C H A P T E R 3

Vectors
3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.01 Add vectors by drawing them in head-to-tail 3.04 Given the components of a vector, draw the vector
arrangements, applying the commutative and associa- and determine its magnitude and orientation.
tive laws. 3.05 Convert angle measures between degrees and
3.02 Subtract a vector from a second one. radians.
3.03 Calculate the components of a vector on a given
coordinate system, showing them in a drawing.
Key Ideas
● Scalars, such as temperature, have magnitude only. ● The (scalar) components ax and ay of any two-dimensional
They are specified by a number with a unit (10°C) and vector →
a along the coordinate axes are found by dropping
obey the rules of arithmetic and ordinary algebra. Vectors, perpendicular lines from the ends of →
a onto the coordinate
such as displacement, have both magnitude and direction axes. The components are given by
(5 m, north) and obey the rules of vector algebra. ax = a cos θ and ay = a sin θ,
→ →
● Two vectors a and b may be added geometrically by where θ is the angle between the positive direction of
drawing them to a common scale and placing them head the x axis and the direction of →
a . The algebraic sign of a
to tail. The vector connecting the tail of the first to the component indicates its direction along the associated
→
head of the second is the vector sum → s . To subtract b axis. Given its components, we can find the magnitude
→ → →
from a , reverse the direction of b to get ‒ b ; then add
→ and orientation of the vector →a with
‒ b to → a . Vector addition is commutative and obeys the ay
associative law. a = √a2x + a2y and tan θ = .
ax

What Is Physics?
Physics deals with a great many quantities that have both size and direction, and
it needs a special mathematical language — the language of vectors — to describe
those quantities. This language is also used in engineering, the other sciences, and
even in common speech. If you have ever given directions such as “Go five blocks
down this street and then hang a left,” you have used the language of vectors. In
fact, navigation of any sort is based on vectors, but physics and engineering also
need vectors in special ways to explain phenomena involving rotation and mag-
netic forces, which we get to in later chapters. In this chapter, we focus on the basic
language of vectors.

Vectors and Scalars

A particle moving along a straight line can move in only two directions. We can
take its motion to be positive in one of these directions and negative in the other.
For a particle moving in three dimensions, however, a plus sign or minus sign is
no longer enough to indicate a direction. Instead, we must use a vector.
40
3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS 41

A vector has magnitude as well as direction, and vectors follow certain B'
(vector) rules of combination, which we examine in this chapter. A vector
quantity is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction and thus can be
represented with a vector. Some physical quantities that are vector quantities A'
are displacement, velocity, and acceleration. You will see many more throughout
B"
this book, so learning the rules of vector combination now will help you greatly B
in later chapters.
Not all physical quantities involve a direction. Temperature, pressure, A"
energy, mass, and time, for example, do not “point” in the spatial sense. We call A
such quantities scalars, and we deal with them by the rules of ordinary algebra. A (a)
single value, with a sign (as in a temperature of −40°F), specifies a scalar.
The simplest vector quantity is displacement, or change of position. A vec-
tor that represents a displacement is called, reasonably, a displacement vector.
(Similarly, we have velocity vectors and acceleration vectors.) If a particle changes B
its position by moving from A to B in Fig. 3-1a, we say that it undergoes a displace-
ment from A to B, which we represent with an arrow pointing from A to B. The
arrow specifies the vector graphically. To distinguish vector symbols from other A
kinds of arrows in this book, we use the outline of a triangle as the arrowhead. (b)
In Fig. 3-1a, the arrows from A to B, from Aʹ to Bʹ, and from Aʺ to Bʺ have the Figure 3-1 (a) All three arrows have the
same magnitude and direction. Thus, they specify identical displacement vectors same magnitude and direction and thus
and represent the same change of position for the particle. A vector can be shifted represent the same displacement. (b) All
without changing its value if its length and direction are not changed. three paths connecting the two points cor-
The displacement vector tells us nothing about the actual path that the par- respond to the same displacement vector.
ticle takes. In Fig. 3-1b, for example, all three paths connecting points A and B
correspond to the same displacement vector, that of Fig. 3-1a. Displacement vec-
tors represent only the overall effect of the motion, not the motion itself.

Adding Vectors Geometrically

Suppose that, as in the vector diagram of Fig. 3-2a, a particle moves from A to B
and then later from B to C. We can represent its overall displacement (no mat-
ter what its actual path) with two successive displacement vectors, AB and BC.
The net displacement of these two displacements is a single displacement from A
to C. We call AC the vector sum (or resultant) of the vectors AB and BC. This
sum is not the usual algebraic sum.
In Fig. 3-2b, we redraw the vectors of Fig. 3-2a and relabel them in the way B
that we shall use from now on, namely, with an arrow over an italic symbol, as in Actual
→ path
a . If we want to indicate only the magnitude of the vector (a quantity that lacks
a sign or direction), we shall use the italic symbol, as in a, b, and s. (You can use
just a handwritten symbol.) A symbol with an overhead arrow always implies C
A
both properties of a vector, magnitude and direction. Net displacement
is the vector sum
We can represent the relation among the three vectors in Fig. 3-2b with the
(a)
vector equation
To add a and b,
→ →
s =→
a + b, (3-1) draw them
a b
head to tail.
→
which says that the vector →s is the vector sum of vectors →
a and b . The symbol + in
Eq. 3-1 and the words “sum” and “add” have different meanings for vectors than
s
they do in the usual algebra because they involve both magnitude and direction.
→
Figure 3-2 suggests a procedure for adding two-dimensional vectors →
(b)
a and b This is the
→ resulting vector,
geometrically. (1) On paper, sketch vector a to some convenient scale and at the
→
proper angle. (2) Sketch vector b to the same scale, with its tail at the head of from tail of a
vector a , again at the proper angle. (3) The vector sum →
→ to head of b.
s is the vector that
→
extends from the tail of →a to the head of b . Figure 3-2 (a) AC is the vector sum of the
Properties. Vector addition, defined in this way, has two important properties. vectors AB and BC. (b) The same vectors
→
First, the order of addition does not matter. Adding → a to b gives the same result relabeled.
42 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

→
as adding b to →
a (Fig. 3-3); that is,
a b
→ → →
a + b = b +→
Vector sum
a+b a (commutative law). (3-2)
Start Finish
b+a Second, when there are more than two vectors, we can group them in any order as we
→ → → → →
add them. Thus, if we want to add vectors a , b , and c , we can add a and b
b a → → →
first and then add their vector sum to c . We can also add b and c first and then
→
add that sum to a . We get the same result either way, as shown in Fig. 3-4. That is,
→ →
(→
a + b)+→
c =→
a +(b +→
You get the same vector
c) (associative law). (3-3)
result for either order of
adding vectors.
You get the same vector result for
→
Figure 3-3 The two vectors →
b any order of adding the vectors.
a and b can
a a
be added in either order; see Eq. 3-2.
a+b a+b

b+c

b+c
c c

(a
a+

a+

+b
(b

b+

)+
+c

c
)

→
Figure 3-4 The three vectors →
a , b , and →
c can be grouped in any way as they are added;
see Eq. 3-3.
→ →
The vector − b is a vector with the same magnitude as b but the opposite
–b direction (see Fig. 3-5). Adding the two vectors in Fig. 3-5 would yield
b → →
b + (− b ) = 0.
→ →
Thus, adding − b has the effect of subtracting b . We use this property to define
→ → → → →
Figure 3-5 The vectors b and − b the difference between two vectors: let d = a − b . Then
have the same magnitude and opposite → → → →
directions. d = a − b =→
a + (− b ) (vector subtraction); (3-4)
→ →
that is, we find the difference vector d by adding the vector − b to the vector → a.
Figure 3-6 shows how this is done geometrically.
As in the usual algebra, we can move a term that includes a vector symbol from
one side of a vector equation to the other, but we must change its sign. For example,
if we are given Eq. 3-4 and need to solve for →a , we can rearrange the equation as
→ → → →
d + b =→ a or → a = d + b.

Remember that, although we have used displacement vectors here, the rules
–b
for addition and subtraction hold for vectors of all kinds, whether they repre-
a sent velocities, accelerations, or any other vector quantity. However, we can add
b only vectors of the same kind. For example, we can add two displacements, or
two velocities, but adding a displacement and a velocity makes no sense. In the
(a) arithmetic of scalars, that would be like trying to add 21 s and 12 m.
Note head-to-tail
–b
arrangement for Checkpoint 1
addition →
The magnitudes of displacements →a and b are 3 m and 4 m, respectively, and
→ → →
c =→ a + b . Considering various orientations of →
a and b , what are (a) the
d=a–b
maximum possible magnitude for → c and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?
a

(b) Components of Vectors

→ → → Adding vectors geometrically can be tedious. A neater and easier technique
Figure 3-6 (a) Vectors a , b , and − b .
→
(b) To subtract vector b from vector → a, involves algebra but requires that the vectors be placed on a rectangular coordi-
→
add vector − b to vector →a. nate system. The x and y axes are usually drawn in the plane of the page, as shown
3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS 43

in Fig. 3-7a. The z axis comes directly out of the page at the origin; we ignore it This is the y component
for now and deal only with two-dimensional vectors. of the vector.
y
A component of a vector is the projection of the vector on an axis. In Fig. 3-7a, y
for example, ax is the component of vector → a on (or along) the x axis and ay is the
component along the y axis. To find the projection of a vector along an axis, we
draw perpendicular lines from the two ends of the vector to the axis, as shown.
ay a a ay
The projection of a vector on an x axis is its x component, and similarly the projec-
tion on the y axis is the y component. The process of finding the components of a θ θ
vector is called resolving the vector.
A component of a vector has the same direction (along an axis) as the ax x x
O ax
vector. In Fig. 3-7, ax and ay are both positive because →
O
a extends in the posi-
(a) (b)
tive direction of both axes. (Note the small arrowheads on the components, to
indicate their direction.) If we were to reverse vector → a , then both components This is the x component
would be negative and their arrowheads would point toward negative x and y. of the vector.
→
Resolving vector b in Fig. 3-8 yields a positive component bx and a negative
component by.
In general, a vector has three components, although for the case of Fig. 3-7a The components a ay
the component along the z axis is zero. As Figs. 3-7a and b show, if you shift a vec- and the vector θ
tor without changing its direction, its components do not change. form a right triangle. (c) ax
Finding the Components. We can find the components of → a in Fig. 3-7a Figure 3-7 (a) The components ax and ay of
geometrically from the right triangle there: vector →a . (b) The components are
unchanged if the vector is shifted, as long as
ax = a cos θ and ay = a sin θ, (3-5) the magnitude and orientation are main-
tained. (c) The components form the legs
of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is the
where θ is the angle that the vector → a makes with the positive direction of the magnitude of the vector.
x axis, and a is the magnitude of →
a . Figure 3-7c shows that →
a and its x and y com-
ponents form a right triangle. It also shows how we can reconstruct a vector from
its components: we arrange those components head to tail. Then we complete a This is the x component
right triangle with the vector forming the hypotenuse, from the tail of one com- of the vector.
y (m)
ponent to the head of the other component. bx = 7 m
Once a vector has been resolved into its components along a set of axes, the θ O x (m)
components themselves can be used in place of the vector. For example, → a in
Fig. 3-7a is given (completely determined) by a and θ. It can also be given by its b y = –5 m
components ax and ay. Both pairs of values contain the same information. If we
know a vector in component notation (ax and ay) and want it in magnitude-angle
notation (a and θ), we can use the equations b

ay
a = √a 2x + a 2y and tan θ = (3-6) This is the y component
ax of the vector.
to transform it. →
Figure 3-8 The component of b on the
In the more general three-dimensional case, we need a magnitude and two x axis is positive, and that on the y axis is
angles (say, a, θ, and ϕ) or three components (ax, ay, and az) to specify a vector. negative.

Checkpoint 2
In the figure, which of the indicated methods for combining the x and y components of vector →
a are proper to determine that vector?

y y y y y y

ax ax
ax ax ax x x x
x x x
ay ay ay
ay ay ay a a
a
a a a
ax

(a) (b) (c) (d ) (e) (f )

44 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

Sample Problem 3.01 Adding vectors in a drawing, orienteering

In an orienteering class, you have the goal of moving as a

far (straight-line distance) from base camp as possible by a –c
making three straight-line moves. You may use the fol- b
lowing displacements in any order: (a) →
b
a , 2.0 km due east –b
→ 30° d=b+a–c
(directly toward the east); (b) b , 2.0 km 30° north of
east (at an angle of 30° toward the north from due east); This is the vector result
(c) →
c –c
c , 1.0 km due west. Alternatively, you may substitute for adding those three
→ →
either − b for b or −→ c for →c . What is the greatest dis- Scale of km
vectors in any order.
tance you can be from base camp at the end of the third 0 1 2
displacement? (We are not concerned about the direction.) (a) (b)
Figure 3-9 (a) Displacement vectors; three are to be used.
Reasoning: Using a convenient scale, we draw vectors (b) Your distance from base camp is greatest if you undergo
→ → →
→a, b, →c , − b , and −→c as in Fig. 3-9a. We then mentally displacements → a , b , and − →
c , in any order.
slide the vectors over the page, connecting three of them
at a time in head-to-tail arrangements to find their vec- order, because their vector sum is the same for any order.
→ (Recall from Eq. 3-2 that vectors commute.) The order
tor sum d . The tail of the first vector represents base
camp. The head of the third vector represents the point at shown in Fig. 3-9b is for the vector sum
→ → → →
which you stop. The vector sum d extends from the tail d = b + a + (−→ c ).
of the first vector to the head of the third vector. Its mag-
nitude d is your distance from base camp. Our goal here Using the scale given in Fig. 3-9a, we measure the length d
is to maximize that base-camp distance. of this vector sum, finding
We find that distance d is greatest for a head-to-tail d = 4.8 km. (Answer)
→
arrangement of vectors → a , b , and −→c . They can be in any

Sample Problem 3.02 Finding components, airplane flight

A small airplane leaves an airport on an overcast day and KEY IDEA

is later sighted 215 km away, in a direction making an angle
of 22° east of due north. This means that the direction is We are given the magnitude (215 km) and the angle (22° east
not due north (directly toward the north) but is rotated 22° of due north) of a vector and need to find the components
toward the east from due north. How far east and north is of the vector.
the airplane from the airport when sighted?
Calculations: We draw an xy coordinate system with the
positive direction of x due east and that of y due north (Fig.
y 3-10). For convenience, the origin is placed at the airport.
(We don’t have to do this. We could shift and misalign the
coordinate system but, given a choice, why make the prob-
200
P
→
d
lem more difficult?) The airplane’s displacement d points
from the origin to where the airplane is sighted.
→
To find the components of d , we use Eq. 3-5 with
Distance (km)

22°
θ = 68° (= 90° − 22°):
km

100
215

dx = d cos θ = (215 km)(cos 68°)

= 81 km (Answer)
θ
x
dy = d sin θ = (215 km)(sin 68°)
0
0 100 = 199 km ≈ 2.0 × 102 km. (Answer)
Distance (km)

Figure 3-10 A plane takes off from an airport at the origin and is Thus, the airplane is 81 km east and 2.0 × 102 km north of
later sighted at P. the airport.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS 45

Problem-Solving Tactics Angles, trig functions, and inverse trig functions

Tactic 1: Angles—Degrees and Radians Angles that are Quadrants

IV I II III IV
measured relative to the positive direction of the x axis are
positive if they are measured in the counterclockwise direc-
tion and negative if measured clockwise. For example, 210° +1
and −150° are the same angle. sin
Angles may be measured in degrees or radians (rad). To –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°
relate the two measures, recall that a full circle is 360° and
–1
2π rad. To convert, say, 40° to radians, write
2π rad
40° = 0.70 rad. (a)
360°
Tactic 2: Trig Functions You need to know the definitions
of the common trigonometric functions — sine, cosine, and
tangent — because they are part of the language of science
and engineering. They are given in Fig. 3-11 in a form that +1
does not depend on how the triangle is labeled. cos
You should also be able to sketch how the trig func-
–90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°
tions vary with angle, as in Fig. 3-12, in order to be able to
judge whether a calculator result is reasonable. Even know- –1
ing the signs of the functions in the various quadrants can
be of help.
(b)

Tactic 3: Inverse Trig Functions When the inverse trig

functions sin−1, cos−1, and tan−1 are taken on a calculator,
you must consider the reasonableness of the answer you
get, because there is usually another possible answer that
the calculator does not give. The range of operation for a +2 tan
calculator in taking each inverse trig function is indicated
in Fig. 3-12. As an example, sin−1 0.5 has associated angles +1
of 30° (which is displayed by the calculator, since 30° falls
within its range of operation) and 150°. To see both values, –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°
draw a horizontal line through 0.5 in Fig. 3-12a and note –1
where it cuts the sine curve. How do you distinguish a cor-
rect answer? It is the one that seems more reasonable for –2
the given situation.

Tactic 4: Measuring Vector Angles The equations for (c)

cos θ and sin θ in Eq. 3-5 and for tan θ in Eq. 3-6 are valid Figure 3-12 Three useful curves to remember. A calculator’s
only if the angle is measured from the positive direction of the range of operation for taking inverse trig functions is indicated
by the darker portions of the colored curves.

leg opposite θ
sin θ =
hypotenuse
x axis. If it is measured relative to some other direction, then
Hypotenuse
leg adjacent to θ
Leg the trig functions in Eq. 3-5 may have to be interchanged and
cos θ = opposite θ
hypotenuse the ratio in Eq. 3-6 may have to be inverted. A safer method is
θ
to convert the angle to one measured from the positive direc-
Leg adjacent to θ
leg opposite θ tion of the x axis. In WileyPLUS, the system expects you to
tan θ =
leg adjacent to θ
report an angle of direction like this (and positive if counter-
Figure 3-11 A triangle used to define the trigonometric clockwise and negative if clockwise).
functions. See also Appendix E.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

46 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .

3.06 Convert a vector between magnitude-angle and 3.08 Identify that, for a given vector, rotating the coordi-
unit-vector notations. nate system about the origin can change the vector’s
3.07 Add and subtract vectors in magnitude-angle nota- components but not the vector itself.
tion and in unit-vector notation.

Key Ideas
● Unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ have magnitudes of unity and are in which axî, ay ĵ, and azk̂ are the vector components of →
a
directed in the positive directions of the x, y, and z axes, and ax, ay, and az are its scalar components.
respectively, in a right-handed coordinate system. We can ● To add vectors in component form, we use the rules
write a vector →a in terms of unit vectors as rx = ax + bx ry = ay + by rz = az + bz.
→ →
Here →
a = a î + a ĵ + a k̂, →
x y z a and b are the vectors to be added, and r is the
vector sum. Note that we add components axis by axis.

Unit Vectors
The unit vectors point A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1 and points in a particu-
along axes. lar direction. It lacks both dimension and unit. Its sole purpose is to point — that
is, to specify a direction. The unit vectors in the positive directions of the x, y, and
y
z axes are labeled î, ĵ, and k̂, where the hat ˆ is used instead of an overhead arrow
as for other vectors (Fig. 3-13). The arrangement of axes in Fig. 3-13 is said to be a
ĵ right-handed coordinate system. The system remains right-handed if it is rotated
x rigidly. We use such coordinate systems exclusively in this book.
k̂ î
Unit vectors are very useful for expressing other vectors; for example, we can
→
z express → a and b of Figs. 3-7 and 3-8 as
Figure 3-13 Unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂ define →
a = ax î + ay ĵ (3-7)
the directions of a right-handed coordinate
system. →
and b = bx î + by ĵ. (3-8)

These two equations are illustrated in Fig. 3-14. The quantities axî and ay ĵ are
vectors, called the vector components of →a . The quantities ax and ay are scalars,
called the scalar components of →
a (or, as before, simply its components).

This is the y vector component.

y

y
a y ˆj a
b x î
θ O x
θ
b
x
O a xˆi b y ˆj
Figure 3-14 (a) The vector components
of vector →a . (b) The vector components This is the x vector
→
of vector b . (a) component. (b)

Adding Vectors by Components

We can add vectors geometrically on a sketch or directly on a vector-capable
calculator. A third way is to combine their components axis by axis.
3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS 47

To start, consider the statement

→ →
r =→ a + b, (3-9)
→ → →
which says that the vector r is the same as the vector ( a + b ). Thus, each
→ →
component of → r must be the same as the corresponding component of ( a + b ):
rx = ax + bx (3-10)
ry = ay + by (3-11)
rz = az + bz. (3-12)
In other words, two vectors must be equal if their corresponding components
→
are equal. Equations 3-9 to 3-12 tell us that to add vectors → a and b , we must
(1) resolve the vectors into their scalar components; (2) combine these scalar
components, axis by axis, to get the components of the sum → r ; and (3) combine
the components of → r to get →
r itself. We have a choice in step 3. We can express
→r in unit-vector notation or in magnitude-angle notation.
This procedure for adding vectors by components also applies to vector
→ →
subtractions. Recall that a subtraction such as d = →a − b can be rewritten as an
→ → → → →
addition d = a + (− b ) . To subtract, we add a and − b by components, to get
dx = ax − bx, dy = ay − by, and dz = az − bz,
→
where d = dx î + dy ĵ + dzk̂. (3-13)
y
Checkpoint 3
(a) In the figure here, what are the signs of the x
→ → d2
components of d1 and d2? (b) What are the signs of d1
→ →
the y components of d1 and d2? (c) What are the
→ →
signs of the x and y components of d1 + d2? x
y

Vectors and the Laws of Physics

So far, in every figure that includes a coordinate system, the x and y axes are
parallel to the edges of the book page. Thus, when a vector → ay a
a is included, its com-
ponents ax and ay are also parallel to the edges (as in Fig. 3-15a). The only reason θ
for that orientation of the axes is that it looks “proper”; there is no deeper reason. x
O ax
We could, instead, rotate the axes (but not the vector → a ) through an angle ϕ as (a)
in Fig. 3-15b, in which case the components would have new values, call them a′x
and a′y. Since there are an infinite number of choices of ϕ, there are an infinite
Rotating the axes
number of different pairs of components for → a.
changes the components
Which then is the “right” pair of components? The answer is that they are
but not the vector.
all equally valid because each pair (with its axes) just gives us a different way of
describing the same vector → a ; all produce the same magnitude and direction for y
the vector. In Fig. 3-15 we have y'

a = √ax2 + ay2 = √a′x 2 + a′y 2 (3-14)

and a x'
θ = θ′ + ϕ. (3-15) a'y
θ'
a'x
ϕ
The point is that we have great freedom in choosing a coordinate system, x
O
because the relations among vectors do not depend on the location of the origin (b)
or on the orientation of the axes. This is also true of the relations of physics; they
are all independent of the choice of coordinate system. Add to that the simplicity Figure 3-15 (a) The vector →a and its
and richness of the language of vectors and you can see why the laws of physics are components. (b) The same vector, with
the axes of the coordinate system rotated
almost always presented in that language: one equation, like Eq. 3-9, can repre-
through an angle ϕ.
sent three (or even more) relations, like Eqs. 3-10, 3-11, and 3-12.
48 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

Sample Problem 3.03 Searching through a hedge maze

A hedge maze is a maze formed by tall rows of hedge. Calculations: To evaluate Eqs. 3-16 and 3-17, we find the x and
After entering, you search for the center point and then y components of each displacement. As an example, the com-
for the exit. Figure 3-16a shows the entrance to such a ponents for the first displacement are shown in Fig. 3-16c. We
maze and the first two choices we make at the junctions we draw similar diagrams for the other two displacements and
encounter in moving from point i to point c. We undergo then we apply the x part of Eq. 3-5 to each displacement, using
three displacements as indicated in the overhead view of angles relative to the positive direction of the x axis:
Fig. 3-16b:
dlx = (6.00 m) cos 40° = 4.60 m
d1 = 6.00 m θ1 = 40° d2x = (8.00 m) cos (−60°) = 4.00 m
d2 = 8.00 m θ2 = 30° d3x = (5.00 m) cos 0° = 5.00 m.
d3 = 5.00 m θ3 = 0°,
Equation 3-16 then gives us
where the last segment is parallel to the superimposed x axis.
dnet, x = +4.60 m + 4.00 m + 5.00 m
When we reach point c, what are the magnitude and angle of
→
our net displacement d net from point i? = 13.60 m.
Similarly, to evaluate Eq. 3-17, we apply the y part of Eq. 3-5
KEY IDEAS to each displacement:
→
(1) To find the net displacement d net, we need to sum the dly = (6.00 m) sin 40° = 3.86 m
three individual displacement vectors:
d2y = (8.00 m) sin (−60°) = −6.93 m
→ → → →
d net = d 1 + d 2 + d 3. d3y = (5.00 m) sin 0° = 0 m.
(2) To do this, we first evaluate this sum for the x compo-
Equation 3-17 then gives us
nents alone,
dnet,x = dlx + d2x + d3x, (3-16) dnet,y = +3.86 m − 6.93 m + 0 m
= −3.07 m.
and then the y components alone, →
Next we use these components of d net to construct the vec-
dnet,y = d1y + d2y + d3y. (3-17) tor as shown in Fig. 3-16d: the components are in a head-to-
→ tail arrangement and form the legs of a right triangle, and
(3) Finally, we construct d net from its x and y components.

y
y
a Three First
vectors vector
a d1 θ2 d
2
θ1
d1
i x d1y

b d x
3
c d1x
i (b)
b
c y (c)
Net
vector dnet,x
(a) i x
dnet,y
dnet

(d)

Figure 3-16 (a) Three displacements through a hedge maze. (b) The displacement vectors. (c) The first displacement vector and its
components. (d) The net displacement vector and its components.
3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS 49

the vector forms the hypotenuse. We find the magnitude tangent on a calculator. The answer it displays is mathemati-
→
and angle of d net with Eq. 3-6. The magnitude is cally correct but it may not be the correct answer for the
physical situation. In those cases, we have to add 180° to the
dnet = √d2net,x + d2net,y (3-18) displayed answer, to reverse the vector. To check, we always
need to draw the vector and its components as we did in
= √(13.60 m)2 + (−3.07 m)2 = 13.9 m. (Answer) Fig. 3-16d. In our physical situation, the figure shows us that
To find the angle (measured from the positive direction of x), θ = −12.7° is a reasonable answer, whereas −12.7° + 180° =
we take an inverse tangent: 167° is clearly not.

( )
We can see all this on the graph of tangent versus angle in
dnet,y Fig. 3-12c. In our maze problem, the argument of the inverse
θ = tan−1 (3-19)
dnet,x tangent is −3.07/13.60, or −0.226. On the graph draw a hori-
zontal line through that value on the vertical axis. The line
–3.07 m
= tan−1
13.60 m ( )
= −12.7°. (Answer)
cuts through the darker plotted branch at −12.7° and also
through the lighter branch at 167°. The first cut is what a cal-
culator displays.
The angle is negative because it is measured clockwise from
positive x. We must always be alert when we take an inverse

Sample Problem 3.04 Adding vectors, unit-vector components

Figure 3-17a shows the following three vectors: KEY IDEA

→
a = (4.2 m)î − (1.5 m)ĵ, We can add the three vectors by components, axis by axis,
→
b = (−1.6 m)î + (2.9 m)ĵ, and then combine the components to write the vector sum → r.
→
and c = (−3.7 m)ĵ. Calculations: For the x axis, we add the x components of →a,
→ → → →
What is their vector sum r which is also shown? b , and c , to get the x component of the vector sum r :
y rx = ax + bx + cx
= 4.2 m − 1.6 m + 0 = 2.6 m.
3
b To add these vectors, Similarly, for the y axis,
2 find their net x component
and their net y component. ry = ay + by + cy
1
= −1.5 m + 2.9 m − 3.7 m = −2.3 m.
We then combine these components of →
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 r to write the vector
–1 in unit-vector notation:
a
→
–2 r = (2.6 m)î − (2.3 m)ĵ, (Answer)
r →
–3 where (2.6 m)î is the vector component of r along the x axis
c
and −(2.3 m)ĵ is that along the y axis. Figure 3-17b shows
(a) one way to arrange these vector components to form → r.
Then arrange the net
(Can you sketch the other way?)
y components head to tail.
2.6iˆ We can also answer the question by giving the magnitude
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x and an angle for →r . From Eq. 3-6, the magnitude is
–1
–2.3ĵ
–2
r r = √(2.6 m)2 + (−2.3 m)2 ≈ 3.5 m (Answer)
–3 and the angle (measured from the +x direction) is

(b) This is the result of the addition.

θ = tan−1 ( −2.3 m
2.6 m ) = −41°, (Answer)

Figure 3-17 Vector →

r is the vector sum of the other three vectors. where the minus sign means clockwise.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

50 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

3-3 MULTIPLYING VECTORS

Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.09 Multiply vectors by scalars. 3.13 Given two vectors, use a dot product to find how
3.10 Identify that multiplying a vector by a scalar gives a vec- much of one vector lies along the other vector.
tor, taking the dot (or scalar) product of two vectors gives 3.14 Find the cross product of two vectors in magnitude-
a scalar, and taking the cross (or vector) product gives a angle and unit-vector notations.
new vector that is perpendicular to the original two. 3.15 Use the right-hand rule to find the direction of the
3.11 Find the dot product of two vectors in magnitude- vector that results from a cross product.
angle notation and in unit-vector notation. 3.16 In nested products, where one product is buried inside
3.12 Find the angle between two vectors by taking their another, follow the normal algebraic procedure by start-
dot product in both magnitude-angle notation and unit- ing with the innermost product and working outward.
vector notation.
Key Ideas
→
The product of a scalar s and a vector → v is a new vec- ● The vector (or cross) product of two vectors →
a and b
●
→ → →
tor whose magnitude is sv and whose direction is the is written a × b and is a vector c whose magnitude c is
same as that of → v if s is positive, and opposite that of → v given by
if s is negative. To divide → v by s, multiply → v by 1/s. c = ab sin ϕ,
→ →
● The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors a and b is in which ϕ is the smaller of the angles between the direc-
→ → →
written a ⋅ b and is the scalar quantity given by → →
tions of a and b . The direction of c is perpendicular to
→ → → →
a ⋅ b = ab cos ϕ, the plane defined by a and b and is given by a right-hand
→ →
→ rule, as shown in Fig. 3-19. Note that → a × b = −( b × →
in which ϕ is the angle between the directions of →
a ).
a and b .
A scalar product is the product of the magnitude of one In unit-vector notation,
vector and the scalar component of the second vector → →
a × b = (axî + ay ĵ + azk̂) × (bxî + by ĵ + bzk̂),
along the direction of the first vector. In unit-vector notation,
→ → which we may expand with the distributive law.
a ⋅ b = (axî + ay ĵ + azk̂) ⋅ (bxî + by ĵ + bzk̂),
● In nested products, where one product is buried inside
which may be expanded according to the distributive law. another, follow the normal algebraic procedure by start-
→ →
Note that →
a ⋅ b = b ⋅→
a. ing with the innermost product and working outward.

Multiplying Vectors*
There are three ways in which vectors can be multiplied, but none is exactly like
the usual algebraic multiplication. As you read this material, keep in mind that
a vector-capable calculator will help you multiply vectors only if you understand
the basic rules of that multiplication.

Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

If we multiply a vector → a by a scalar s, we get a new vector. Its magnitude is
the product of the magnitude of → a and the absolute value of s. Its direction is the
direction of →
a if s is positive but the opposite direction if s is negative. To divide
→a by s, we multiply → a by 1/s.

Multiplying a Vector by a Vector

There are two ways to multiply a vector by a vector: one way produces a scalar
(called the scalar product), and the other produces a new vector (called the vector
product). (Students commonly confuse the two ways.)

*This material will not be employed until later (Chapter 7 for scalar products and Chapter 11 for vec-
tor products), and so your instructor may wish to postpone it.
3-3 MULTIPLYING VECTORS 51

The Scalar Product

→ →
The scalar product of the vectors →
a and b in Fig. 3-18a is written as →
a · b and
defined to be
→ →
a · b = ab cos ϕ, (3-20)
→
where a is the magnitude of → a , b is the magnitude of b , and ϕ is the angle between
→ → →
a and b (or, more properly, between the directions of → a and b ). There are actu-
ally two such angles: ϕ and 360° ‒ ϕ. Either can be used in Eq. 3-20, because their
cosines are the same.
Note that there are only scalars on the right side of Eq. 3-20 (including the
→
value of cos ϕ). Thus →a · b on the left side represents a scalar quantity. Because
→ →
of the notation, a · b is also known as the dot product and is spoken as “a dot b.”
A dot product can be regarded as the product of two quantities: (1) the mag-
nitude of one of the vectors and (2) the scalar component of the second vector
along the direction of the first vector. For example, in Fig. 3-18b, → a has a scalar
→
component a cos ϕ along the direction of b ; note that a perpendicular dropped
→ →
from the head of →a onto b determines that component. Similarly, b has a scalar
→
component b cos ϕ along the direction of a .

If the angle ϕ between two vectors is 0°, the component of one vector along the
other is maximum, and so also is the dot product of the vectors. If, instead, ϕ is
90°, the component of one vector along the other is zero, and so is the dot product.

Equation 3-20 can be rewritten as follows to emphasize the components:

→ →
a · b = (a cos ϕ)(b) = (a)(b cos ϕ). (3-21)
The commutative law applies to a scalar product, so we can write
→ → →
a · b = b ·→ a.
When two vectors are in unit-vector notation, we write their dot product as
→ →
a · b = (axî + ay ĵ + azk̂) · (bxî + by ĵ + bzk̂), (3-22)
which we can expand according to the distributive law: Each vector component of
the first vector is to be dotted with each vector component of the second vector.
By doing so, we can show that
→ →
a · b = axbx + ayby + azbz. (3-23)

a
ϕ
b
(a)

Component of b
along direction of
a is b cos ϕ

Multiplying these gives

the dot product. a
ϕ
b
Figure 3-18 (a) Two vectors Component of a
→ →
a and b , with an angle ϕ along direction of
between them. (b) Each vector
Or multiplying these b is a cos ϕ
has a component along the (b)
gives the dot product.
direction of the other vector.
52 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

Checkpoint 4
→ →
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units, respectively. What is the
→ → → →
angle between the directions of C and D if C ⋅ D equals (a) zero, (b) 12 units,
and (c) ‒12 units?

The Vector Product

→ →
The vector product of →
a and b , written →
a × b , produces a third vector →
c whose
magnitude is

c = ab sin ϕ, (3-24)
→
where ϕ is the smaller of the two angles between → a and b . (You must use the
smaller of the two angles between the vectors because sin ϕ and sin(360° − ϕ) dif-
→
fer in algebraic sign.) Because of the notation, →
a × b is also known as the cross
product, and in speech it is “a cross b.”

→ → →
If →
a and b are parallel or antiparallel, → a × b = 0. The magnitude of →
a × b,
→ → → →
which can be written as | a × b | , is maximum when a and b are perpendicular
to each other.

→
The direction of → c is perpendicular to the plane that contains → a and b .
→ → →
Figure 3-19a shows how to determine the direction of c = a × b with what
→
is known as a right-hand rule. Place the vectors → a and b tail to tail without
altering their orientations, and imagine a line that is perpendicular to their plane
where they meet. Pretend to place your right hand around that line in such a way
→
that your fingers would sweep → a into b through the smaller angle between them.
Your outstretched thumb points in the direction of → c.
The order of the vector multiplication is important. In Fig. 3-19b, we are
→ →
determining the direction of → c′= b × → a , so the fingers are placed to sweep b
into →a through the smaller angle. The thumb ends up in the opposite direction
from previously, and so it must be that →
c ′ = ‒→ c ; that is,
→ → → →
b × a = −( a × b ). (3-25)
In other words, the commutative law does not apply to a vector product.
In unit-vector notation, we write
→ →
a × b = (axî + ay ĵ + azk̂) × (bxî + by ĵ + bzk̂), (3-26)

which can be expanded according to the distributive law; that is, each component
of the first vector is to be crossed with each component of the second vector. The
cross products of unit vectors are given in Appendix E (see “Products of Vec-
tors”). For example, in the expansion of Eq. 3-26, we have
axî × bxî = axbx(î × î) = 0,
because the two unit vectors î and î are parallel and thus have a zero cross prod-
uct. Similarly, we have
axî × by ĵ = axby(î × ĵ) = axbyk̂.
In the last step we used Eq. 3-24 to evaluate the magnitude of î × ĵ as unity.
(These vectors î and ĵ each have a magnitude of unity, and the angle between
them is 90°.) Also, we used the right-hand rule to get the direction of î × ĵ as
being in the positive direction of the z axis (thus in the direction of k̂).
3-3 MULTIPLYING VECTORS 53

Continuing to expand Eq. 3-26, you can show that

→ →
a × b = (ay bz − byaz)î + (azbx − bz ax)ĵ + (axby − bx ay)k̂. (3-27)
A determinant (Appendix E) or a vector-capable calculator can also be used.
To check whether any xyz coordinate system is a right-handed coordinate
system, use the right-hand rule for the cross product î × ĵ = k̂ with that system. If
your fingers sweep î (positive direction of x) into ĵ (positive direction of y) with
the outstretched thumb pointing in the positive direction of z (not the negative
direction), then the system is right-handed.

Checkpoint 5
→ →
Vectors C and D have magnitudes of 3 units and 4 units, respectively. What is the
→ →
angle between the directions of C and D if the magnitude of the vector product
→ →
C × D is (a) zero and (b) 12 units?

a
b b b

(a)

b
a a a

c′

(b)
→ →
Figure 3-19 Illustration of the right-hand rule for vector products. (a) Sweep vector a into vector b with the fingers of your right hand.
→ → → →
Your outstretched thumb shows the direction of vector c = a × b . (b) Showing that b × a is the reverse of →
→ → a × b.
54 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

Sample Problem 3.05 Angle between two vectors using dot products
→
What is the angle ϕ between →
a = 3.0î ‒ 4.0ĵ and b = ‒2.0î + We can separately evaluate the left side of Eq. 3-28 by
3.0k̂? (Caution: Although many of the following steps can writing the vectors in unit-vector notation and using the
be bypassed with a vector-capable calculator, you will learn distributive law:
more about scalar products if, at least here, you use these → →
steps.) a ⋅ b = (3.0î ‒ 4.0ĵ) ⋅ (‒2.0î + 3.0k̂)
= (3.0î) ⋅ (‒2.0î) + (3.0î) ⋅ (3.0k̂)
KEY IDEA + (‒4.0ĵ) ⋅ (‒2.0î) + (‒4.0ĵ) ⋅ (3.0k̂).
We next apply Eq. 3-20 to each term in this last expression.
The angle between the directions of two vectors is included
The angle between the unit vectors in the first term (î and î) is
in the definition of their scalar product (Eq. 3-20):
0°, and in the other terms it is 90°. We then have
→ →
a ⋅ b = ab cos ϕ. (3-28) → →
a ⋅ b = −(6.0)(1) + (9.0)(0) + (8.0)(0) − (12)(0)
= −6.0.
Calculations: In Eq. 3-28, a is the magnitude of →
a , or
Substituting this result and the results of Eqs. 3-29 and 3-30
a = √3.02 + (−4.0)2 = 5.00, (3-29) into Eq. 3-28 yields
→ −6.0 = (5.00)(3.61) cos ϕ,
and b is the magnitude of b , or
−6.0
so ϕ = cos−1 = 109° ≈ 110°. (Answer)
b = √(−2.0)2 + 3.02 = 3.61. (3-30) (5.00)(3.61)

Sample Problem 3.06 Cross product, right-hand rule

In Fig. 3-20, vector →a lies in the xy plane, has a magnitude z

Sweep a into b.
of 18 units, and points in a direction 250° from the positive
→
direction of the x axis. Also, vector b has a magnitude of
12 units and points in the positive direction of the z axis. What a b
→ b
is the vector product → c =→ a × b? c=a
This is the resulting
KEY IDEA 250°
vector, perpendicular to
160° both a and b.
When we have two vectors in magnitude-angle notation, we x y
find the magnitude of their cross product with Eq. 3-24 and
the direction of their cross product with the right-hand rule Figure 3-20 Vector →
c (in the xy plane) is the vector (or cross)
→
product of vectors →
a and b .
of Fig. 3-19.
then gives the direction of → c . Thus, as shown in the figure,
Calculations: For the magnitude we write →c lies in the xy plane. Because its direction is perpendicular
c = ab sin ϕ = (18)(12)(sin 90°) = 216. (Answer) to the direction of →a (a cross product always gives a perpen-
To determine the direction in Fig. 3-20, imagine placing the dicular vector), it is at an angle of
fingers of your right hand around a line perpendicular to 250° − 90° = 160° (Answer)
→
the plane of →a and b (the line on which → c is shown) such
→ from the positive direction of the x axis.
that your fingers sweep →
a into b . Your outstretched thumb

Sample Problem 3.07 Cross product, unit-vector notation

→ →
If →
a = 3î − 4ĵ and b = −2î + 3k̂, what is →
c =→
a × b? Calculations: Here we write
→
KEY IDEA c = (3î − 4ĵ) × (−2î + 3k̂)

= 3î × (−2î) + 3î × 3k̂ + (−4ĵ) × (−2î)

When two vectors are in unit-vector notation, we can find
their cross product by using the distributive law. + (−4ĵ) × 3k̂.
REVIEW & SUMMARY 55

→
We next evaluate each term with Eq. 3-24, finding the This vector → c is perpendicular to both →
a and b , a fact you
→ → → →
direction with the right-hand rule. For the first term here, can check by showing that c ⋅ a = 0 and c ⋅ b = 0; that
the angle ϕ between the two vectors being crossed is 0. For →
is, there is no component of c along the direction of either
→ →
the other terms, ϕ is 90°. We find a or b .
→ In general: A cross product gives a perpendicular vec-
c = −6(0) + 9(−ĵ) + 8(−k̂) − 12î
tor, two perpendicular vectors have a zero dot product, and
= −12î − 9 ĵ − 8k̂. (Answer) two vectors along the same axis have a zero cross product.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

Review & Summary

Scalars and Vectors Scalars, such as temperature, have magni- Adding Vectors in Component Form To add vectors in com-
tude only. They are specified by a number with a unit (10°C) and ponent form, we use the rules
obey the rules of arithmetic and ordinary algebra. Vectors, such as
displacement, have both magnitude and direction (5 m, north) and rx = ax + bx ry = ay + by rz = az + bz. (3-10 to 3-12)
→
Here →
obey the rules of vector algebra. →
a and b are the vectors to be added, and r is the vector sum.
→ Note that we add components axis by axis.We can then express the
Adding Vectors Geometrically Two vectors → a and b may sum in unit-vector notation or magnitude-angle notation.
be added geometrically by drawing them to a common scale
and placing them head to tail. The vector connecting the tail Product of a Scalar and a Vector The product of a scalar s and
of the first to the head of the second is the vector sum → s . To a vector → v is a new vector whose magnitude is sv and whose direc-
→ → →
subtract b from → a , reverse the direction of b to get − b ; then tion is the same as that of → v if s is positive, and opposite that of →
v
→
add − b to → a . Vector addition is commutative if s is negative. (The negative sign reverses the vector.) To divide
→
→ → → v by s, multiply → v by 1/s.
a + b = b +→ a (3-2)
and obeys the associative law The Scalar Product The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors
→ → →
a and b is written → a ⋅ b and is the scalar quantity given by
→ → → → → →
( a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c ). (3-3) → →
a ⋅ b = ab cos ϕ, (3-20)
→
Components of a Vector The (scalar) components ax and ay of in which ϕ is the angle between the directions of → a and b . A sca-
any two-dimensional vector →a along the coordinate axes are found lar product is the product of the magnitude of one vector and the
by dropping perpendicular lines from the ends of →
a onto the coor- scalar component of the second vector along the direction of the
→ →
dinate axes. The components are given by first vector. Note that →
a ⋅ b = b ⋅→ a , which means that the scalar
ax = a cos θ and ay = a sin θ, (3-5) product obeys the commutative law.
In unit-vector notation,
where θ is the angle between the positive direction of the x axis →
→
and the direction of →a . The algebraic sign of a component indi- a ⋅ b = (axî + ay ĵ + az k̂) ⋅ (bxî + by ĵ + bz k̂), (3-22)
cates its direction along the associated axis. Given its compo-
which may be expanded according to the distributive law.
nents, we can find the magnitude and orientation (direction) of
the vector →a by using
The Vector Product The vector (or cross) product of two vec-
→ →
ay tors →a and b is written →
a × b and is a vector →
c whose magnitude
a=√ a2x + a2y and tan θ = . (3-6) c is given by
ax
c = ab sin ϕ, (3-24)
Unit-Vector Notation Unit vectors î, k̂, and k̂ have magnitudes
in which ϕ is the smaller of the angles between the directions
→
of →a and b . The direction of →
of unity and are directed in the positive directions of the x, y,
c is perpendicular to the plane
→
defined by →
and z axes, respectively, in a right-handed coordinate system
a and b and is given by a right-hand rule, as shown
→ →
in Fig. 3-19. Note that → a × b = −( b × →
(as defined by the vector products of the unit vectors). We can
a ), which means that
write a vector →
a in terms of unit vectors as
the vector product does not obey the commutative law.
→ In unit-vector notation,
a = axî + ay ĵ + az k̂, (3-7)
→ →
in which ax î, ay ĵ, and az k̂ are the vector components of →
a and ax, a × b = (axî + ay ĵ + az k̂) × (bxî + by ĵ + bz k̂), (3-26)
ay, and az are its scalar components. which we may expand with the distributive law.
56 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

Questions
→
1 Can the sum of the magnitudes y 6 Describe two vectors → a and b such that
of two vectors ever be equal to the → → →
magnitude of the sum of the same (a) a + b = c and a + b = c;
→ → → →
two vectors? If no, why not? If yes, d2 (b) a + b = a − b ;
when? → → →
(c) a + b = c and a2 + b2 = c2.
x → → →
2 The two vectors shown in Fig. 3-21 → → → → →
7 If d = a + b + (− c ), does (a) a + (− d ) = c + (− b ),
lie in an xy plane. What are the signs → → → → → → → →
(b) a = (− b ) + d + c , and (c) c + (− d ) = a + b ?
of the x and y components, respec- → → → → → →
→ → → → d1 8 If a ⋅ b = a ⋅ c , must b equal c ?
tively, of (a) d1 + d2, (b) d1 ‒ d2, and →
→ → → → → →
(c) d2 ‒ d1,? Figure 3-21 Question 2. 9 If F = q( v × B ) and v is perpendicular to B , then what is
→
the direction of B in the three situations shown in Fig. 3-24 when
3 Being part of the “Gators,” the
constant q is (a) positive and (b) negative?
University of Florida golfing team must y
play on a putting green with an alligator y y y
Hole F
pit. Figure 3-22 shows an overhead view F
of one putting challenge of the team; an v v
xy coordinate system is superimposed. Gator x x x
Team members must putt from the ori- pit
z v z z F
gin to the hole, which is at xy coordi-
nates (8 m, 12 m), but they can putt the (1) (2) (3)
x
golf ball using only one or more of the Figure 3-24 Question 9.
following displacements, one or more Figure 3-22 Question 3.
times: →
10 Figure 3-25 shows vector A and
→ → → D B
d1 = (8 m)î + (6 m)ĵ, d2 = (6 m)ĵ, d3 = (8 m)î. four other vectors that have the same
magnitude but differ in orientation. θ
The pit is at coordinates (8 m, 6 m). If a team member putts the θ
(a) Which of those other four vectors θ A
ball into or through the pit, the member is automatically trans- → θ
have the same dot product with A ?
ferred to Florida State University, the arch rival. What sequence
(b) Which have a negative dot product
of displacements should a team member use to avoid the pit and → C
the school transfer? with A ? E
→ 11 In a game held within a three-
4 Equation 3-2 shows that the addition of two vectors →a and b is Figure 3-25 Question 10.
dimensional maze, you must move
commutative. Does that mean subtraction is commutative, so that your game piece from start, at xyz
→ → →
a − b = b −→ a? coordinates (0, 0, 0), to finish, at coordinates (−2 cm, 4 cm, −4 cm).
5 Which of the arrangements of axes in Fig. 3-23 can be labeled The game piece can undergo only the displacements (in centime-
“right-handed coordinate system”? As usual, each axis label indi- ters) given below. If, along the way, the game piece lands at coor-
cates the positive side of the axis. dinates (−5 cm, −1 cm, −1 cm) or (5 cm, 2 cm, −1 cm), you lose
the game. Which displacements and in what sequence will get your
game piece to finish?
→
z x
p = −7î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ → r = 2î − 3ĵ + 2k̂
→ →
q = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂ s = 3î + 5ĵ − 3k̂.
→ →
x x y 12 The x and y components of four vectors → a, b , → c , and d are
given below. For which vectors will your calculator give you the
y z z correct angle θ when you use it to find θ with Eq. 3-6? Answer first
y
by examining Fig. 3-12, and then check your answers with your
(a ) (b ) (c ) calculator.
ax = 3 ay = 3 cx = −3 cy = −3
x z bx = −3 by = 3 dx = 3 dy = −3.
x
13 Which of the following are correct (meaningful) vector
expressions? What is wrong with any incorrect expression?
z y y → → → → → →
(a) A ⋅ ( B ⋅ C ) (f) A + ( B × C )
→ → → →
z x
(b) A × ( B ⋅ C ) (g) 5 + A
y → → → → →
(c) A ⋅ ( B × C ) (h) 5 + ( B ⋅ C )
(d ) (e ) (f ) → → → → →
(d) A × ( B × C ) (i) 5 + ( B × C )
→ → → → → → →
Figure 3-23 Question 5. (e) A + ( B ⋅ C ) (j) ( A ⋅ B ) + ( B × C )
PROBLEMS 57

Problems
Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS and WebAssign
SSM Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual WWW Worked-out solution is at
http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday
• – ••• Number of dots indicates level of problem difficulty ILW Interactive solution is at
Additional information available in The Flying Circus of Physics and at flyingcircusofphysics.com

Module 3-1 Vectors and Their Components •12 A car is driven east for a distance of 50 km, then north for
•1 SSM What are (a) the x component and (b) the y component of a 30 km, and then in a direction 30° east of north for 25 km. Sketch
vector →a in the xy plane if its direction is 250° the vector diagram and determine (a) the magnitude and (b) the
counterclockwise from the positive direction y angle of the car’s total displacement from its starting point.
of the x axis and its magnitude is 7.3 m? •13 A person desires to reach a point that is 3.40 km from her
r
•2 A displacement vector → r in the xy plane θ
present location and in a direction that is 35.0° north of east. How-
is 15 m long and directed at angle θ = 30° in x ever, she must travel along streets that are oriented either north –
Fig. 3-26. Determine (a) the x component Figure 3-26 south or east – west. What is the minimum distance she could travel
and (b) the y component of the vector. Problem 2. to reach her destination?
→
•3 SSM The x component of vector A is •14 You are to make four straight-line moves over a flat des-
‒25.0 m and the y component is +40.0 m. (a) What is the magnitude ert floor, starting at the origin of an xy coordinate system and
→ → ending at the xy coordinates (−140 m, 30 m). The x component
of A ? (b) What is the angle between the direction of A and the
positive direction of x? and y component of your moves are the following, respectively,
in meters: (20 and 60), then (bx and −70), then (−20 and cy), then
•4 Express the following angles in radians: (a) 20.0°, (b) 50.0°, (−60 and −70). What are (a) component bx and (b) component
(c) 100°. Convert the following angles to degrees: (d) 0.330 rad, cy? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the angle (relative to the
(e) 2.10 rad, (f) 7.70 rad. positive direction of the x axis) of the overall displacement?
•5 A ship sets out to sail to a point 120 km due north. An unex- •15 SSM ILW WWW The two vec- y
→
pected storm blows the ship to a point 100 km due east of its tors →a and b in Fig. 3-28 have equal
starting point. (a) How far and (b) in what direction must it now
magnitudes of 10.0 m and the angles b
sail to reach its original destination?
are θ1 = 30° and θ2 = 105°. Find the θ2
•6 In Fig. 3-27, a heavy piece of (a) x and (b) y components of their
machinery is raised by sliding it a d vector sum → r , (c) the magnitude of
distance d = 12.5 m along a plank →
oriented at angle θ = 20.0° to the r , and (d) the angle → r makes with a
the positive direction of the x axis. θ1
horizontal. How far is it moved x
O
(a) vertically and (b) horizontally? •16 For the displacement vec-
•7 Consider two displacements,
θ tors →a = (3.0 m)î + (4.0 m)ĵ and Figure 3-28 Problem 15.
→
one of magnitude 3 m and another b = (5.0 m)î + (‒2.0 m)ĵ, give
Figure 3-27 Problem 6. → →
of magnitude 4 m. Show how the a + b in (a) unit-vector notation,
displacement vectors may be combined to get a resultant displace- and as (b) a magnitude and (c) an angle (relative to î). Now give
→ →
ment of magnitude (a) 7 m, (b) 1 m, and (c) 5 m. b ‒ a in (d) unit-vector notation, and as (e) a magnitude and (f)
an angle.
Module 3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors by Components → → →
•17 ILW Three vectors a , b , and c each have a magnitude of
•8 A person walks in the following pattern: 3.1 km north, then
50 m and lie in an xy plane. Their directions relative to the positive
2.4 km west, and finally 5.2 km south. (a) Sketch the vector dia-
direction of the x axis are 30°, 195°, and 315°, respectively. What
→ →
are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle of the vector →
gram that represents this motion. (b) How far and (c) in what
a + b + c,
direction would a bird fly in a straight line from the same starting → → →
and (c) the magnitude and (d) the angle of a ‒ b + c ? What
point to the same final point? →
are the (e) magnitude and (f) angle of a fourth vector d such that
•9 Two vectors are given by → → → →
( a + b ) − ( c + d ) = 0?
→ → → → →
a = (4.0 m)î ‒ (3.0 m)ĵ + (1.0 m)k̂ •18 In the sum A + B = C , vector A has a magnitude of
→ 12.0 m and is angled 40.0° counterclockwise from the +x direction,
and b = (‒1.0 m)î + (1.0 m)ĵ + (4.0 m)k̂. →
and vector C has a magnitude of 15.0 m and is angled 20.0° coun-
→ → → → terclockwise from the ‒x direction. What are (a) the magnitude
In unit-vector notation, find (a) a + b , (b) a ‒ b , and (c) a third →
→ and (b) the angle (relative to +x) of B ?
vector →c such that →
a ‒ b +→ c = 0.
→ •19 In a game of lawn chess, where pieces are moved between
•10 Find the (a) x, (b) y, and (c) z components of the sum r the centers of squares that are each 1.00 m on edge, a knight is
→ →
of the displacements c and d whose components in meters are moved in the following way: (1) two squares forward, one square
cx = 7.4, cy = ‒3.8, cz = ‒6.1; dx = 4.4, dy = ‒2.0, dz = 3.3. rightward; (2) two squares leftward, one square forward; (3) two
→ →
•11 SSM (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the sum a + b squares forward, one square leftward. What are (a) the magnitude
→ →
if a = (4.0 m) î + (3.0 m)k̂ and b = (‒13.0 m) î + (7.0 m)k̂? and (b) the angle (relative to “forward”) of the knight’s overall
→
What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of →
a + b? displacement for the series of three moves?
58 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

••20 An explorer is caught in a whiteout (in which the snow- direction of the superimposed x axis) of an ant’s displacement from
fall is so thick that the ground cannot be distinguished from the the nest (find it in the figure) if the ant enters the trail at point A?
sky) while returning to base camp. He was supposed to travel due What are the (c) magnitude and (d) angle if it enters at point B?
north for 5.6 km, but when the snow clears, he discovers that he
actually traveled 7.8 km at 50° north of due east. (a) How far and
(b) in what direction must he now travel to reach base camp? b
m
a
••21 An ant, crazed by the Sun on a hot Texas afternoon, darts A l
n
c
over an xy plane scratched in the dirt. The x and y components of e
four consecutive darts are the following, all in centimeters: (30.0, h k B
d o
40.0), (bx, −70.0), (−20.0, cy), (−80.0, −70.0). The overall displace- g p r
f
ment of the four darts has the xy components (−140, −20.0). What j
q
i
are (a) bx and (b) cy? What are the (c) magnitude and (d) angle y
s
(relative to the positive direction of the x axis) of the overall
v
displacement? t
x u
••22 (a) What is the sum of the following four vectors in unit-
vector notation? For that sum, what are (b) the magnitude, (c) the w
angle in degrees, and (d) the angle in radians?
Figure 3-29 Problem 29.
→ →
E : 6.00 m at +0.900 rad F : 5.00 m at −75.0°
→ → ••30 Here are two vectors:
G : 4.00 m at +1.20 rad H : 6.00 m at −21.0° →
→
a = (4.0 m)î − (3.0 m)ĵ and b = (6.0 m)î + (8.0 m)ĵ.
→ → →
••23 If B is added to C = 3.0î + 4.0ĵ, the result is a vector in the What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle (relative to î) of a ?
→ →
positive direction of the y axis, with a magnitude equal to that of C . What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the angle of b ? What are (e)
→
→ the magnitude and (f) the angle of → a + b ; (g) the magnitude and
What is the magnitude of B ? → →
→ (h) the angle of b ‒ a ; and (i) the magnitude and ( j) the angle of
→ → →
••24 Vector A , which is directed along an x axis, is to be a ‒ b ? (k) What is the angle between the directions of b ‒ → a
→ → →
added to vector B , which has a magnitude of 7.0 m. The sum is a and a ‒ b ?
third vector that is directed along the y axis, with a magnitude that →
→ → ••31 In Fig. 3-30, a vector a with a magnitude of 17.0 m is
is 3.0 times that of A . What is that magnitude of A ? directed at angle θ = 56.0° counterclockwise from the +x axis.
••25 Oasis B is 25 km due east of oasis A. Starting from oasis A, What are the components (a) ax and (b) ay of the vector? A sec-
a camel walks 24 km in a direction 15° south of east and then walks ond coordinate system is inclined by angle θ′ = 18.0° with respect
8.0 km due north. How far is the camel then from oasis B? to the first. What are the components (c) a'x and (d) a'y in this
primed coordinate system?
••26 What is the sum of the following four vectors in (a) unit-
vector notation, and as (b) a magnitude and (c) an angle?
y' y
→ →
A = (2.00 m)î + (3.00 m)ĵ B : 4.00 m, at +65.0°
ay
→ → a
C = (−4.00 m)î + (−6.00 m)ĵ D : 5.00 m, at −235°
a'y
→ → → → → → →
••27 If d1 + d2 = 5 d3, d 1 ‒ d2 = 3 d3, and d3 = 2î + 4ĵ, then
→ → x'
what are, in unit-vector notation, (a) d1 and (b) d2? θ' θ a'x
••28 Two beetles run across flat sand, starting at the same point.
Beetle 1 runs 0.50 m due east, then 0.80 m at 30° north of due east. x
O ax
Beetle 2 also makes two runs; the first is 1.6 m at 40° east of due θ'
north. What must be (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of its
Figure 3-30 Problem 31.
second run if it is to end up at the new location of beetle 1?
••29 Typical backyard ants often create a network •••32 In Fig. 3-31, a cube of edge z
of chemical trails for guidance. Extending outward from the length a sits with one corner at the
nest, a trail branches (bifurcates) repeatedly, with 60° between origin of an xyz coordinate system. A
the branches. If a roaming ant chances upon a trail, it can tell the body diagonal is a line that extends a
way to the nest at any branch point: If it is moving away from the from one corner to another through y
nest, it has two choices of path requiring a small turn in its travel the center. In unit-vector notation, a
a
direction, either 30° leftward or 30° rightward. If it is moving what is the body diagonal that extends x
toward the nest, it has only one such choice. Figure 3-29 shows from the corner at (a) coordinates Figure 3-31 Problem 32.
a typical ant trail, with lettered straight sections of 2.0 cm length (0, 0, 0), (b) coordinates (a, 0, 0),
and symmetric bifurcation of 60°. Path v is parallel to the y axis. (c) coordinates (0, a, 0), and
What are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle (relative to the positive (d) coordinates (a, a, 0)? (e) Determine the angles that the body
PROBLEMS 59

→ → → →
diagonals make with the adjacent edges. (f) Determine the length and (f) the y component of c ? If c = p a + q b , what are the values
of the body diagonals in terms of a. of (g) p and (h) q?
→ →
Module 3-3 Multiplying Vectors y ••44 In the product F = q→ v × B , take q = 2,
•33 For the vectors in Fig. 3-32, with a = 4, → →
v = 2.0î + 4.0ĵ + 6.0k̂ and F = 4.0î − 20ĵ + 12k̂.
b = 3, and c = 5, what are (a) the magnitude c
→
b
→ → What then is B in unit-vector notation if Bx = By?
and (b) the direction of a × b , (c) the mag-
→ →
nitude and (d) the direction of a × c , and x Additional Problems
(e) the magnitude and (f) the direction of a → → →
→ → 45 Vectors A and B lie in an xy plane. A has magnitude 8.00
b × c ? (The z axis is not shown.) Figure 3-32 →
and angle 130°; B has components Bx = −7.72 and By = −9.20.
Problems 33 and 54. → → → →
•34 Two vectors are presented as (a) What is 5 A · B ? What is 4 A × 3 B in (b) unit-vector nota-
→ → → → → →
a = 3.0î + 5.0ĵ and b = 2.0î + 4.0ĵ. Find (a) a × b , (b) a · b , tion and (c) magnitude-angle notation with spherical coordinates
→ → → →
(c) ( a + b ) · b , and (d) the component of a along the direction of (see Fig. 3-34)? (d) What is the angle between the directions of
→ → → →
b . (Hint: For (d), consider Eq. 3-20 and Fig. 3-18.) A and 4 A × 3 B ? (Hint: Think a bit before you resort to a cal-
→
→ → culation.) What is A + 3.00k̂ in (e) unit-vector notation and
•35 Two vectors, r and s , lie in the xy plane. Their magnitudes
are 4.50 and 7.30 units, respectively, and their directions are 320° (f) magnitude-angle notation with spherical coordinates?
and 85.0°, respectively, as measured counterclockwise from the z
positive x axis. What are the values of (a) → r ·→s and (b) →r ×→s?
→ →
•36 If d1 = 3î − 2ĵ + 4k̂, d2 = −5î + 2ĵ − k̂, then what is ϕ
→ → → →
( d1 + d2) · ( d1 × 4 d2)?
y
•37 Three vectors are given by → a = 3.0î + 3.0ĵ − 2.0k̂, θ
→
b = −1.0î − 4.0ĵ + 2.0k̂, and c = 2.0î + 2.0ĵ + 1.0k̂. Find (a) →
→ a ·
→ → →
(b ×→ c ) (b) →
a ·(b +→ c ), and (c) →
a ×(b +→ c ). x
→ → →
••38 For the following three vectors, what is 3 C · (2 A × B )? Figure 3-34 Problem 45.
→
A = 2.00î + 3.00ĵ − 4.00k̂ 46 Vector →a has a magnitude of 5.0 m and is directed east.
→ → →
B = −3.00î + 4.00ĵ + 2.00k̂ C = 7.00î − 8.00ĵ Vector b has a magnitude of 4.0 m and is directed 35° west of due
→
north. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of →
a + b?
→ → →
••39 Vector A has a magnitude of 6.00 units, vector B has a What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the direction of → a ‒ b?
→ →
magnitude of 7.00 units, and A ⋅ B has a value of 14.0. What is the (e) Draw a vector diagram for each combination.
→ → → → →
angle between the directions of A and B ? 47 Vectors A and B lie in an xy plane. A has magnitude 8.00
→ →
••40 Displacement d1 is in the yz plane 63.0° from the posi- and angle 130°; B has components Bx = −7.72 and By = −9.20.
tive direction of the y axis, has a positive z component, and has a What are the angles between the negative direction of the y axis
→ →
magnitude of 4.50 m. Displacement d2 is in the xz plane 30.0° from and (a) the direction of A , (b) the direction of the product
→ → → →
the positive direction of the x axis, has a positive z component, and A × B , and (c) the direction of A × ( B + 3.00k̂ )?
→ → → → →
has magnitude 1.40 m. What are (a) d1 ⋅ d2 , (b) d1 × d2 , and (c) the 48 Two vectors → a and b have the components, in meters,
→ →
angle between d1 and d2 ? ax = 3.2, ay = 1.6, bx = 0.50, by = 4.5. (a) Find the angle between
→ →
the directions of a and b . There are two vectors in the xy plane
••41 SSM ILW WWW Use the definition of scalar product, →
→ → → that are perpendicular to a and have a magnitude of 5.0 m. One,
a · b = ab cos θ and the fact that → a · b = axbx + ayby + azbz → →
vector c , has a positive x component and the other, vector d , a
to calculate the angle between the two vectors given by → a = 3.0î +
→ negative x component. What are (b) the x component and (c) the
3.0ĵ + 3.0k̂ and b = 2.0î + 1.0ĵ + 3.0k̂. →
y component of vector c , and (d) the x component and (e) the y
→
••42 In a meeting of mimes, mime 1 goes through a displacement component of vector d ?
→
d1 = (4.0 m)î + (5.0 m)ĵ and mime 2 goes through a displace- 49 SSM A sailboat sets out from the U.S. side of Lake Erie for a point
→ → → → →
ment d2 = (−3.0 m)î + (4.0 m)ĵ. What are (a) d1 × d2 , (b) d1 · d2 , on the Canadian side, 90.0 km due north. The sailor, however, ends up
→ → → →
(c) (d1 + d2 ) · d2 , and (d) the component of d1 along the direction 50.0 km due east of the starting point. (a) How far and (b) in what
→
of d2 ? (Hint: For (d), see Eq. 3-20 and y direction must the sailor now sail to reach the original destination?
c
Fig. 3-18.) →
50 Vector d1 is in the negative direction of a y axis, and vector
••43 SSM ILW The three vectors in →
d2 is in the positive direction of an x axis. What are the directions
Fig. 3-33 have magnitudes a = 3.00 m, → →
of (a) d2 /4 and (b) d1 /(‒4)? What are the magnitudes of products
b = 4.00 m, and c = 10.0 m and angle → → → →
θ = 30.0°. What are (a) the x compo- b (c) d1 ⋅ d2 and (d) d1 ⋅ (d2 /4)? What is the direction of the vector
→ → → →
nent and (b) the y component of → a; θ
x resulting from (e) d1 × d2 and (f) d2 × d1 ? What is the magnitude
(c) the x component and (d) the y com- a of the vector product in (g) part (e) and (h) part (f)? What are the
→ → →
ponent of b ; and (e) the x component Figure 3-33 Problem 43. (i) magnitude and (j) direction of d1 × (d2 /4)?
60 CHAPTER 3 VECTORS

51 Rock faults are ruptures along which opposite faces of rock have →
58 A vector d has a magnitude of 2.5 m and points north. What
→
slid past each other. In Fig. 3-35, points A and B coincided before the are (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of 4.0 d ? What are (c)
→
rock in the foreground slid down to the right. The net displacement the magnitude and (d) the direction of ‒ 3.0 d ?
→ → →
AB is along the plane of the fault. The horizontal component of AB 59 A has the magnitude 12.0 m and is angled 60.0°
→
is the strike-slip AC. The component of AB that is directed down counterclockwise from the positive direction of the x axis of
→
the plane of the fault is the dip-slip AD. (a) What is the magnitude of an xy coordinate system. Also, B = (12.0 m)î + (8.00 m)ĵ on that
→ same coordinate system. We now rotate the system counterclock-
the net displacement AB if the strike-slip is 22.0 m and the dip-slip
is 17.0 m? (b) If the plane of the fault is inclined at angle ϕ = 52.0° to wise about the origin by 20.0° to form an x′y′ system. On this new
→
→ system, what are (a) → A and (b) B , both in unit-vector notation?
the horizontal, what is the vertical component of AB ? → → → → → →
60 If b = 2 c , a + b = 4 c , and c = 3î + 4ĵ, then what are
→ →
Strike-slip (a) a and (b) b ?
→ → → →
61 (a) In unit-vector notation, what is r = a − b + c if
→ →
C
a = 5.0î + 4.0ĵ − 6.0k̂, b = −2.0î + 2.0ĵ + 3.0k̂ and → c =
4.0î + 3.0ĵ + 2.0k̂? (b) Calculate the angle between → r and the pos-
A B itive z axis. (c) What is the component of → a along the direction of
→
Dip-slip D b ? (d) What is the component of → a perpendicular to the direction
→ →
of b but in the plane of → a and b ? (Hint: For (c), see Eq. 3-20 and
ϕ Fig. 3-18; for (d), see Eq. 3-24.)
62 A golfer takes three putts to get the ball into the hole. The
Fault plane first putt displaces the ball 3.66 m north, the second 1.83 m south-
Figure 3-35 Problem 51. east, and the third 0.91 m southwest. What are (a) the magnitude
and (b) the direction of the displacement needed to get the ball
52 Here are three displacements, each measured in meters: into the hole on the first putt?
→ → →
d1 = 4.0î + 5.0ĵ − 6.0k̂, d2 = −1.0î + 2.0ĵ + 3.0k̂, and d3 = 63 Here are three vectors in meters:
→ → → →
4.0î + 3.0ĵ + 2.0k̂. (a) What is r = d1 ‒ d2 + d3? (b) What is the
angle between → r and the positive z axis? (c) What is the compo- →
d1 = −3.0î + 3.0ĵ + 2.0k̂
→ →
nent of d1 along the direction of d2 ? (d) What is the component of →
→ → d2 = −2.0î − 4.0ĵ + 2.0k̂
d that is perpendicular to the direction of d2 and in the plane of
→1 →
d1 and d2? (Hint: For (c), consider Eq. 3-20 and Fig. 3-18; for (d), →
d3 = 2.0î + 3.0ĵ + 1.0k̂.
consider Eq. 3-24.)
→ → → → → → → →
53 SSM A vector a of magnitude 10 units and another vector b What results from (a) d1 ⋅ ( d2 + d3) (b) d1 ⋅ ( d2 × d3) and
of magnitude 6.0 units differ in directions by 60°. Find (a) the sca- → → →
(c) d1 × ( d2 + d3)?
lar product of the two vectors and (b) the magnitude of the vector
→
product → a × b. 64 SSM WWW A room has dimensions 3.00 m (height) ×
3.70 m × 4.30 m. A fly starting at one corner flies around, ending up
54 For the vectors in Fig. 3-32, with a = 4, b = 3, and c = 5, calcu- at the diagonally opposite corner. (a) What is the magnitude of its
→ → → → → →
late (a) a ⋅ b , (b) a ⋅ c , and (c) b ⋅ c . displacement? (b) Could the length of its path be less than this mag-
55 A particle undergoes three successive displacements in a nitude? (c) Greater? (d) Equal? (e) Choose a suitable coordinate
→ →
plane, as follows: d1, 4.00 m southwest; then d2, 5.00 m east; and system and express the components of the displacement vector in
→
finally d3, 6.00 m in a direction 60.0° north of east. Choose a coor- that system in unit-vector notation. (f) If the fly walks, what is the
dinate system with the y axis pointing north and the x axis pointing length of the shortest path? (Hint: This can be answered without
→
east. What are (a) the x component and (b) the y component of d1? calculus. The room is like a box. Unfold its walls to flatten them
→
What are (c) the x component and (d) the y component of d2 ? What into a plane.)
→
are (e) the x component and (f) the y component of d3? Next, con- 65 A protester carries his sign of protest, starting from the ori-
sider the net displacement of the particle for the three successive gin of an xyz coordinate system, with the xy plane horizontal.
displacements. What are (g) the x component, (h) the y component, He moves 40 m in the negative direction of the x axis, then 20 m
(i) the magnitude, and ( j) the direction of the net displacement? If along a perpendicular path to his left, and then 25 m up a water
the particle is to return directly to the starting point, (k) how far and tower. (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the displacement of
(l) in what direction should it move? the sign from start to end? (b) The sign then falls to the foot of
56 Find the sum of the following four vectors in (a) unit-vector the tower. What is the magnitude of the displacement of the sign
notation, and as (b) a magnitude and (c) an angle relative to +x. from start to this new end?
→
→
P : 10.0 m, at 25.0° counterclockwise from +x 66 Consider → a in the positive direction of x, b in the positive
→
→ direction of y, and a scalar d. What is the direction of b /d if d is
Q : 12.0 m, at 10.0° counterclockwise from +y →
→ (a) positive and (b) negative? What is the magnitude of (c) → a ⋅ b
R : 8.00 m, at 20.0° clockwise from −y → →
and (d) a ⋅ b /d? What is the direction of the vector resulting from
→ → →
S : 9.00 m, at 40.0° counterclockwise from −y (e) →a × b and (f) b × → a ? (g) What is the magnitude of the vector
→ → → product in (e)? (h) What is the magnitude of the vector product in
→
57 SSM If B is added to A , the result is 6.0 î + 1.0ĵ. If B is subtracted (f)? What are (i) the magnitude and (j) the direction of → a × b /d
→ →
from A , the result is −4.0î + 7.0ĵ. What is the magnitude of A ? if d is positive?
PROBLEMS 61

67 Let î be directed to the east, ĵ be directed to the north, and k̂ 72 A fire ant, searching for hot sauce in a picnic area, goes
→
be directed upward. What are the values of products (a) î ⋅ k̂, (b) through three displacements along level ground: d1 for 0.40 m
(−k̂) ⋅ (−ĵ), and (c) ĵ ⋅ (−ĵ)? What are the directions (such as east southwest (that is, at 45° from directly south and from directly
→ →
or down) of products (d) k̂ × ĵ, (e) (−î) ×(−ĵ), and (f) (−k̂) ×(−ĵ)? west), d2 for 0.50 m due east, d3 for 0.60 m at 60° north of east.
Let the positive x direction be east and the positive y direction
68 A bank in downtown Boston is robbed (see the map in be north. What are (a) the x component and (b) the y compo-
Fig. 3-36). To elude police, the robbers escape by helicopter, mak- →
nent of d1? Next, what are (c) the x component and (d) the y
ing three successive flights described by the following displace- →
component of d2? Also, what are (e) the x component and (f)
ments: 32 km, 45° south of east; 53 km, 26° north of west; 26 km, →
the y component of d3?
18° east of south. At the end of the third flight they are captured. What are (g) the x component, (h) the y component, (i) the
In what town are they apprehended? magnitude, and (j) the direction of the ant’s net displacement? If
the ant is to return directly to the starting point, (k) how far and (l)
BOSTON N in what direction should it move?
and Vicinity →
73 Two vectors are given by → a = 3.0î + 5.0ĵ and b = 2.0î + 4.0ĵ.
→ → → →
Find (a) →a × b , (b) →
a ⋅ b , (c) (→
5 10 km Salem
a + b ) ⋅ b , and (d) the component
→
Woburn of →
a along the direction of b .
Lexington Lynn →
74 Vector a lies in the yz plane 63.0° from the positive direction
Arlington Medford Bank of the y axis, has a positive z component, and has magnitude 3.20
→
units. Vector b lies in the xz plane 48.0° from the positive direc-
Waltham Winthrop tion of the x axis, has a positive z component, and has magnitude
→ →
BOSTON 1.40 units. Find (a) →a ⋅ b , (b) → a × b , and (c) the angle between
Newton Massachusetts → →
Brookline a and b .
Wellesley Bay
75 Find (a) “north cross west,” (b) “down dot south,” (c) “east
cross up,” (d) “west dot west,” and (e) “south cross south.” Let
Framingham
each “vector” have unit magnitude.
Dedham Quincy →
76 A vector B , with a magnitude of 8.0 m, is added to a
Weymouth →
vector A , which lies along an x axis. The sum of these two vectors
Walpole is a third vector that lies along the y axis and has a magnitude that
→ →
is twice the magnitude of A . What is the magnitude of A ?
Figure 3-36 Problem 68.
77 A man goes for a walk, starting from the origin of an xyz
coordinate system, with the xy plane horizontal and the x axis east-
69 A wheel with a radius of 45.0 cm P ward. Carrying a bad penny, he walks 1300 m east, 2200 m north,
rolls without slipping along a hori- and then drops the penny from a cliff 410 m high. (a) In unit-vector
zontal floor (Fig. 3-37). At time t1, notation, what is the displacement of the penny from start to its
the dot P painted on the rim of landing point? (b) When the man returns to the origin, what is the
the wheel is at the point of contact magnitude of his displacement for the return trip?
P
between the wheel and the floor. →
At a later time t2, the wheel has 78 What is the magnitude of → a ×(b ×→ a ) if a = 3.90, b = 2.70,
At time t1 At time t2
rolled through one-half of a revo- and the angle between the two vectors is 63.0°?
→ →
lution. What are (a) the magnitude Figure 3-37 Problem 69. 79 In Fig. 3-38, the magnitude of a is 4.3, the magnitude of b is
and (b) the angle (relative to the 5.4, and ϕ = 46°. Find the area of the triangle contained between
floor) of the displacement of P? the two vectors and the thin diagonal line.
70 A woman walks 250 m in the direction 30° east of north, then
175 m directly east. Find (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle of her
final displacement from the starting point. (c) Find the distance she
walks. (d) Which is greater, that distance or the magnitude of her
b
displacement?
→
71 A vector d has a magnitude 3.0 m and is directed south.
ϕ
What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of the vector
→ a
5.0 d ? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the direction of the vector
→
−2.0 d ? Figure 3-38 Problem 79.