MAT 102

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS

T
II (CALCULUS)

AF
OWOLABI J. A
DR
Bowen University, Iwo, Osun state, Nigeria.

April 4, 2020

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Contents

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Functions of a real variable, graphs, limits and

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idea of continuity.
The derivatives, as limit of rate of change.
DR
Differentiation.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Introduction

Calculus is a branch of Mathematics that focus on

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limits, functions, derivatives, integrals and infinite
series. It has two branches, differential calculus and

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integral calculus, which are related by the
fundamental theorem of calculus. Calculus has wide
DR
spread application in Science, Engineering,
Management and Economics and can solve many
problems for which algebra alone is insufficient.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Functions
An equation will be a function if for any x in the
domain of the equation (the domain is all the x’s
that can be plugged into the equation) the equation

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will yield exactly one value of y.

AF
Example 1: Determine if each of the following are
functions. (i) y = x 3 + 1 (ii) y 2 = x + 5.
(i) This first one is a function because no matter
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what value of x you put into the equation there is
only one possible value of y.
(ii) The second one is not a function because no
matter what value of x you put into the equation,
you have more than one value of y.
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
The domain of a function

The domain of a function is the set of all permissible

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inputs i.e, all permissible values of the variable x
Example 2: Let f be the function defined by

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3x
f (x) = . In this case, f is not defined at
x −5
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15
x = 5 because is not defined. Hence, the domain
0
of f consists of all real numbers except for 5.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Cont’d

The complete collection of numbers y = f (x) that

correspond to the numbers in the domain is called

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the range. √
For example, if y = 1 − x 2 where both x and y

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are real numbers, the domain is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
because these are the only values of x for which y
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has a real value.
The range is 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 because 0 and 1 are the
minimum and maximum values of y over the
domain.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

The composition of function

The composition of f (x) and g (x) is given by

(f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) (1)

T
AF
Example 3: Given f (x) = x 2 − x + 10 and
g (x) = 1 + x, find each of the following.
(i) (f ◦ g )(2) (ii) (g ◦ f )(x)
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(1). (f ◦ g )(2) = f (g (2)) = f (3) = 32 − 3 + 10 = 16

(ii). (g ◦f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (x 2 −x+10) = x 2 −x+11

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Inverse functions

Given the function f (x), to find the inverse function

f −1 (x) .

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First, replace f (x) with y .
Replace every x with a y and replace every y

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with an x.
Solve the equation from Step 2 for y .
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Replace y with f −1 (x).
Verify your work by checking that
(f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x and (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x are both
true.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Cont’d
Example 4:
x −2
Given that f (x) = , find f −1 (x).
3x + 4
Step 1:
x −2

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y= ,
3x + 4

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, Step 2:
y −2
x= ,
3y + 4
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, Step 3:
−(2 + 4x)
y= ,
3x − 1
−(2 + 4x)
,Step 4: f −1 = .
3x − 1
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Graphing a function
You get the graph of a function f by drawing all
points whose coordinates are (x, y ) where x must
be in the domain of f and y = f (x).

T
AF
DR
The domain of f consists of all x values at which
the function is defined, and the range consists of all
possible values f can have.
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Limits
Definition:

We say that the limit of f (x) is L as x approaches a

and write this as

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AF
lim f (x) = L
x→a

It means if you choose values for x which are close

DR
but not equal to a, then f (x) will be close to the
value L. Moreover, f (x) gets closer and closer to L
as x gets closer and closer to a.

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

cont’d
Example 5:

(i) If f (x) = x 2 + 5 then

lim f (x) = 9
x→2

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x 2 − 2x

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(ii) If f (x) = 2 , then
x −4
x 2 − 2x 0
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lim 2 = ,
x→2 x − 4 0
which does not exist. Then, by re-defining f (x) you
have
x 2 − 2x x(x − 2) x 1
f (x) = 2 = = = .
x −4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x + 2 2
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
The rules of Limits
If limx→x0 f (x) = A and limx→x0 g (x) = B. Then,
lim (f (x) ± g (x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g (x) = A ± B.
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

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.

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lim (f (x) · g (x)) = lim f (x) · lim g (x) = A · B.
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
.
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f (x) limx→x0 f (x) A
lim = = , lim g (x) = B 6= 0.
x→x0 g (x) limx→x0 g (x) B x→x0
lim f (g (x)) = f ( lim g (x)) = f (B),
x→x0 x→x0

provided f (g (x)) is continuous at x0 .

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Continuity
A function g is continuous at a if

lim g (x) = g (a)

x→a

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A function is continuous if it is continuous at every

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a in its domain.
Note that when we say that a function is continuous
on some interval, it is understood that the domain
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of the function includes that interval.
1
For example, the function f (x) = 2 is continuous
x
on the interval −1 < x < 5 but is not continuous
on the interval −1 < x < 1.
Polynomials and Rational functions are continuous.
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
The derivatives, as limit of rate of change
In general, let us consider a function
y = f (x), (2)
To find its derivative, consider 4x to be a small

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change in the value of x, so x + 4x will be the new

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value of x where f (x) is defined. Denoting the
corresponding change in y by 4y , y + 4y will be
the resultant value of y , thus
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y + 4y = f (x + 4x). (3)
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (3), we
have,
(y + 4y ) − y = f (x + 4x) − f (x)
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Cont’d
Then,

4y = f (x + 4x) − f (x), (4)

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To find the rate of change, we divide equation (4)

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by 4x, Then equation (4) becomes;

4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)
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= . (5)
4x 4x
4y
And lastly, we consider the limit of the ratio as
4x
4x → 0 which leads to the definition of derivatives.
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Derivatives
Definition:

The derivative of f (x) with respect to x is the

function f 0 (x) and is defined as,

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4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)

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= f 0 (x) = lim .
4x DR 4x→0 4x
Example: Find the derivative of the following
function using the definition of the derivative.

f (x) = x 2 − 4x

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Cont’d
Solution:

First plug the function into the definition of the

derivative.
0 (x + 4x)2 − 4(x + 4x) − f (x)

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f (x) = lim ,
4x→0 4x

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x 2 + 2x4x + 42 x − 4x − 44x − x 2 − 4x
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= lim ,
4x→0 4x
2x4x + 42 x − 44x
= lim ,
4x→0 4x
= lim (2x + 4x − 4) = 2x − 4.
4x→0
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Derivative of a function from first principle

The following are the working rules for finding the

derivative of a function from first principle.

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Step 1: Write down the given function in the form

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of y = f (x).
Step 2: Let 4x be an increment in x, 4y be the
corresponding increment in y so that
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y + 4y = f (x + 4x).
Step 3: Subtracting step 1 from step 2, we get
4y = f (x + 4x) − f (x).

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Derivative of a function from first principle
Step 4: Dividing the results obtained in step 3 by
4x, we get

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4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)
=
4x 4x

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. Step 5: Proceeding to limit as 4x → 0, we have
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4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)
lim = lim
4x→0 4x 4x→0 4x
The method of first principle is also called delta
method.
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Cont’d
Example

Find the derivatives of x 2 from the first principle.

Let,
y =x 2 ,

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y + 4y =(x + 4x)2 ,

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4y =(x 2 + 2x4x + 42 x) − y ,
4y =x 2 + 2x4x + 42 x − x 2 ,
DR
4y 2x4x + 42 x
= ,
4x 4x
4y 2x4x + 42 x
lim = lim = 2x + 4x = 2x.
4x→0 4x 4x→0 4x
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Differentiation
Differentiation of polynomials

This can be literally defined as the rate of change.

Mathematically, it is the process of obtaining the
dy
derivative of a given function. It is denoted by .

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dx
Example: If y = x 5 + 3x 4 − 10.Then,

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dy d
= (x 5 + 3x 4 − 10) = 5x 4 + 12x 3 ,
dx dx
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d 2y

d dy
2
= = 20x 3 + 36x 2
dx dx dx
Exercise: Proof by binomial theorem that if
dy
y = ax n , = anx n−1 where a is constant.
dx
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Differentiation of product of two functions
dy dv du
If y = uv , =u +v .
dx dx dx
dy
Example: If y = x 4 sin x, find .

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dx
du dv

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Let u = x 4 , = 4x 3 , v = sin x, = cos x.
dx dx
Then,
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dy
= x 4 (cos x) + sin x(4x 3 ),
dx
dy
= x 4 cos x + 4x 3 sin x.
dx

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Differentiation of quotient of two functions
du dv
u dy v − u
If y = , = dx 2 dx .
v dx v
5e 2x dy

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Example: If y = , find .
cos x dx

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du dv
Let u = 5e 2x , = 10e 2x ,v = cos x, = − sin x.
dx dx
DR
dy cos x(10e 2x ) − 5e 2x (− sin x)
= ,
dx (cos x)2

dy 10e 2x cos x + 5e 2x sin x

= .
dx cos2 x
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Differentiation of function of a functions
To differentiate a function of a function, we must
dy dy du
first introduce the chain rule i.e = ·
dx du dx
2 dy
Example: If y = e x +3x−5 , find

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.
dx
du

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Let u = x 2 + 3x − 5, = 2x + 3. Then, y = e u
dx
dy
and = eu.
DR
du
Then,
dy
= e u · (2x + 3),
dx
dy 2
= (2x + 3)e x +3x−5 .
dx
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Implicit function
If y = x 2 + 3x + 1, y is completely defined in terms
of x, and y is called an explicit function of x. If
x 2 y + sin x = y 3 + 5x, y is called an implicit
function of x

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.Example: Differentiate x 3 + 3xy 2 − 2y 3 = 3x with

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respect to x
dy dy
3x 2 + 3y 2 + 6xy − 6y 2 = 3,
DR
dx dx
dy
(6xy − 6y 2 ) = 3 − 3x 2 − 3y 2 ,
dx
dy (3 − 3x 2 − 3y 2 )
= .
dx (6xy − 6y 2 )
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Parametric Equations
In some cases, it is more convenient to represent a
function by expressing x and y separately in terms of
a third independent variable, e.g y = cos 2t,
x = sin t.

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The third variable t is called a parameter, and the

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two expressions for x and y is called parametric
equations.
DR
Example: The parametric equations of a function
dy
are given as y = cos 2t, x = sin t. Find .
dx
dy
From y = cos 2t, we can get = −2 sin 2t,
dt
dx
From x = sin t, we can get = cos t.
OWOLABI J. A
dt
MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Cont’d
dy dy dt
We can now use the fact that = · ,
dx dt dx
So that

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dy 1

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= −2 sin 2t ·
dx cos t
Therefore,
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dy
= −4 sin t.
dx
dt dx
Note: ( = 1/ )
dx dt

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Exercise 1
Evaluate the following limits:

4x 2 − 6x
lim

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x→2 4x − x 2
√ √

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x− 2
lim
x→2 x −2
DR
(5x + 2)(x + 3)
lim 2
x→∞ (x − 1)(x + 1)
" #
x+1−5x+1
3
lim
x→∞ 3x − 5x

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)

Exercise 2
dy
Find the of the following equations:
dx
(x 2 + 5)2
a. y =
(x − x −2 )3

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b. y = (x 2 + 5)(3x + x 3 )4

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c. y = (1 + x)2 e 5x
d. y = tan x
dy
DR
e. If y = tan(4x 2 + 1), find .
dx
f. If y = 2x 5 + 4x 4 − x 3 + 3x 2 − 5x + 7, find an
dy dy
expression for and the value of at x = 2.
dx dx
d 2y 1 d 3y 1

Compute and .
dx 2 2 dx 3 3
OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)
Exercise 3

dy d 2y
a. If x 2 + y 2 − 2x − 6y + 5 = 0, find and
dx dx 2
at x = 3, y = 2.

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dy
b. If x 3 + y 3 + 3xy 2 = 8, find .

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dx
c. The parametric equation of the function are
dy
given as y = 3 sin θ − sin3 θ, x = cos3 θ. Find
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dx
d 2y
and .
dx
2 − 3t 3 + 2t dy
d. If ,y= , find .
1+t 1+t dx

OWOLABI J. A MAT 102 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II (CALCULUS)