the vast majority of
mental activity takes place outside conscious awareness.

Psychic causality
The assumption that nothing in mental life happens by chance—that there is no such thing
as a “random” thought or feeling.

Psychosexual stage model

Probably the most controversial aspect of psychodynamic theory, the psychosexual stage
model contends that early in life we progress through a sequence of developmental stages
(oral, anal, Oedipal, latency, and genital), each with its own unique mode of sexual gratification.

Structural model
Developed to complement and extend the topographic model, the structural model of the
mind posits the existence of three interacting mental structures called the id, ego, and
superego.

Topographic model
Freud’s first model of the mind, which contended that the mind could be divided into three
The Psychodynamic Perspective 16

regions: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. (The “topographic” comes from the fact
that topography is the study of maps.)
The Psychodynamic Perspective 17

References

Bargh, J. A., & Morsella, E. (2008). The unconscious mind. Perspectives on Psychological Science,
3, 73-79.

Blatt, S. J., & Levy, K. N. (2003). Attachment theory, psychoanalysis, personality development,
and psychopathology. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 23, 104-152.

Bond, M. (2004). Empirical studies of defense style: Relationships with psychopathology and
change. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12, 263-278.

Bornstein, R. F. (2010). Psychoanalytic theory as a unifying framework for 21st century

personality assessment. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 27, 133-152.

Bornstein, R. F. (2009). Heisenberg, Kandinsky, and the heteromethod convergence problem:

Lessons from within and beyond psychology. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 1-8.

Bornstein, R. F. (2006). A Freudian construct lost and reclaimed: The psychodynamics of

personality pathology. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 23, 339-353.

Bornstein, R. F. (2005). Reonnecting psychoanalysis to mainstream psychology: Challenges

and opportunities. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 22, 323-340.

Cramer, P. (2006). Protecting the self: Defense mechanisms in action. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Cramer, P. (2000). Defense mechanisms in psychology today: Further processes for adaptation.
American Psychologist, 55, 637–646.

Eagle, M. N. (2011). From classical to contemporary psychoanalysis: A critique and integration.

New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

Elliott, A. (2002). Psychoanalytic theory: An introduction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Erdelyi, M. H. (2004). Subliminal perception and its cognates: Theory, indeterminacy, and time.
Consciousness and Cognition, 13, 73-91.

Erdelyi, M. H. (1985). Psychoanalysis: Freud’s cognitive psychology. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.

Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic
modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6,
123-151.

Freud, S. (1953a). The interpretation of dreams. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition
of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vols. 4-5). London, England: Hogarth.
(Original work published 1900)

Freud, S. (1953b). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The
standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 125–245).
The Psychodynamic Perspective 18

London, England: Hogarth. (Original work published 1905)

Gerber, A. (2007). Whose unconscious is it anyway? The American Psychoanalyst, 41, 11, 28.

Huprich, S. K. (2009). Psychodynamic therapy: Conceptual and empirical foundations. New York,
NY: Taylor & Francis.

Kandel, E. R. (1998). A new intellectual framework for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry,
155, 457–469.

Kernberg, O. F. (2004). Contemporary controversies in psychoanalytic theory, techniques, and their

applications. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Levin, R., & Nielsen, T. A. (2007). Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect
distress: A review and neurocognitive model. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 482–528.

Luborsky, L., & Barrett, M. S. (2006). The history and empirical status of key psychoanalytic
concepts. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 1–19.

Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2013). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition in normal and
disrupted personality development. American Psychologist, 68, 172–183.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Culture and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430.

McWilliams, N. (2009). Psychoanalytic diagnosis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and
collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological
Bulletin, 128, 3–72.

Robinson, M. D., & Gordon, K. H. (2011). Personality dynamics: Insights from the personality
social cognitive literature. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93, 161–176.

Silverstein, M. L. (2007). Disorders of the self: A personality-guided approach. Washington, DC:

APA Books.

Slipp, S. (Ed.) (2000). Neuroscience and psychoanalysis [Special Issue]. Journal of the American
Academy of Psychoanalysis, 28, 191–395.

Solms, M., & Turnbull, O. H. (2011). What is neuropsychoanalysis? Neuropsychoanalysis, 13,

133–145.

Wachtel, P. L. (1997). Psychoanalysis, behavior therapy, and the relational world. Washington, DC:
APA Books.

Wilson, T. D. (2009). Know thyself. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 384–389.

About Noba

The Diener Education Fund (DEF) is a non-profit organization founded with the mission of re-
inventing higher education to serve the changing needs of students and professors. The initial
focus of the DEF is on making information, especially of the type found in textbooks, widely
available to people of all backgrounds. This mission is embodied in the Noba project.

Noba is an open and free online platform that provides high-quality, flexibly structured
textbooks and educational materials. The goals of Noba are three-fold:

• To reduce financial burden on students by providing access to free educational content

• To provide instructors with a platform to customize educational content to better suit their
curriculum

• To present material written by a collection of experts and authorities in the field

The Diener Education Fund was co-founded by Drs. Ed and Carol Diener. Ed was a professor
emeritus at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, and a professor at University of
Virginia and the University of Utah, and a senior scientist at the Gallup Organization but passed
away in April 2021. For more information, please see http://noba.to/78vdj2x5. Carol Diener
is the former director of the Mental Health Worker and the Juvenile Justice Programs at the
University of Illinois. Both Ed and Carol are award- winning university teachers.

Acknowledgements

The Diener Education Fund would like to acknowledge the following individuals and companies
for their contribution to the Noba Project: Robert Biswas-Diener as Managing Editor, Peter
Lindberg as the former Operations Manager, and Nadezhda Lyubchik as the current
Operations Manager; The Other Firm for user experience design and web development;
Sockeye Creative for their work on brand and identity development; Arthur Mount for
illustrations; Chad Hurst for photography; EEI Communications for manuscript proofreading;
Marissa Diener, Shigehiro Oishi, Daniel Simons, Robert Levine, Lorin Lachs and Thomas Sander
for their feedback and suggestions in the early stages of the project.
Copyright

R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba Textbook Series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF
Publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/zdemy2cv

Copyright © 2021 by Diener Education Fund. This material is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy
of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en_US.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion
of a Website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or the Diener Education Fund,
and the Diener Education Fund does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented
at these sites.

Contact Information:

Noba Project
www.nobaproject.com
[email protected]
How to cite a Noba chapter using APA Style

Bornstein, R. (2021). The psychodynamic perspective. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds),

Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from
http://noba.to/zdemy2cv