oxford

big ideas australian curriculum

history 7

maggy saldais

consultants: tony taylor, carmel young, michael spurr

1
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© Maggy Saldais 2011
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Maggy Saldais
Oxford big ideas. History 7 : Australian Curriculum / Maggy Saldais.
ISBN 9780195571080 (pbk.)
ISBN 9780195577112 (pbk. plus obook)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
History, Ancient - - Textbooks.
Education – Australia – Curricula.
930
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oxford

big ideas australian curriculum

history 7

What is ... Oxford Big Ideas History?��������������������������������������������������������������������������� vi

Overview
1.0 The ancient world: an overview 2
1.1 What is the ‘out of Africa’ theory?������������������������������������������������������������������������ 6
1.2 How did ancient societies emerge?������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1.3 What were the key features of ancient societies?����������������������������������������������� 26
1.4 What are the legacies of ancient societies?������������������������������������������������������� 38

Depth Studies
2.0 Investigating the ancient past 46
2.1 How is history investigated?������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 48
2.2 What sources are used in a historical investigation?������������������������������������������ 64
2.3 What methods are used to investigate the past?����������������������������������������������� 74
2.4 Why is conservation important?������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86

The Mediterranean world 92

3.0 Ancient Egypt 98
3.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?�������������������������� 102
3.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?������������������������������ 114
3.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?���������������������������������� 126
3.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?������������������������������������������� 144

4.0 Ancient Greece 152

4.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?�������������������������� 156
4.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?������������������������������ 166

iv CONTENTS
contents
4.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?���������������������������������� 176
4.5 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?������������������������������������������� 198

5.0 Ancient Rome 208

5.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?�������������������������� 212
5.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?������������������������������ 218
5.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?���������������������������������� 230
5.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?������������������������������������������� 254

The Asian world 264

6.0 Ancient China 270
6.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?�������������������������� 274
6.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?������������������������������ 278
6.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?���������������������������������� 290
6.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?������������������������������������������� 308

o Ancient India [ obook only ]

1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?
2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?
3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?
4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?

Glossary320

Index327

Acknowledgments332

v
What is…
Oxford big ideas
History?
Oxford Big Ideas History is an innovative suite of resources
completely aligned to the Australian Curriculum: History. Based on
a big ideas framework, the pedagogy enables students to develop
deep, transferable understandings and skills. Structured inquiry
sequences to
enable students

Why big ideas?

to monitor
progression

Research shows that students achieve greater success when the information
they learn is connected to key concepts. The Australian Curriculum: History Land owned and
Storehouse
armed by the fami y

has identified seven key history concepts or big ideas that are developed Homes for the rich
and the poor
through the curriculum content. It is expected that by the end of Year 10, The poor in ancient Rome usually
lived very hard lives In urban

all students will have an understanding of these big ideas. Each chapter
into Servan s quarters
areas, they typically crammed
dark, tiny rooms in multi storey
apartment buildings called insulae
in the Oxford Big Ideas History student books—from Year 7 to Year 10—is Sometimes even these rooms were
shared with other families These

engineered to build student understanding of these big ideas and key rooms were often smelly and badly
maintained Some people kept
domestic animals indoors
concepts. There were few home comforts
for the poor Water had to be
collected in pots from wells that
Kitchen

might be some walking distance

The Australian Curriculum provides for rigorous, in-depth study. In each away (as might be the latrine!)
Rooms did have hearths, but
cooking indoors could be a fire
learning area, the Australian Curriculum has selected content based on ‘big hazard Most food, usually bread
and gruel (watery soup), was bought

ideas’ essential to a deep understanding of knowledge and further learning. from street stalls Malnutrition
was common, especially among
children
The History learning area helps deliver deep learning through: By contrast, the life of a wealthy
upper class family was very
on
privileged They typically lived
High th ck wa ls
spacious country estates, such as

• key inquiry questions illustrated here

• overviews to show the ‘big ideas’ of history

• a choice of depth-studies to enable detailed understanding
Small hypocaust
Animal pens (see p 243)

Workshops

What are the big ideas? Check your learning

Use Source 5 58 to write a diary entry
v lla from the perspective of either
family who own it or a slave who
of a day spent on this
a member of the wealthy
works on the vi la

• evidence • continuity and change Roman vil a

Source 5 58 Typical features of a

• cause and effect • perspectives

• empathy • significance
• contestability Activities to foster Highly engaging
thinking skills at a commissioned
range of levels illustrations
to help visual
learners engage in
historical inquiry
Oxford big ideas...
• organises learning around the • is closely mapped to the key • is supported by a workbook,
big ideas of history and revisits inquiry questions from the obook and teacher kit to offer
these ideas with increasing Australian Curriculum: History the complete teaching and
complexity • seamlessly covers the big ideas, learning package at each year
• sorts content into meaningful key inquiry questions, general level
inquiry-based big questions capabilities, cross-curricula • offers innovative digital
and establishes learning priorities and two strands resources including an
priorities from the Australian Curriculum: interactive obook with Oxford’s
• focuses on developing History new virtual site studies that
historical literacies and inquiry • engages students with topical provide an in-depth look at
skills stimulus material, stunning some of the historical wonders
imagery and illustrations of the world, such as Pompeii
and the Terracotta Warriors.

Engaging learning
Vegetab e gardens
Each student book chapter is designed to visually and
Carefully cu tiva ed
creatively engage students with beautiful artwork,
gardens
Pottery ki n
and workshop
photographs, case studies, source material and in-depth
coverage of the topic being studied.
Fam ly s bedrooms

grants
go, four groups of Homo sapiens
keyconcepts
are thought to have left
ion in eastern Africa to head north
in the Klasies River Mouth Cave
west and south Human
in South Africa have been
significance
old
followed, some 15 000 years later,
heading north along the
Fam ly shr ne ached the area we know today
as the Middle East Some
p was later totally wiped out by Imagine how many people have
severe cold In 1969 some burned bones were
lived on Earth Now think of all spotted by
Well 0 and 100 000 years ago, another chance by a motorcyclist in the Wi
wave of migrants is their stories everything they did landra Lakes
ica, also drifting north For several World Heritage Area in far western
thousand years the in their l fe everything they made New South Wales
er groups drifted in different direction As the motorcyclist was also a scientist
s, searching for ate and wore If it were possible he decided
vive As they did so, they adapted to check them out The remains later
to the landscapes and for historians to collect all the called Mungo
Woman were scient fica ly dated to
Mosaic floors s influenced their diets, and their bil ions of sources of evidence be about 25 000
clothing and shelters years ago The woman had been
nts, so the theory holds, all peoples this represents they would not cremated and her
of the bones buried with evidence of ceremony
know where to start! So their
interest is mainly in evidence that Five years later another skeleton was
found this time
is significant intact It was ca led Mungo Man The
man had been
buried ritua ly after his remains were
For a historian ‘significance’ refers first smeared
with red ochre Some scientists think
to the following: that Mungo
Man is about 60 000 years old but
not all agree
• something (or someone)
The archaeological dig where the
important to people in the past remains were
found was within an area of freshwate
r lakes
Check your learning • something or someone (including Lake Mungo) that dried
out about 14 000
affecting a large number of years ago Remains of extinct animals
1 a How old is the Earth? such as giant
people’s lives (for good or bad); kangaroos have been found as well
as flaked stone
b During which era of the Earth’s the effect may be profound tools and grinders (probably to pulp
grass seeds)
history did dinosaurs live? deeply affecting people at There is evidence that the people
ate fish
c When did this era occur? the time or durable affecting
The discovery of Mungo Man was
people over a long time sign ficant for
2 What causes change in the shape two reasons First unt l the 1960s
of most scientists
Roofed walkway (ca led the Earth’s land masses? • something relevant found out thought that the first Australians arrived
Couches on which about 20 000
a co onnade) 3 Explain what happens to sea levels about something (or someone) years ago (during the last glacial when
people often lay when sea levels
during a glacial and why this would that sheds new light on a were low) f Mungo Man is 60 000
feasting or entertain ng years old as
help in the migration of humans historical issue some say it means people were here
long before
4 Give an example of how movemen this
ts
of tectonic plates might have an Second genetic tests have shown
that Mungo
impact on human settlements Man had a type of DNA (inherited
from the mother)
5 What evidence of early human not shared by early modern humans
in Africa This
finding is not consistent with the ‘out
settlement has been found at: of Africa’
theory This is a puzzle that is yet
a Klasies River Mouth Cave in to be resolved
Future genetic studies may throw
South Africa more light on this
Source 1 7 Mungo Man
b the Qafzeh Cave in Israel?
6 Where do many scholars think
the
Check your learning
1 In your own words explain why
human migration that populated the Mungo Man was such a sign ficant
find
world began? 2 New discoveries often cause historians
and other experts to rethink their opinions
question blocks appear 7 In a paragraph sum up what you
understand by the ‘out of Africa’
What significant issue has recent
3 Check out ‘Lake Mungo New
DNA tests of Mungo Man raised?
South Wales’ on Google Earth Zoom
throughout the chapter, Source 1 6 This Rocky Mounta ns
land orm was carved out by ce dur ng the last
glacial
theory clouds Explore the site and photograp
hs It used to be a sheep station
paragraph to explain why it is a significant
site
in through the
Write a

allowing students to reflect 8 oxford big ideas history 7: australian

on and consolidate their

curr cu um

learning. chapter one the ancient world

9

What is ... Oxford big ideas history? vii

Learning sequences are carefully organised around the
key inquiry questions in the Australian Curriculum to depth study
assist students to delve deeply into a topic.
ancient china
The society of ancient China was one of the earliest in the world to
become urbanised In fact, many of its current features were set by
cultural practices and urban traditions laid down thousands of
years ago
Like the other earliest civilisations such as those Chinese who first used a magnetic compass and
of ancient Egypt and Sumer China’s had ts roots crafted porcelain china
in farming When the last glacial ended Stone
As in ancient Egypt ancient China was ruled
Age people began to drift towards the fertile
for most of its last 3800 years by a series of
valley of the Huang He (Yellow) River By about
dynasties For nearly half of this time hese were
8000 bce people were growing rice and millet
headed up by emperors such as Shi Huangdi
there and herding animals In time villages and
of the Qin dynasty His tomb was ‘guarded’ by
then towns formed from these settlements some
thousands of terracotta statues some of which
becoming cities Beliefs and art forms developed
are shown on this page
So did a system of writing
China’s society became very highly organised
China has contributed a great deal to the
ts written language was common across the
modern world Besides the more obvious
country as were ts cultural values Some
things chopsticks Chinese food martial arts
historians say this is what held ts civilisation
the Chinese were the first to make silk cloth t is

6
together for so long
from China’s long traditions that we get practices
such as acupuncture and fireworks It was the

Key nqu ry questions

61 How do geograph cal features nfluence human sett ements?

6 2 What shaped the roles of key groups n anc ent societ es?

6 3 How do bel efs values and practices nfluence li esty e?

bone
cracked oracle 6 4 How do contacts and confl cts change societies?
Source 6 7 A

y
the roles of ke

6.2
What shaped
ps in ancie nt societies? Hundreds of e racotta war iors were found in the omb of Emperor Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty

grou ty of ancient Chin

a Members of
headed the socie th and status
A new
Ruling dynasties their great weal
families inherited warlords
these powerful r between rival
strugg e for powe ended
began after a Often a dynasty
dynasty often the new ruler
dom s the ‘winner’ became That ruler had a problem
or king l or weak
was corrupt crue severe floods or
because the ruler time (causing
out of balance at the same this as a sign that the
if nature was The people wou
ld see
rule
for example) ‘the heavens’ to

Big questions
poor harvests (permission) from
had a mandate rters lived
ruler no longer and their suppo
ruling families to the
lexes in which emperor down
The palace comp body from the complex
l units Every ony w thin the
organised socia order and harm
were highly to play This
nt had a role
humblest serva ty at large
in the socie
was reflected

cur iculum
y 7 austra ian
deas histor
278 oxford big

Big questions are used to organise chapters The Australian Curriculum: History gives the opportunity to
and to help the student connect with learning re-imagine the history classroom by integrating supported
in other topic areas and subjects.
inquiry, collaborative inquiry and full student-directed
Big ideas is a powerful pedagogical tool to
frame methods of inquiry and make sense of inquiry. Experience first-hand an inquiry-based approach
seemingly disparate pieces of knowledge. to history education.

Deep learning
keyconcepts keyconcepts
cause and effect continuity and change
Content is designed for depth of learning.
Over t me many h ngs change about

Concepts are revisited with increasing levels

You a e mad w th a f iend because At fi st pharaohs and other impo tant Egyptians we e bur ed w th their r ches in The word ‘cu rency’ efe s to items used money t was seen to be wor h so much
she did not invite you to her pa ty prominent tombs such as pyram ds This was done n the bel ef hat dead people places and the way people live work to buy and sell products and services gold or silver In Austral a today we st ll
(the cause of or what mot vates your needed access to the r worldly wealth and possessions in the afterlife The tombs and trade Some changes happen The items used epresent a part cular use banknotes but they are now made
ange ) So you do not speak to her we e prominent because a pharaoh was seen as both a king and god This was he quickly such as when a volcano value (We would use a $5 00 note for of polymer
e upts Others take place over a

of complexity so that students gain a rich

for a week (the effect of your anger) reason (cause) why such large and ma est c tombs we e constructed example to buy something valued at Wh le some aspects of cu rency have
History s packed w th such links much longer per od of time such as $5 00 n ano her cultu e that tem might
The effect of making these ‘sto ehouses of great wea th’ so obv ous was that cont nued other things have changed
between cause and e fect gradual cl mate change O her th ngs ‘cost’ five seashe ls ) Currency has been
pyramids were robbed This was desp te booby traps dead ends secret doors and In Austral a for example we now use
continue exactly as hey have been a ound n many parts of he world for a
For example leaders make errors mazes Priceless goods were stolen In the p ocess many sou ces of evidence plast c cards to buy goods and services

understanding of key historical concepts.

for long per ods of time one example long time However many aspects of it
of judgment (caused or motivated we e destroyed The e a e accounts of mumm es being ripped to bits and artefacts B g businesses now transfer la ge sums
of this could be h ngs hat people have changed
perhaps by their amb tion) and trampled as robbers sea ched for valuables of money elect onically as do people
bel eve in such as religions
therefore lose wars or the r lives The effect of th s cont nued the t was that a ter about 2000 bce Egypt ans stopped The Chinese we e us ng co ns made from who shop or bank online t s no longer
(effect) Trade ncreases because a burying their rulers n pyramids Tombs were nstead dug deep into the cl ffs in Ev dence of change as well as var ous metals and stone n 1000 bce By essent al to use cash as currency Many
country has goods that others want the Valley of the Kings The Egyptians thought such bur al places would be less ev dence of ‘lack of change’ (or 500 bce they were using silver co ns A people for example have the r salar es
(cause) this m ght make that country obvious to robbe s and the site could be more eas ly gua ded However even hese continuity) can be seen all around us coin’s value was set by the material used or wages paid directly into their bank
very wea thy and hence powerful tombs were eventually raided today These nclude such things as to make t (gold for example was wo th accounts It is poss ble that soon money
(effect) Over time pa terns n causes the way gove nments work the way more han silve ) This practice was later as we know it wi l no longer ex st
1 What caused or mot vated he anc ent Egyptians to bury heir pharaohs w th
and effects become clear you wi l see people buy and sell th ngs and he copied in the co ns used by he G eeks 1 Compa e and contrast Sources 2 13
such a show of wea th?
them often epeated way that people d ess or act when and Romans and 2 14 Which features have
in history 2 Expla n why st uctures such as py am ds would have been attract ve targets for in publ c

bigideas
So like our co ns Roman coins continued through t me? What has
g ave robbers
Here are some t ps to help you had particular value Also like today changed enti ely?
3 What we e the e fects of this continued pyram d the t on royal bu ial pract ces n ident fy and analyse change and they often had the mage of a leader 2 How d d the currency pract ces of he
ancient Egypt? continuity hammered nto them (see Source 2 13) anc ent Chinese nfluence he anc ent
This is why we say today that a coin has Romans?
6.2 What shaped the Look for what has changed been ‘struck’ when made
3 What cu rency pract ces used today
roles of key groups in Records report that n 118 ce the
ancient societies? Dec de or nvest gate
Chinese were using squares of pa nted
epresent a complete change f om
he pas ?
Remember • what has caused the change
wh te deer sk n to pay for things By he
4 What do you think t would be l ke to
1 a What was the ‘mandate Apply • whether he change was fast 9 h centu y many d fferent soc eties
live n a world w thout cash? Discuss
of heaven ? or slow a ound he world we e us ng paper
b How did t shape the 9 Draw a m nd map to with a partner
role of Ch na’s rule s and d splay reasons why • whether he change was local
way in wh ch hey were the Shi Huangdi was a significan
perceived by he people? t figure in history or everywhere
2 Create a t meline that 10 Use what you have
shows (us ng colour shading learned (and your mag • whether he change had a
to write an account of nat on)
on the timel ne bar and a day n the l fe of a Ch posit ve or negative mpact or
a matching key) the dynast nese
of ancient China Which es empe or
dynasty ruled for the longest no mpact at a l
per od of time? 11 Draw a timel ne to record
some of he s gnificant
3 Who was Wu Zhao? events n Wu Zhao’s life Ident fy any h ng hat s sim lar
Why was h s person such
sign ficant figure in Ch a 12 The author of Source or that has cont nued Cons der
nese h story? 6 23 wr tes about watch
4 What sort of soc al grandmother (who had ng her why t lasted as long as it d d
role could a poor woman bound feet) Based on and what benefits made it
life in anc ent Ch na? Why? expect n what else you know about this and
foot b nding and women’s wor h keep ng as t was
5 a What obs might roles w ite and perform
farmers n ancient China w th a pa tner a d alogue
be between a poor farmer
somet mes called on to and h s w fe The man
do? his young daughter’s feet wants
b Do you think farmers to be bound Empathis Source 2 13 An ancient Roman coin depic ing Source 2 14 Modern Austra ian cu rency
though poor fe t valued you do th s think as they e as Source 2 12 Ar ist’s impression
w thin he soc ety? Explain would have hought hen of omb robbers in ancient Egypt the emperor Nero (54 68 bce) on ho seback includes coins and polymer notes
as you think today not
Understand 13 Th nk about the various
factors that shaped the
of anc ent Ch na P epa society 54 big ideas history chapter two how do we know about he pas ? 55
6 In your wo kbook match e a v sual co lage of facto
the Chinese words that that you think a e currently s
describe social roles w shap ng Aust alian soc
th the examples g ven today ety
gong shang shi merchan nong
t farmer calligrapher
ewe lery maker
Sou ce 6 23
7 Into wh ch of the four
social classes shown n
6 11 would you put each Sou ce When we came home from
shopping he fi st hing
of the following Chinese would do was soak her she
warlords eunuchs calligraph feet in a bowl of hot water

Historical concepts are explained

ers weapon makers? with r lief Then she sighing
8 Copy the fo low ng would et about cutting
table nto your workboo of dead skin The pain off pieces
Then draw l nes to connect k came not only from broken
bones
the items n the left hand but also f om her oenails
column wi h items n he which grew into the balls

throughout the overview chapter, and are

her feet of
ight hand column
Ex ract from Wild Swans
Three Daugh ers of China
by Jung Chang

Relevant ancient dynasty

Significant achievem
ent or development
touched on again throughout the depth
studies in the ‘focus on’ boxes, allowing
Zhou
calendar introduced
Han

Big Ideas activity blocks

currency and weights
and measu es standa

students to consolidate their learning.

dised
Shang
i on started being used

at the end of each section

Qin
professional army establishe
d

use Bloom’s Taxonomy and

288 ox ord big ideas history
7 aust a ian cu riculum
other strategies to cater for a
multiplicity of learning styles.
Clarity
In each depth study, key aspects for students to learn are clearly
sign-posted — such as the role of significant individuals in
history, as specified in the Australian Curriculum.

significantindividuals
Tutankhame n

Tutankhamen (1344 1325

BCE) was
a boy when he became
pharaoh
Some think Akhenaten
the pha aoh
he succeeded may have
been
h s father Sc ent fic analyses
of
h s rema ns reveal hat
he was
around 170 centimetres
tall w th a
sl ght bend n h s sp ne
He had an
ove b te a cleft palate
buck teeth
and an elongated skull
He was only
19 when he d ed
contestabilit y: why did

focus on …
He did not l ve long enough Source 3 26 The mummified
much that was rema kable
to do Tu ankhamen
head of Tutank hamen die?
He d d
however everse the comman Scholars contest why Tutankha
d of men d ed A hole at the
Akhenaten that the people back of his sku l and a
worship float ng shard of bone
eyes led some to th nk behind the
only one god Aten the Desp te his short l fe Tutankha he was murdered Th s
sun god He men s view held
also reversed Akhenate s gnificant because h s for a time has been contested
n’s decis on tomb s the only in more recent years
to move he cap tal to anc ent tomb n Egypt In 2005 an extens ve number
Memphis so far found not of CT scans we e taken
Tutankhamen decla ed to have been broken nto Tutankhamen’s rema ns of
that Egypt’s by robbers t Source 3 27 The These led the notable Egypt
old gods could aga n be contained over 5300 sou a chaeologist Zahi Hawass an
worsh pped ces of evidence reconstruc ed head of to conclude that he died
He restored the r temples of his life and of bur al compl cat ons (poss bly of
priests and practices at the Tutankhamen gang ene the rott ng
festivals such as hat for t me These sources nclude tissue) from a broken leg away of l ving
the Ap s bu l h s deco ated He thinks the break became
(see p 127) gold throne and his nest nfected The hole n the
of coffins skull he thinks may have
a mummification accident been
New analyses have suggeste
The discovery that malaria may have d
also been a contributing
Tutankhamen’s death cause to
The Engl sh a chaeolog
st Howard Carter
found the tomb in 1922
It was at the
end of a rubble filled tunnel
dug nto he
cliffs of he Va ley of the
K ngs Carter
reported ‘At first I could
see nothing 1 In one pa agraph explain
but as my eyes grew accustom who Tutankhamen was
ed 2 Why s he regarded
to the light deta ls of the Source 3 28 The gold by h stor ans as significan
oom w th n t?
emerged slowly from the mask found fused to 3 Compose a letter hat
m st strange Howard Carter m ght have
animals statues and gold Tu ankhamen’s head and written to h s fam ly the
everywhe e upper body day a ter discovering and
the glint of gold!’ enter ng Tutankhamen’s
tomb Check some webistes
Tutankhamen’s mummy to find out mo e about
lay w thin a sol d he tomb’s contents
gold body shaped co fin 4 At the t me of writing
(110 kilograms Since then conservators th s book gold was worth
n we ght) n the burial chamber H s body was covered have been gett ng ncreas per ounce The e are 28 $1395
Th s in amulets and ngly g ams to an ounce Work
coffin was enclosed by ewels and he was wear concerned at he damage out
two mo e coffins ng an 11 kilogram being done to Tutankha he value of gold n Tutankha
sol d gold bur al mask The breath of thousand men’s mummy men’s mask based on
In the treasure chamber inla d with prec ous s of v sitors and he heat th s nformat on
next door we e they introduced were taking and humidity
four canop c jars holding stones Carter and his the r to l on the tomb environm
the pharaoh’s team used hot 5 a Why were Tutankha
mumm fied liver lungs kn ves to prise t off They Tutankhamen’s remains ent men’s uncovered remains
stomach also cut the body stayed wi h n h s coffin r sk? at
2007 when they were until November
and ntest nes up to etrieve the jewels moved nto a cl mate contro
and amulets that led acrylic b What has been done
were wrapped up n h case wi h n the tomb H to help to conserve them?
s bandages s head (see Source 3 26
out e ther end of a covering and feet poked 6 Expla n why the cause
linen cloth of Tutankhamen’s dea
been contestable h has
118 oxford big ideas history
7 aus ralian curriculum

chap er three ancient

egypt 119

Connect
Content is designed for depth of
learning. Concepts are revisited with
Connecting Ideas tasks
increasing levels of complexity so that allow students to relate their
students gain a rich understanding of learning to a big idea so learning
is meaningful and accretive.
key historical concepts.

as
connectingide probe called
Odysseus (later
Ulysses) ts missi
on was to
first time such
a

Ancient Greece
launched a space This was the
ts of the Sun y four
Artist’s In 1990 NASA ct data on aspec it lasted nearl
Source 4 72 poles and colle last for five years nt of
impression of
the space fly over the Sun’s The craft was meant to It relayed a huge amou
s as it been attempted three full orbit
s of the Sun its age
probe Ulysse mission had but in 2008 By then
The quest
to the Sun not one down
draws closer making ms were final
ly shut
times that long
wooden horse Earth Its trans
mission syste
ing to take their
toll
the legend of the data back to space were start
s 190 1 about have been writ
ten ing cold of deep
You read on page the Iliad said to and the freez ed to ca l h s
probe Odysseus? es
a work called ssey The Ody
ssey h nk NASA decid they changed
ts name to Ulyss
This came from wrot e the Ody 1 Why do you rch to find out why
ama n calle d Homer He also er Ody sseu s (called 2 Conduct some
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t? nse
by Greek lead this space ques n for your respo
year quest of the the battle the purpose of craft? Give a reaso
te ls of the 10 his way back from 3 What was
es was a hero’
amon g space
Romans) to find his men say that Ulyss
Ulysses buy the g the way, he and 4 Would you
e of Ithaca Alon ural These
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encounter man s start ed by gods Many books
have been writt
2001 A Space
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de wild storm , and the mon
sters
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s have about quests
problems inclu s men into pigs about quests have been made (1975) Star Ques
t The Odyssey
erer who turn too and song
s recorded Many mov es the Holy Grail
cannibals, a sorc s alone survives been written adventure (1968) Mont
y Python and Wars series to
name some
rybdis Odysseu of course many of the Rings and Star led by
Scylla and Cha It is about surviving
Ther e are
s as well some
of (2009) and the
Lord
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p of hobb its
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) jour uter game to dispose of
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comp The quest in Mount of Doom
A quest is a hero g up, no matter wh ch you prob
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set out for the
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and never givin an online ques
t game ral power to is the
against the odds 1 o A link to The ring gives
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long the search on the obook Study by many others quest
obstacles or how is avai able orted The
then hobbits are supp wants it back
e you begin and the ring and g the
the rules befor n who made ground) Alon
the quest evil Lord Sauro e and below
attempt to fulfil this of land scapes (abov e are mass ive
of act vit es make covers a range ures Ther
a What sorts terrif ying creat y
m lar o he ques
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way there are
strange and (though he nearl
quest game s tually succeeds
t es Frodo even home
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Greek heroes? of the ring) and the
quests of Greek becomes a victi
m
game unlike the of Frodo s quest? Odys seus? Source 4 73
Scene from
he goal t of
heroes? 1 a What is a e w th the ques The Lord of the
Rings The
ask how does it comp
he most di ficult b In broad terms Two Towers
The movie
b What was made from
had to overcome? class Frodo as
a hero? r quest is one of h ee
your cha acter 2 Would you ents dur ng the wr tten by
have weak mom qualit es of
an epic book
Why? and Odysseus or you are the J R R Tolkien
3 Bo h Frodo What
consider the main ultima e y succe
ed
c Wou d you yet they bo h (or heroine) Why?
game a hero regard as ‘a hero’
character in this someone you
s used n Greek
n he sense t
why not?
my hs? Why or h
either on Ear
m ss on you chose
to undertake any undertake and
and resources you choose to
ral or otherw se) what quest would or hero ne or
th s
power supernatu or anywhere in
the Un verse make you a hero
If you had the surface crust) s th s) that would
ts seas or its dy e se yet know
Pe legrinoT baldi uter game s (or under (even if nobo
centur y ar ist comics and comp es do you have
why? What qualit
16th
A painting by illustrators of
Sou ce 4 71
tless artists and undertaking?
inspired coun t greece 207
Odysseus has ancien
the quest of monsters Odys
seus faced s n a flow chart chapter four
The story of sent ts key stage
71 featu res one of the fierce Odys sey Repre
Source 4 of the story of
the plays
nternet research ro e Odysseus
1 Conduct some occurs and what
scene above
you h nk the
e in the s ory
2 Exp ain wher

ian cu riculum
big ideas history 7: austra
206 oxford

What is ... Oxford big ideas history? ix

Integrated teaching and
learning support
Delivering interactivity
The Australian Curriculum helps equip students to be
lifelong learners and to operate with confidence in a
complex, information-rich, globalised world. Oxford’s
next generation electronic book format – the obook – offers
online and offline access to core student content. The
obook provides the complete student book in an easy-to-
read format for any screen size, with links to interactive
resources, video, audio, websites, a note-taking study tool
and dynamic question blocks. Oxford’s obook is compatible
with PCs, laptops, iPads, tablets and IWBs.

Built for students

Students can access the obook anywhere, anytime (home,
library, school, etc.), on any platform (PC/Mac/iPad/IWB), at
any screen size. The obook allows students to see much more
than the printed book’s content, with an added wealth of
digital content including interactive modules, videos, audio,
and relevant websites. The obook is the ultimate study tool,
with personalised access using unique registration codes, and
the ability to type, save and send answers to questions and
highlight or take notes right throughout the school year. A
built-in Oxford Australian dictionary at your fingertips also
makes study effortless.

Active learning
The Big Ideas History obook hosts a wealth of active learning modules
such as interactive versions of the artworks in the printed book,
allowing students to drag and drop labels into place, check their
understanding, and zoom in on details. The virtual site study modules
also offer an in-depth look at some of the historical wonders of the
world, such as Pompeii and the Terracotta Warriors.
Workbook
Oxford Big Ideas History is
supported by a workbook at each
of years 7–10. The workbooks
provide extra practice of key skills
and encourage an inquiry-based
approach to learning—perfect
for in-class or homework. An
interactive digital workbook is
also available.

Teacher support
Each teacher kit includes all
pages from the student book
scaffolded with teaching
strategies, lesson planning
tips, assessment advice and
suggested answers—everything
you need to integrate Oxford
resources into your teaching.

What is ... Oxford big ideas history? xi

What is…
The Australian
Curriculum: Year 7 History?
Key inquiry questions
• How do we know about the ancient past?
• Why and where did the earliest societies develop?
• What emerged as the defining characteristics of ancient societies?
• What have been the legacies of ancient societies?

Historical knowledge and understanding

Topic Content descriptor Chapter

Overview Overview content for the ancient world (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, Rome, India, China 1
and the Maya) includes the following:
• the theory that people moved out of Africa around 60 000 BCE and migrated to other parts of
the world, including Australia
• evidence for the emergence and establishment of ancient societies (including art, iconography,
writing tools and pottery)
• key features of ancient societies (farming, trade, social classes, religion, rule of law)

Investigating • How historians and archaeologists investigate history, including excavation and archival research 2
the ancient • The range of sources that can be used in a historical investigation, including archaeological and
past written sources
• The methods and sources used to investigate at least ONE historical controversy or mystery
that has challenged historians or archaeologists, such as in the analysis of unidentified human
remains
• The nature of the sources for ancient Australia and what they reveal about Australia’s past in the
ancient period, such as the use of resources
• The importance of conserving the remains of the past, using examples from the ancient world

Egypt • The physical features of ancient Egypt (such as the River Nile) and how they influenced the 3
civilisation that developed there
• Roles of key groups in ancient Egyptian society (such as the nobility, bureaucracy, women,
slaves), including the influence of law and religion
• The significant beliefs, values and practices of the ancient Egyptians, with a particular emphasis
on ONE of the following areas everyday life, warfare, or death and funerary customs
• contacts and conflicts within and/or with other societies, resulting in developments such as the
conquest of other lands, the expansion of trade, and peace treaties
• the role of a significant individual in ancient Egyptian history such as Hatshepsut or Rameses II

xii
Topic Content descriptor Chapter

Greece • The physical features of ancient Greece (such as its mountainous landscape) and how they 4
influenced the civilisation that developed there
• Roles of key groups in Athenian and/or Spartan society (such as citizens, women, slaves),
including the influence of law and religion
• The significant beliefs, values and practices of the ancient Greeks, with a particular emphasis on
ONE of the following areas: everyday life, warfare, or death and funerary customs
• Contacts and conflicts within and/or with other societies, resulting in developments such as the
expansion of trade, colonisation and war (such as the Peloponnesian and Persian wars)
• The role of a significant individual in ancient Greek history such as Leonidas or Pericles

Rome • The physical features of ancient Rome (such as the River Tiber) and how they influenced the 5
civilisation that developed there
• Roles of key groups in ancient Roman society (such as patricians, plebeians, women, slaves),
including the influence of law and religion
• The significant beliefs, values and practices of the ancient Romans, with a particular emphasis on
ONE of the following areas: everyday life, warfare, or death and funerary customs
• Contacts and conflicts within and/or with other societies, resulting in developments such as the
expansion of trade, the rise of the Roman empire (including its material remains), and the spread
of religious beliefs
• The role of a significant individual in ancient Rome’s history such as Julius Caesar or Augustus

China • The physical features of China (such as the Yellow River) and how they influenced the civilisation 6
that developed there
• Roles of key groups in Chinese society in this period (such as kings, scholars, craftsmen,
women), including the influence of law and religion
• The significant beliefs, values and practices of Chinese society, with a particular emphasis on
ONE of the following areas: everyday life, warfare, or death and funerary customs
• Contacts and conflicts within and/or with other societies, resulting in developments such as the
expansion of trade, the rise of Imperial China (including its material remains), and the spread of
philosophies and beliefs
• The role of a significant individual in ancient Chinese history such as Confucius or Shi Huang di

India • The physical features of India (such as fertile river plains) and how they influenced the civilisation obook
that developed there only
• Roles of key groups in Indian society in this period (such as kings, priests, merchants, peasants),
including the influence of law and religion
• The significant beliefs, values and practices of Indian society, with a particular emphasis on ONE
of the following areas: everyday life, warfare, or death and funerary customs
• Contacts and conflicts within and/or with other societies, resulting in developments such as
the expansion of trade, the rise of the Mauryan Empire (including its material remains), and the
spread of philosophies and beliefs
• The role of a significant individual in Indian history such as Chandragupta Maurya or Ashoka

Historical skills, key concepts, general capabilities and cross-curricula priorities are integrated throughout the student textbook
and associated workbook.
© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority 2010. Content descriptions and elaborations - This is an extract from the Australian Curriculum and is current as at 14 June 2011. ACARA neither
endorses nor verifies the accuracy of the information provided and accepts no responsibility for incomplete or inaccurate information. In particular, ACARA does not endorse or verify that the content descriptions
are solely for Year 7; and that all the content descriptions for Year 7 have been used. You can find the unaltered and most up to date version of this material athttp://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/Home. This
material is reproduced with the permission of ACARA.
The ancient world:
an overview
Medusa, with her hair of writhing snakes, turned people to stone with
one look—or so the Greek legend went. A likeness of her is shown here.
Like so many other traces of the distant past, the legend continues to
influence life today. It has, for example, inspired novelists, artists, film
makers—even the names of hair products!

Many scholars agree that Homo sapiens (the Historians describe the entire human history
species we are) dates back some 150 000 years. in terms of three broad periods:
However, sources of humankind’s earliest • the modern period (c. 1750 ce until now)
history are limited and the evidence they • the period between the ancient and modern
provide is often contested (argued about). periods (in Europe, c. 650 ce to 1750 ce)
To organise what they do know, historians • the ancient period (before about 650 ce).
refer to blocks of time in history called ‘periods’. This textbook focuses on the ancient period
The dynastic period of ancient Egypt is one from about 60 000 bce on. Over 90 per cent
example. This was a period of time when of this time span falls into another period:
ancient Egypt was ruled by dynasties (or prehistory, the time before written records.
families) of pharaohs.

Key inquiry questions

1.1 What is the ‘out of Africa’ theory?

1.2 How did ancient societies emerge?

1.3 What were the key features of ancient societies?

1.4 What are the legacies of ancient societies?

Sculpture of Medusa’s Head at Leptis Magna, a Roman ruin in Libya.

1
bigpicture
The ancient world
Chinese society first
The history of Homo sapiens makes up a tiny speck produced cast bronze
of the history of the Earth. Early Homo sapiens goods, such as this pot,
made during the Shang
were driven only by a need to survive. Yet, in their dynasty (see p. 272). A society
is a group of people who
relatively short history, they have acquired the organise themselves to best
knowledge and skills to send people into space. survive in their environment.
There are hunter-gatherer,
agricultural and urban societies.
Precise dating for events that happened so long ago Some societies are more
is impossible. Different scholars locate different complex and multi-layered than
others.
sources. They may rely on different dating methods
and have different skills of analysis. How they
interpret evidence may also vary. This is why you
will sometimes see different dates listed for the same
c. 2340
event in the distant past. Such difference is one Sargon declares
the city of Akkad (in
example of the contestable nature of history. Mesopotamia) as his
capital and creates the
world’s first empire

c. 20 000 c. 7000 c. 3100

Last glacial at its Agricultural settlements Upper and Lower
iciest forming in China in the Kingdoms of Egypt
Yangtze River valley merge under central rule
BCE

c. 2600
c. 2000
c. 25 000 Building of Egyptian
Migration
Humans in Puritjarra c. 3500 pyramids begins
of people
Rockshelter, Northern City-states emerging to populate
Territory, Australia in Mesopotamia Pacific
islands
begins

c. 10 000
Earliest agricultural
settlements in today’s
Middle East

Source 1.1 Timeline of some key

events of the ancient world
Boys from the
Aboriginal Mona
Mona Mayiwunba
dance group
celebrate their
cultural heritage.
A culture is the
sum total of a
people’s behaviours,
language, beliefs, art
forms and values.
Children learn about
their culture mainly
from parents.

321
Chandragupta c. 117
509 Maurya founds Height of the
c. 1050 Republic of Rome
Last of the Mauryan Roman Empire
c. 1450 is established empire in India
Egypt’s CE
Eruption of super
three
volcano on the
ancient
island of Thera (now
kingdoms
c. 1800 Santorini) in the
ends 4
76
Olmec civilisation Mediterranean Sea Western
forming in Central 206 empire of
America Han empire begins ancient
in China Rome falls to
barbarians
c. 776
First Olympic Games
held in Greece
c. 480
c. 1100
Persian empire at its
End of Mycenaean greatest extent under
civilisation on King Xerxes I
mainland Greece

c. 1700
Indus Valley
civilisation in
decline

Hadrian’s wall in northern England marked a northern border of ancient Rome’s empire. An
empire is a cluster of ‘states’ (or nations) under central control. That central authority may
be one person (a monarch or emperor) or a small group (oligarchy). Their people may speak
different languages and have different beliefs and customs from those of their ruler/s.

chapter one the ancient world 5

Source 1.2 Part of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Africa. Some of the oldest fossils and artefacts on earth
have been found in this eroded ravine, in the Great Rift Valley. The site was discovered by accident by a
scientist chasing butterflies.

1.1 What is the ‘out of Africa’ theory?

What exactly happened on Earth millions of years ago is open to
debate. Those who look to science for answers rely on experts to reveal
and explain the evidence. Yet even among scientific experts, there are
differences of opinion. People’s views about this early time may also be
swayed by their beliefs. As well, they may be influenced by the extent to
which they trust and accept the findings of others.

In the beginning
Scientists give different dates for the appearance of modern humans (Homo sapiens:
Latin for ‘knowing man’). Many sources suggest about 150 000 years ago. Others
contest that it was even further back in time. Most agree that modern humans
began in Africa. From there, many argue, scattered groups migrated to populate
the world over the course of tens of thousands of years.
Some scholars contest this ‘out of Africa’ theory though. They argue that
modern humans developed in parallel in different parts of the world. Generally,
this view is not supported by most fossil and genetic evidence.

6
The time scale
Scientists think the Earth is at least 4.5 billion years old. The latter part of its history is divided
into three geological eras (or very long periods of time). These eras are briefly described below.

Source 1.3 Eras in the Earth’s more recent history

Era Time span Comment

(millions of years ago)
Palaeozoic c. 570–250 Fossilised bacteria, worms, insects, reptiles and ferns have been
found.
Mesozoic c. 250–67 This was the age of dinosaurs, and when the first birds, flowering
plants, crocodiles and small mammals appeared.
Cenozoic c. 67–present day The continents took the position and shape they have today. A
huge variety of animals and plant species appeared. Most are
now extinct.

Shifting continents
225 million years ago
Earth did not always have seven continents. Some 225 million years ago,
these were all part of one land mass, now called Pangaea. Over time, the
constant movements of the tectonic plates that make up the Earth’s a
crust split it apart (see Source 1.4). The pieces are still moving; Australia ae
g
is drifting northwards at the rate of about one centimetre per decade.

n
Pa
These movements pushed up the mountain ranges and caused
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions around the edges where plates
collided or pulled apart. Such events influenced human settlement
patterns and changed the landscapes in which people lived. They
continue to do so today.
135 million years ago
Changing climate
Scientists think there may have been at least five major ice ages Laurasia
throughout Earth’s history. These had a major impact on climate and
thus on the lifestyles of the earliest humans. Freezing conditions, for
example, would have forced people to be constantly on the move in G
search of shelter and food. o
nd
wana
Glacials and interglacials
Ice ages have colder periods (glacials) and warmer periods (interglacials). 40 million years ago
During a glacial, ice advances from the poles across land masses, forming
glaciers up to 3000 metres thick in parts. Sea levels may drop by up to
100 metres.
During an interglacial, the warming climate causes glaciers to melt
and retreat towards the poles. As they do so, they often carve out valleys
(see Source 1.6), and form lakes and swamps. Sea levels rise to cover any
land bridges that were exposed during a glacial (such as that between
Australia and Papua New Guinea). The most recent glacial of the last
ice age was between about 110 000 and 10 000 years ago. Ice cover was
Source 1.4 The changing shape of the Earth’s landmasses
thought to be greatest about 20 000 years ago.

chapter one the ancient world 7

The first migrants
About 135 000 years ago, four groups of Homo sapiens are thought to have left
the Olduvai Gorge region in eastern Africa to head north-west and south. Human
teeth and bones found in the Klasies River Mouth Cave in South Africa have been
dated at 120 000 years old.
Another migration followed, some 15 000 years later, heading north along the
Nile. These migrants reached the area we know today as the Middle East. Some
scholars think this group was later totally wiped out by severe cold.
Between about 60 000 and 100 000 years ago, another wave of migrants is
thought to have left Africa, also drifting north. For several thousand years the
dispersed hunter-gatherer groups drifted in different directions, searching for
Source 1.5 This Homo sapiens skull, dated at
around 100 000 years, was found in the Qafzeh what they needed to survive. As they did so, they adapted to the landscapes and
Cave in Israel in 1988. Nearby were burned flakes climates they found. This influenced their diets, and their clothing and shelters.
of stone and a horse tooth. From this wave of migrants, so the theory holds, all peoples of the
world descended.

Check your learning

1 a How old is the Earth?
b During which era of the Earth’s
history did dinosaurs live?
c When did this era occur?
2 What causes change in the shape of
the Earth’s land masses?
3 Explain what happens to sea levels
during a glacial, and why this would
help in the migration of humans.
4 Give an example of how movements
of tectonic plates might have an
impact on human settlements.
5 What evidence of early human
settlement has been found at:
a Klasies River Mouth Cave in
South Africa
b the Qafzeh Cave in Israel?
6 Where do many scholars think the
human migration that populated the
world began?
7 In a paragraph, sum up what you
understand by the ‘out of Africa’
theory.
Source 1.6 This Rocky Mountains landform was carved out by ice during the last glacial.

8
keyconcepts
Significance

Imagine how many people have In 1969, some burned bones were spotted by
lived on Earth. Now think of all chance by a motorcyclist in the Willandra Lakes
their stories, everything they did World Heritage Area in far western New South Wales.
in their life, everything they made, As the motorcyclist was also a scientist, he decided
ate and wore. If it were possible to check them out. The remains, later called Mungo
for historians to collect all the Woman, were scientifically dated to be about 25 000
billions of sources of evidence years ago. The woman had been cremated and her
this represents, they would not bones buried, with evidence of ceremony.
know where to start! So their Five years later, another skeleton was found, this time
interest is mainly in evidence that intact. It was called Mungo Man. The man had been
is significant. buried ritually after his remains were first smeared
For a historian, ‘significance’ refers with red ochre. Some scientists think that Mungo
to the following: Man is about 60 000 years old, but not all agree.
• something (or someone) The archaeological dig, where the remains were
important to people in the past found, was within an area of freshwater lakes
• something or someone (including Lake Mungo) that dried out about 14 000
affecting a large number of years ago. Remains of extinct animals, such as giant
people’s lives (for good or bad); kangaroos, have been found, as well as flaked stone
the effect may be profound, tools and grinders (probably to pulp grass seeds).
deeply affecting people at There is evidence that the people ate fish.
the time, or durable, affecting The discovery of Mungo Man was significant for
people over a long time two reasons. First, until the 1960s, most scientists
• something relevant found out thought that the first Australians arrived about 20 000
about something (or someone) years ago (during the last glacial, when sea levels
that sheds new light on a were low). If Mungo Man is 60 000 years old, as
historical issue. some say, it means people were here long before
this.
Second, genetic tests have shown that Mungo
Man had a type of DNA (inherited from the mother)
not shared by early modern humans in Africa. This
finding is not consistent with the ‘out of Africa’
theory. This is a puzzle that is yet to be resolved.
Future genetic studies may throw more light on this. Source 1.7 Mungo Man

1 In your own words, explain why Mungo Man was such a significant find.
2 New discoveries often cause historians and other experts to rethink their opinions.
What significant issue has recent DNA tests of Mungo Man raised?
3 Check out ‘Lake Mungo, New South Wales’ on Google Earth. Zoom in through the
clouds. Explore the site and photographs. It used to be a sheep station. Write a
paragraph to explain why it is a significant site.

chapter one the ancient world 9

ARCTIC OCEAN

Arctic Circle
Neander Valley
Spy EUROPE
Biache
25 000
Swanscombe Ehringsdorf BP
Lascaux
Ötztal Alps
St Brelade
Krapina
Montgaudier Pech-Merie
La Quina 40 000
BP ASIA
Altamira Archaeologists believe
Kiik-Koba humans crossed the
Niaux Saccopastore land bridge between
Circeo Siberia and Alaska
La Vache Shanidar Teshik-Tash as early as 40 000 BP
Forbes Quarry La Ferrassie Amud 100 000
BP
Kebara
Qafzeh 70 000 PACIFIC OCEAN
Skhul BP
Tropic of Cancer Tabun

150 000
BP

Equator AFRICA

Olduvai Gorge
40 000
BP

INDIAN 3500
BP
OCEAN
3000
Tropic of Capricorn BP

AUSTRALIA Kenniff Cave

Apollo II Cave 50 000
BP
Lake Mungo

Kow Swamp 1000

BP

Archaeological evidence
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Movement of early humans
100 000 to 35 000 years ago
Homo sapiens sapiens 40 000 40 000 years before present day
35 000 years ago to present BP

Source 1.8 Map showing possible migration routes and settlements of

groups of Homo sapiens, according to the ‘out of Africa’ theory

10
Bluefish Cave

NORTH
AMERICA

Minnesota

Meadowcroft

Calico Hills 20 000

Clovis BP
Natchez ATLANTIC
Midland OCEAN

1600
BP Tepexpan

Source 1.9 Artist’s impression of an advancing

glacier

Check your learning

Pedra
Furada 1 Name four sites at which evidence
of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
SOUTH has been found.
2000
BP AMERICA
2 Use the north point to give four
different compass directions in
15 000 which migrants from Africa are
BP
thought to have travelled once they
Monte Verde
reached today’s Middle East region.
3 According to the ‘out of Africa’
N
theory, indicate approximately how
many years early humans migrating
0 3000 km from Africa took to reach each of
the following: Papua New Guinea,
South America and New Zealand.
4 Use Source 1.9 as a stimulus to
record your thoughts about what
life might have been like for an early
human migrating during a glacial.

chapter one the ancient world 11

Cro-Magnon people
In 1868, a modern human skull was found near a rock shelter called Cro-
Magnon in southern France. It was up to 20 000 years old. Similar bones were
later found in other parts of Europe. These are the remains of what some call
Cro-Magnon people.
These people lived in groups, with ‘base camps’ close to water. Some
shelters were made from the bones and large tusks of mammoths (the early
versions of today’s elephants). Like all early modern humans, Cro-Magnon
people were hunter-gatherers. They moved with the change of seasons, in
search of food. Later, some moved to trade in goods such as shells, furs and
flints. Men hunted game. Women gathered what food could be collected (such
as grains) and raised their children.
Cro-Magnon people were skilled hunters. Fossilised bones of animals they
killed—bison, reindeer, rhinoceros, wild oxen, bears and mammoths (see
Source 1.10)—have been found alongside their own. The animals they hunted
were mostly large requiring men to hunt in packs. This would have involved
planning and communicating.

Cro-Magnon people and Neanderthals

Cro-Magnon people were physically like modern
humans. Many were tall, with long limbs,
unlike the shorter, chunkier Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals.
Source 1.10 This artist’s impression shows The Neanderthals are thought
hunters at work in early human societies. to have lived in Europe and the
Middle East, alongside modern
humans, between 70 000 and
35 000 years ago (see Source
1.8). Why they died out is not
known for sure. In May
2010, German scientists at
the Max Planck Institute in
Leipzig using DNA analysis
concluded that Neanderthals
probably interbred with
modern humans.
The typical skull of a
Cro-Magnon person had
a rounded dome on top, a
Source 1.11 Reconstruction of a Cro-Magnon
man, based on a fossil skull high forehead, a small and broad
face, and a prominent chin. The
brain capacity was large, even by
standards for today’s humans.

Source 1.12 This Cro-Magnon skull was found

in Czechoslovakia. It is about 30 000 years old.

12
Source 1.13 Some of the paintings found in the Lascaux caves in France. Source 1.14 Artist’s impression of Cro-Magnon people painting the
The site has been a World Heritage site since 1979. Lascaux cave walls

Tool makers and painters Check your learning

Cro-Magnon people were skilled tool makers, able to work a piece of flint (a very 1 What evidence does Source 1.10
hard rock) so its various edges and points served many purposes. They used provide of the challenges faced by
materials such as ivory, bones and reindeer antlers, as well as stone and wood early humans when hunting large
(see Source 1.15). Some tools were made to slice skins and to sculpt beads and animals?
ornaments. Knives were made by jamming flakes of flint into wood and binding 2 How were Cro-Magnon people like
the join tightly. Easrly humans also made spear throwers. As well, musical modern humans? How were they
instruments made from the bones of birds and resembling flutes have been unlike Neanderthals?
found. 3 Look at the artefacts shown in
Between about 20 000 and 9000 years ago, Cro-Magnon people left Source 1.15. What do you think
hundreds of paintings and drawings in caves in Spain and France (see each might have been used for?
Source 1.13). Some works show great skill. For example, colour and shading are Give reasons.
used very well. They depict the animals the people killed. Scholars think that 4 What evidence does Source 1.13
rituals may have been linked with the art. Perhaps painting the animals was a provide about the artistic ability of
‘magical’ way to ensure success at a hunt. Cro-Magnon people?
Some Lascaux paintings are 5 Think about what it would have really
high up on cave walls and deep into been like to paint rocky walls located
deep into dark cave tunnels. Does
tunnels. Source 1.14 suggests how
this match the evidence provided by
they may have been created. Torches
Source 1.14? Discuss with a partner.
or lamps made from burning animal
6 o A link to a virtual tour of the
fat probably provided light. Charcoal,
Lascaux Caves is available on the
chalk, oxides (powdered minerals)
obook. What evidence did you
and ochres (coloured clays), blended
uncover about the animals
with fat, was probably the ‘paint’. It is
Cro-Magnon people hunted, and
thought to have been applied with the aspects of their lifestyle? List as many
fingers, a blob of animal hair or blown discoveries as you can.
through a reed. Source 1.15 Some artefacts made by Cro-
Magnon people

chapter one the ancient world 13

Moving into the Americas
During the last glacial, a strip of land joined Siberia to Alaska (see
Source 1.8). This strip of land is now under the Bering Sea. When it was
exposed, it provided a land corridor. This allowed modern humans to
migrate east and animals to move back and forth between the two land
masses.
Once they reached Alaska, the migrants may have headed south.
They may have trekked through gaps in the glaciers or down the
exposed continental shelf of the western coastline. South of the glaciers
were grasslands full of large grazing animals (see Source 1.9, p. 11.).
There is evidence that humans were living in the southern tip of South
America by about 11 000 bce .

Moving into Australia

The lower sea levels of past glacials saw Australia joined to Tasmania and
New Guinea. By island hopping, migrants from south-east Asia could
have reached Australia over time using simple sea craft. When the seas
later rose, Australia was then much more isolated from lands to the
north. This essentially cut off those who had reached its shores from
contact with other peoples.
Significant finds of Australia’s first people have been made at Lake
Mungo (see p. 9), Kow Swamp (see p. 10), Malakunanja (Kakadu) and at
Devil’s Lair Cave (near Perth). Recent evidence confirms there were also
humans at Warreen Cave in Tasmania’s south-west 35 000 years ago.
Other traces of Australia’s first people lie around 100 metres under the
sea on the once-exposed northern continental shelf.

Moving into Polynesia

The ‘out of Africa’ theory holds that groups of humans migrated from
mainland Asia to offshore islands tens of thousands of years ago. Some
moved to today’s Taiwan. It was from here that the move to populate
Source 1.16 The characteristic spearheads of the Polynesia is believed to have begun, about 3500 years ago.
Clovis people, thought to be the first humans to migrate
to North America At first, people probably used bamboo rafts to move from island to
island. Later, double-hulled canoes about 30 to 40 metres long were used.
It is thought that the population of entire villages moved this way. On
some trips, they took animals such as chickens and pigs, as well as plants
to grow in a new location. (The populating of Polynesia is discussed in
more detail in Oxford Big Ideas History 8.)

Check your learning

1 How are the first humans thought to have entered the American continents according to the ‘out of
Africa’ theory?
2 When does evidence suggest that early humans lived in the southern tip of South America?
3 How are the first humans thought to have entered Australia, according to the ‘out of Africa’ theory?
4 Why, for some scholars, is Taiwan of interest for the populating of the Pacific?

14
bigideas
1.1 What is the ‘out of Africa’ theory?
9 Read the extract below. Then decide on five questions you
Remember would like to ask Inuk if you could. Explain why you think
1 What is the view held by those who contest the ‘out of these questions are important.
Africa’ theory?
[Inuk] had brown eyes, dark skin, thick blackish hair and type A

Understand blood. [He] … also had dry earwax, and increased risk of going bald
and the metabolism of a person who could survive in a cold climate.
2 Use Source 1.8 to display key dates in the ‘out of Africa’ And his ancestors were, to the surprise of scientists, ancient people in
theory on a timeline. (Refer to the Skill Drill on page 71 on east Siberia rather than neighbouring Native Americans or Inuit.
how to draw a timeline.)
All this detailed information … comes from a study of a clump
3 Explain why interpreting the evidence about how humans
of his hair, which was preserved for thousands of years in the
populated the world is often very difficult. Arctic permafrost … [Inuk] is the first ancient person to have
4 Suggest how each of the following places might influence had his full DNA code sequenced [analysed].
the lifestyle of those who lived there: dense tropical forest,
Inuk, who was also inbred, is thought to have belonged to the
wide expanse of desert, and icy wasteland.
extinct Saqqaq culture, the first group of people known to have

Apply settled in Greenland … [His] ancestry suggests that a previously

unknown human migration occurred about 5500 years ago. It
5 All societies have distinctive cultures. So do human groups appears that a large group of his ancestors from eastern Siberia
such as sporting clubs. In small groups, discuss and agree crossed the Bering Strait and travelled through North America to
on what features typify the culture of your school. Greenland.
‘Meet Mullet Man: Hair follicle unlocks secrets of the ancients’,
Analyse Deborah Smith, Sydney Morning Herald, 11 February 2010
6 a Who were the Clovis people? What role do they play in
the ‘out of Africa’ theory?
b Study Source 1.16 carefully. Identify at least three
features of these Clovis artefacts from your analysis.

Evaluate
7 With a partner, brainstorm the challenges and difficulties of
living, as an early human, during the coldest part of an ice
age. Rank your list of items in order, from ‘Worst’ to ‘Least
Bad’, giving reasons for your ranking.

Create
8 You are a movie director making a documentary about how
the world was populated, according to the ‘out of Africa’
theory. With a partner, complete one of the following tasks:
• Compose a musical score suitable for the
documentary’s theme. Explain the music’s relevance to
your documentary.
• Create either a poster advertising the documentary or a
news release to attract the viewer.

Source 1.17 Nuka Godfredsen’s impression of ‘Inuk’, a 4000-year-old

man from Greenland

chapter one the ancient world 15

Source 1.18 This richly decorated panel, found in a royal tomb at the Sumerian city of Ur, provides
evidence about some of the behaviours and appearance of the ancient Sumerians (see p. 24).

1.2 How did ancient societies

emerge?
As the ice of the last glacial melted, new tracts of land opened up and
rivers ran free. Archaeological evidence confirms that pockets of people
began to settle in base hunting camps (Cro-Magnon people, for example)
from which they went out to hunt and gather food. These were often
fertile places close to fresh water sources (lakes or rivers). Simple shelters
were built from timber, bark, hides or bones.
The warming climate made food supplies and fresh water more plentiful. This
meant that there no longer was a need to be always on the move to survive, and so
people began settling. Some of them began to domesticate and herd wild animals.
This provided a steady source of meat, milk, fleece and hides. Some people also
began to grow crops rather than gather seeds and fruits from the fields. These
trends saw many of the early hunting camps become permanent settlements.
Not all early societies developed into fixed settlements, though. Some
people remained nomadic—continuing to live largely as hunters and gatherers.
Generally, these were peoples isolated from contact with others.

16
Source 1.19 Ancient rock art in a cave in Brazil showing an early human ritual (used with the kind permission of Archives Fundação Museu do Homem
Americano)

Oral cultures
The first societies all had oral cultures. This meant they did not have a written
language. What had to be communicated or remembered was passed on by word
of mouth through songs, dances, storytelling, rituals and ceremonies. In some
cases, art and artefacts also played a role in preserving aspects of oral cultures.
Some societies today still have oral cultures. Australia’s traditional Indigenous
people are one example, as are the Bushmen of Africa. The art and artefacts
of such peoples—together with the stories told by their descendants— are as
important sources of evidence of their ancient past as would be a written text for
another society.

Ancient art
The oldest rock paintings in the world are thought to be in the Chauvet Cave in
Ardèche in France. Radiocarbon dating confirms they were painted some 32 000
years ago. They provide evidence, among other things, that their creators were
skilled as artists.
In other parts of the world—in Australia and the Americas, for instance—
ancient peoples were also painting rock art. Such works provide evidence that
gives us insights into their lives. For example, some depict the animals they
probably hunted, a few of which are now extinct. Others depict rituals.
Some scholars think early rock art may have been the work of spiritual
leaders. It may have been a ‘magical’ ritual to ensure success in an important
activity, such as a hunt. Later, as Source 1.19 shows, ancient art often became
more elaborate and symbolic. For many societies, it was by then a key part of
funeral and religious rituals.

Ancient pottery
Source 1.20 The outer coffin of Henettaway, A few items and shards of pottery up to 20 000 years old have been found (such
identified as ‘mistress of the house and chantress
as in today’s Jordan). But the evidence indicates there was a significant increase
[singer] of Amun-Re [Egyptian main god]’. She
died in Egypt about 992 bce. The symbols all have in the creation of artefacts (such as pottery) from around about 5000 years ago
religious significance. Panels of hieroglyphs divide onwards. A few were tools. Many others were utensils (to hold water, oil or grain)
the illustrations.
or grave ornaments.

chapter one the ancient world 17

Other evidence of emerging societies
As early societies formed, and as their people increasingly interacted, there was
more opportunity to think about and discuss matters that might have puzzled or
frightened them. These might have included birth and death, day and night, the
seasons, fertility, natural disasters, eclipses and so on.
As beliefs and behaviours evolved to explain such events, cultures began to
take shape. Art was one way in which a person’s culture was expressed. Other
expressions also developed, as discussed below.

Rituals and ceremonies

Thinking about the mysteries of life and death forced some ancient people to
contemplate an afterlife. Explanations evolved for this form of existence, and for
other events that people could not easily understand or explain, such as fertility
and weather changes.
These explanations were often provided by those whom people came to
regard as magical or religious figures. These people were seen to be in contact
with spirits or supernatural forces. Stories were told and myths and legends were
passed on. And so belief systems took shape.
Rituals, ceremonies and traditions helped to reinforce these beliefs. For
example, certain places or rooms within homes came to be treated as shrines.
Here people could reflect on the spirits and beings they had come to recognise.
Craftspeople made artefacts to represent some of these, such as the statue
of Chaac Mool (see Source 1.21). They also made figures (such as shown in
Source 1.21 Chaac Mool, the god of rain for the Source 1.22) and talismans—small objects (a bit like lucky charms) that people
ancient Mayans of Central America came to believe protected them from things they could not control.
In time, sets of behaviours and rituals, such as sacrifices, emerged from
these early practices. For example, the art form we call drama had its roots in
an ancient festival held in ancient Greece. It was to celebrate one of their gods:
Dionysus.

Sacred sites and monumental structures

Some societies saw particular sites as having special significance in their belief
systems. These places came to be seen as sacred. This was the case, for example,
for the Celts of today’s Britain, for the Indigenous people of Australia and the
Americas, and for early peoples in Japan.
Some built or erected monuments or buildings in support of their belief
systems in or near these sacred places. Stonehenge in England is an example of
such an ancient monument, as are the Carnac stones in France (see Source 1.23).
Massive temples were built in ancient Egypt and Greece for the same reasons.
As different religions formed (see pp. 32–3), monumental architecture became
increasingly a visible display of people’s culture. Temples, churches, mosques and
shrines were to become common landmarks.
Source 1.22 This marble figure of a woman,
found in Bulgaria, was made around 7000 years
ago. It probably was respected as a fertility
goddess.

18
Funeral practices
Funeral practices became significant
aspects of early cultures. For example,
the ancient people of Çatal Hüyük, in
today’s Turkey, lived with the remains
of their dead. They left new corpses in
the open for animals to eat. Then they
buried the bones in their homes, under
the platforms on which they slept.
In ancient Egypt and China,
funeral practices were much grander.
Great effort was made to preserve the
bodies of rulers, and to prepare their
spirits for a life after death. It became
a practice, in Egypt, for instance, to
fill tombs with objects of significance,
such as items of great value. On
occasion, a ruler’s servants or guards
were also entombed—sometimes even Source 1.23 The standing stones at Carnac, France, erected about 5000 years ago
buried alive.
Ancient tombs of significance included:
• the pyramids and underground burial chambers of the ancient Egyptians
• the tholos tombs and grave shafts of the ancient Mycenaeans (of Greece)
• the keyhole-shaped burial mounds of ancient Japan’s Kofun period.

Other cultural practices Check your learning

At tombs, sacred sites and monuments, other aspects of 1 Imagine some of the events that might have frightened
early cultures were often on display. Some of the earliest or concerned early humans. With a partner, discuss
written texts were inscribed on the walls of temples and why people might have developed belief systems to
tombs (see Sources 1.26 and 1.27). These walls also often explain them.
provided ‘canvases’ for artwork and stone reliefs. The 2 Why do you think early humans created forms of their
remains of ancient temple columns and statues provide deities such as those shown in Source 1.21 and 1.22?
evidence of an emerging sense of design among early 3 Conduct some research to find out more about the Carnac
builders. Stones. Write a short report on them.
Rituals and ceremonies, such as might take place as part 4 What sort of evidence might a historian look for to find out
of a funeral, saw people sing, chant, dance, play musical more about an ancient society with an oral culture?
instruments or beat out rhythms using drums. 5 How did the warming that followed the last glacial influence
Over time, societies developed ways to preserve their the hunting and gathering behaviours of many early human
emerging culture. Laws and taboos—often based around groups?
religious beliefs—helped to ensure that certain behaviours 6 Frame two research (or enquiry) questions for one of the
would continue to be observed. For example, there might be sources shown on pages 16 and 17 that would help you to
a punishment for killing an animal regarded as sacred. find out more about the people who created them. (See the
Skill Drill on p. 22.)

chapter one the ancient world 19

Writing
Some early societies developed a Ideographs: simple drawings that conveyed a message
system of writing. Scholars think that in pictures (one did not have to speak the language to
understand).
writing began as an attempt by people
to keep visible records of trading.
These might be notches in lengths of
bone, or arrangements of pebbles or
Logographs: more abstract (less realistic) symbols used
sticks. The Incas, for example, kept to represent words or syllables (these scripts could be
count by adding knots to pieces of ‘written’ faster than drawing pictures).
string of different lengths. As scripts
developed, the more privileged people
in a society might have something
‘written’ for them— an inscription in a
king’s tomb, for example. Phonetics: symbols used to represent a sound (this was a
The ancient Sumerians (in key step in the development of writing).

Mesopotamia) produced the first

script around 3500 bce . Other scripts
developed in Egypt, China, India and
Alphabets: list of all the symbols in a language used to
in Mesoamerica. However, very few
represent sounds (alphabets began to develop in the early
ancient people could read or write. part of the first millennium bce).
Hence, those who learned to do so
were highly regarded.
Source 1.24 Key developments in the
history of writing

Cuneiform
There were many forms of cuneiform. The script used
by the Sumerians was the most complex. It had about
600 characters, 15 times as many as those used by the
ancient Persians. Some cuneiform symbols were logographs;
others represented sounds. The symbols are wedge-shaped,
reflecting the shape of the tools used to make them. They
were typically recorded on clay tablets. The symbols were
pushed into wet clay, and the tablets were then dried in
the sun.

Hieroglyphs
The ancient Egyptians were ‘writing’ hieroglyphs by about
3000 bce . There were about 700 signs, each standing for
a word or a sound. Hieroglyphs are often found carved
and painted in tombs, and on monuments. They were
also written on a form of paper made from the papyrus
plant stalks.

Source 1.25 Clay tablet displaying a cuneiform script

20
Two other scripts—the hieratic and the demotic—were
later in use in ancient Egypt. These could be written more
quickly. Hieroglyphs were read in columns from top to
bottom. The direction in which the row in a column was
read depended on which way particular symbols at the start
or end of rows were pointing.

Mayan glyphs
It is now known that Mayan glyphs (signs) represent either
meaning or sounds. They are shown in columns, each being
two glyphs wide. Each column is read from top to bottom
and from left to right. Many decorative glyphs depict
animals and people. They are often carved on temples or
around tombs.

Chinese calligraphy Source 1.26 Stone relief of Egyptian hieroglyphs found at the entrance to
a tomb
The Chinese script is the world’s oldest writing system
still in use today. It began, like many other scripts, with
characters that looked like tiny ‘pictures’. With time, these
became more stylised. There are tens of thousands of
characters, which are traditionally drawn with a brush. The
size of the brush tip, the type of ink, and the brush pressure
all influence the look of the script. Most words consist of
one or two characters, sometimes three. Each character
represents a syllable.

Alphabets
By the early part of the first millennium BCE , a number of
languages in today’s Middle East region had alphabets.
These were lists of what symbols related to which sounds.
The first alphabets contained only consonants. The alphabet
of the ancient Phoenicians (a people living in the region of
today’s Lebanon) had 22 characters. It would later influence
Source 1.27 Mayan signs or glyphs
the writing of the ancient Greeks and provide the basis for
the alphabet of the ancient Romans.

Check your learning

1 For what purposes did early societies first start to use
written scripts?
2 What is the difference between an ideograph and a
logograph?
3 Why do you think the use of alphabets was significant for
written languages?
4 Compare and contrast how:
a cuneiform and Chinese calligraphy were written
b Mayan glyphs and Egyptian hieroglyphs were read.
Source 1.28 Chinese calligraphy

chapter one the ancient world 21

skilldrill
Identify questions for an inquiry

As a young historian, you will investigate past events and

trends, particular people and their influence, and social and
political developments. For these you will be analysing a
range of sources: texts, artefacts, photographs of ruins, art,
sculptures and so on.
Any historical inquiry should be framed around key inquiry
questions. The more focused these are, the more structured
your research will be. Inquiry questions also help you to avoid
wasting time researching information that is unrelated to your
topic.
Inquiry questions often begin with the words how, when,
what, why, which, whose and so on. For example, you might
ask about a ruler, ‘Why was he so admired (or so disliked)?’
Let’s try this out. Here are two ancient artefacts for which you
are given some clues. Inquiry questions (and some useful
thoughts) you might frame for the artefact shown as Source
1.29 might include:
• What is its likely provenance? (That is, how did it get
to where it is and who made it?) Given that it was found
among the ruins of Pompeii, it has to be at least 1900
years old (see page 214). It was probably made by the
ancient Romans, though it could have been an imported
trade good.)
• What was it used for? (Note the two holes and the
depressed centre. Does this suggest an oil lamp fixed to
the wall? Note also the leaf shape at the front. Was this a Source 1.29 The clues are: ‘found in Pompeii’ and ‘can be very hot
flame guard?) or cold’.

• What does it reveal about the skill of its makers? (Note the
intricate metal work.)

Check your learning

Use this example to help you frame inquiry
questions about the artefacts shown as
Source 1.30.

Source 1.30 The clues

are: ‘found in China’ and
‘worth something.’

22 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

keyconcepts
Evidence

Fragments from the past—a human

bone, a piece of a tool or an old
manuscript or ruin—are historical
sources. They will potentially tell us
something about the past. Modern
paintings of ancient scenes, scientific
reports on ancient artefacts, and
papers written by historians and other
scholars are also historical sources.
They may fill in some of the gaps in
what we know.
Sources in themselves are not
evidence. Evidence is the information
Source 1.31 Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, one of the cities of the ancient Indus Valley society
or clues you uncover by asking
specific questions about a source.
The ruins of Mohenjo-daro, shown Evidence of the Indus Valley society
here, are a historical source. Think The society began to flourish about 4500 years ago. It centred on the fertile flood
about what evidence this source plains of the Indus and (now dry) Hakra rivers. At its peak, it covered most of today’s
provides. For example, what do these Pakistan as well as parts of Iran, Afghanistan and India.
ruins reveal about the people’s skills
The excavations of ruins of dockyards, brick-making kilns, grain storehouses and
as builders?
public baths have provided historians with evidence of this society. Houses, often
two-storeys, were made from dried mud bricks. They nearly all had elaborate drainage
systems and ‘bathrooms’.
Other sources reveal evidence of an extensive land and sea trade, an accurate system
of weights and measures, beliefs that included the worship of a mother goddess,
advanced metal-working skills, and a system of writing. Scripts have been found on
pots and on stone seals but as yet have not been decoded.
The civilisation began to decline around 1800 bce. The evidence to confirm why this
happened is unclear. Some historians say climate change caused widespread flooding.
Others contest this. Some suggest an invasion. Another view is that an earthquake
shifted the flow of the Hakra River.
1 What evidence does Source 1.31 provide about building design and construction
practices of the ancient Indus Valley people?
2 Based on evidence uncovered so far by other scholars about this society, would
you classify it as a hunter-gatherer society? Why or why not?.
3 On the basis of your answer to Question 2, suggest what the daily life of this city’s
inhabitants might have been like.

chapter one the ancient world 23

evidence: t he society of ancient Sumer Caspian
Sea
focus on …

Ancient Sumer developed around 5000 bce to the south of a

region called Mesopotamia (see Source 1.32), between the Tigris

Za
ean
and Euphrates rivers in today’s Iraq. (Mesopotamia is a Greek

gr
Eu

M
erran
ph

ES

o
word that means ‘between rivers’.) rat M

Tig
Sea

s
es

O
Esnunna o u

PO

ri
Medit

s
The people first learned to grow crops at a place called Eridu. nt

TA
ai

M
They learned, too, how to divert river water along irrigation Syrian Desert ns

IA
Sippar
channels. By about 4000 BCE, they had developed an ox-drawn Babylon
N Kish Marad
plough. Nippur Umma
Uruk Lagash
SUMER
Evidence of skills as builders and town planners 0 400 km Arabian Ur
Desert Eridu
As Sumerian settlements prospered, a number of urban centres
Possible coastline in the
developed. These became walled cities, each with its own ruler time of ancient Sumer Persian
and way of doing things. The first of these cities was Uruk (see Land relief Gulf
Source 1.33). By around 2800 BCE, Uruk is thought to have had a
Source 1.32 Location of ancient Sumer within Mesopotamia, with the
population of around 5000. Fertile Crescent shaded
Each city had a palace (where the ruler lived). The temple (or
• inventing the potter’s wheel (around 3500 bce), later adapted
ziggurat) was usually at the heart of a city, surrounded by
for use on carts and chariots
clusters of simple houses and narrow streets (see Source 1.36
for an artist’s impression, based on the evidence provided by • developing a number system based on 60. This still influences
surviving ruins). The ziggurats were believed to be the place of the some of the mathematics we use today (such as 60 seconds
gods and only priests could enter them. in a minute, 360 degrees in a circle).

Evidence of skills as craftspeople How did it all end?

Evidence of the skills of the ancient Sumerians as weavers, Ancient Sumer was conquered by a strong Semitic people to
armour makers, jewellers and potters has been found in tombs, the north-west about 2350 bce. Sargon (c. 2340–2284 bce) was
such as that of Queen Pu’abi of Ur (see Source 1.34). Five the first of the new dynasty of ruling conquerors. He set up his
soldiers and 13 female attendants were entombed with her. capital in the city of Akkad. Many scholars regard him as founder
of the world’s first empire: the Akkadian empire.
Evidence of other achievements
Other significant achievements of the ancient Sumerians included:
• having the first writing (cuneiform) (see Source 1.25 on p. 20).
Many inscribed tablets that have been found that provide
evidence of Sumerian beliefs and music, and of people’s
understanding of medicine and astronomy.

Source 1.34 Some

of Queen Pu’abi’s
jewels. She lived
Source 1.33 Ruins of one of the buildings in the Sumerian city of Uruk around 2500 bce.

24
bigideas
1.2 How did ancient societies emerge?
Remember Evaluate informative source, production
quality. Give reasons for
1 What evidence did Australia’s ancient 7 o A link to a virtual tour of the your ratings.
people leave of their past? Chauvet cave in France is available
2 Describe one source of evidence of on the obook. Visit the site and Create
the ancient Sumer society. complete the following tasks.
8 o A link to a site showing Mayan
a What evidence does the cave glyphs is available in the obook.
Understand provide about the animals the Locate the ‘Mayan alphabet’ within
3 In general terms, explain why belief people probably hunted? the pdf, and try to write your name
systems developed among ancient b Rate the website on a scale of in Mayan glyphs.
peoples. 1 (best) to 5 (worst) against each
4 a Suggest why hunters and of the following criteria: source
gatherers would have had no of evidence about the past,
need of large storage pots. engagement and interest as an
b Evidence suggests a large
increase in the number of items
such as pottery found around the
world from about 5000 years ago.
What does this suggest?

Apply
5 Copy and complete the table below
in your workbook, adding at least five
more entries. The first one has been
completed for you.

Analyse
6 The painting shown as Source 1.35
was painted in 1973, but is based on
primary sources. The lifted container
holds beer made from corn. What
evidence does this source provide
about some of the rituals of the
ancient Incas of South America?
Source 1.35 Artist’s impression of an ancient Incan ritual

Source of evidence Function and purpose of item in our society Evidence it might provide to future historians
about our society
Television set To relay moving pictures and sound The people used electricity; may have been a source
of information and entertainment

chapter one the ancient world 25

Source 1.36 Artist’s impression of society members around a ziggurat courtyard in ancient
Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq)

1.3 What were the key features of

ancient societies?
The shift in human behaviour—from hunting and gathering to
farming—took place in many societies at different times. It was such a
significant development that it is often called a revolution: the Neolithic
Revolution. As agricultural societies flourished, no longer did everyone
have to be involved in producing food. There was time for those who
were not farmers to learn new skills or to pursue other interests. Over
time, people of like interests and skills began to band together. Distinctive
social groups began to form.
As the roles of these groups became more established, divisions between them
became clearer. These divisions were between the rich and the poor, for example,
and between those who were skilled and those who were not. There were also clear
divisions between those who ruled and those who were ruled.

Where were the ancient societies?

Some hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world became agricultural
societies with fixed settlements. Some of these agricultural villages later grew into
towns and cities. For example, by about 10 000 years ago, Jericho, a settlement in
today’s Middle East, was a walled city.

26
Maya region at its greatest extent Earliest civilisations (start date, BCE)
Ancient Sumer (c. 3500)
Ancient Egypt (c. 3100)
Gulf of Indus Valley (c. 2500)
Yucatan Ancient China (c. 2000)
Mexico Çatal Hüyük Gaziantep (founding date, BCE)
Peninsula ATLANTIC (c. 6500) (c. 3700) Early agricultural settlements
OCEAN
Damascus (c. 4300)
Susa (c. 4200)
Caribbean Byblos (c. 5000)
Sea Xi’an
Jerusalem (c. 3000) (c. 2200)
Luxor (c. 2160) Jericho PACIFIC
(c. 9000) OCEAN
N
N

Pacific
0 2000 km INDIAN OCEAN
Ocean 0 300 km

Source 1.37 Extent of the empire of the Source 1.38 Location of early agricultural settlements and what some call the earliest civilisations
ancient Mayans

Their rulers extended their influence over other regions, creating kingdoms and empires.
A few of these were what some scholars call the earliest civilisations (see Source 1.38). These urbanised
societies all sprang up in fertile river valleys. The environments and physical features of these valleys
allowed the people to produce significant quantities of food and to trade (often along river routes).

Change and continuity

The society of China is unusual in retaining its ‘Chinese’ character for some 4000 years. The history
of most societies, by contrast, is a story of ongoing change that saw kingdoms and empires rise and fall
and the cultural and ethnic character of societies alter.
For example, ancient Greece became part of the empire of the Macedonian conqueror Alexander
the Great in the 4th century BCE (see p. 203). Some 200 years later, it was part of the empire of ancient
Rome. By medieval times, it was part of the Islamic Ottoman Empire.
Another example is that of the Olmecs. The Olmecs lived on the Yucatan Peninsula (where today’s
southern Mexico, Belize and Guatemala are) between about 1500 and 400 BCE . Among the distinctive
artefacts they left are a number of massive carved stone heads. Many Olmec cultural practices were
later adapted by the societies that followed in the area. One of these was the Mayans. For about 600
years, from about 250 CE , the Mayans dominated much of this region (see Source 1.37). Later, Spanish
invaders arrived.
In the mid-14th century BCE, powerful Bronze Age societies in today’s Middle East region included
the Hittite empire and the Mitanni kingdom (both part of today’s Turkey) and the following kingdoms:
• Elam (now south-western Iran)
• Egypt (including the Levant, now countries such as today’s Israel and Lebanon)
• Assyria (now part of northern Iraq and Iran)
• Babylonia (now part of Iraq, and containing the former ancient Sumer).
By about 700 BCE , the Assyrians had become dominant, mainly through their use of iron. But
within 250 years, this Assyrian empire had been taken over by the ancient Persians. By 330 BCE , the
Persian empire, too, was over, conquered by Alexander the Great (see above). The Greek influence he
spread throughout the region merged with Persian beliefs and customs.
So, as you can see, it’s complicated!

chapter one the ancient world 27

The growth of farming
The world’s first farmers lived in Mesopotamia (see
Source 1.32). Mesopotamia, in turn, was part of a broader
curve of land, sweeping around to the Mediterranean Sea,
Mediterranean
now known as the Fertile Crescent. People were beginning
Sea
to farm in the Fertile Crescent by around 9000 bce .
Over time, native grasses and other plants were adapted
to create crops that could be harvested. Einkorn (a type of
wheat) and barley were among the first crops grown, and EGYPT Persian
N
sheep and goats among the first animals to be domesticated. Fertile Crescent Gulf
(The crops and animals farmed by others in the world were Former coastline

Ni e r
400 km

Ri
those best suited to their environments.) 0

le
v
For the first time, though, people had some control over Source 1.39 The Fertile Crescent (including Egypt)
their food supply. Excess food was stored for times when
8
harvests might be poor, or for trading with other communities. Storing 10
food
was not something that hunter-gatherer societies did. (Inventions such as the plough and the wheel
did later make a difference to early farmers, as did learning how to manage irrigation.)

Development of social classes

The groups that began to form in early societies came to assume a rank (or class) that reflected the
value society placed on their roles. Rulers, for instance, had a higher social class than those they ruled.

At the top—the rulers

Rulers came from those social groups with the most wealth and prestige. These were often landowners,
religious figures or powerful warriors. Commonly, someone in a ruler’s family inherited the role, often
the first-born son. Other members of a ruler’s family (a brother, or a wife) might also take on certain
ruling responsibilities.
These practices helped to cement the privileged status of the ruler’s family. In some societies,
ongoing members of the same family held power for long periods of time. These were called
dynasties.

c. 5000
c. 10 000 c. 8000
c. 6000 Potatoes well-established in Andes
Early beginnings of farming Rice and millet Mountains region; cotton being
in today’s Middle East domesticated in China’s Wheat and legumes cultivated
in Aegean region grown in today’s Mexico region
Yangtse Valley

BCE

c. 7000 c. 5500
c. 9500 Apples cultivated in Sumerians starting
Einkorn wheat, barley, goats, south-west Asia, oranges intensive farming
sheep being farmed in Levant in India and sugarcane in Papua

Source 1.40 Timeline for the spread of organised farming throughout the world

28
The Ptolemaic dynasty began in 323 bce , after Alexander the Great (see p. 203) made Egypt part
of his empire. Cleopatra was ancient Egypt’s last Ptolemaic ruler (69–30 bce). She was a popular
ruler, but ruthless. She used her love affairs with two powerful Roman generals—Julius Caesar and
Mark Antony—to further her own political ends.

Sharing the power

Rule was often in the hands of one person, nearly always a man. Kings, for example, ruled the
Etruscans (founders of ancient Rome) and the ancient Persians. Ancient China and Rome had
emperors for much of their history, while ancient Egypt had pharaohs. Some rulers had great
personal power and influence. Others were figureheads, with real power in the hands of their
advisers.
Sometimes, though, rule was shared by a few. This political system was called an oligarchy.
During Greece’s ‘dark age’ (1200–800 bce), about which little is known, most of its city-states were
oligarchies. Later, a new form of government emerged in the city-state of Athens: democracy. (At
the time, ‘democracy’ was rule by free male citizens only.)

In the middle
Some of the other social groups that formed in ancient societies included religious groups such as
priests, priestesses, shamans and oracles (see p. 177): These people were highly respected for their
perceived ‘closeness’ to non-earthly beings and forces (including ancestors).
There were also administrative groups such as tax collectors, storehouse managers, lawmakers
and advisers. These people were typically wealthy or had powerful family connections. Many—
like China’s eunuchs or Rome’s praetors (see p. 219)—were very influential.
Source 1.41 Trading and business groups were also a part of this middle class. Goods traded or sold
This 4000-year-old statue is included natural produce such as fish, olive oil and wheat, as well as manufactured goods such
of a vizier, who held the top
administrative role in Egypt. as cloth, pottery and metal goods. Many merchants became wealthy and powerful, like Rome’s
equites. But this did not always ensure a high social status. In ancient China, for example, farmers
were respected more highly than merchants, for their contribution to society.
Anyone who could read or write, such as the highly educated scribes of Egypt and
calligraphers of China, also held a place in the middle. Very few ancient people could read and
write. This privileged role allowed access to rulers, performing such functions as keeping records.

c. 4000 c. 3000 c. 800

Horse domesticated in today’s Evidence of fruit trees Peanuts cultivated in Peru
Ukraine region, and dogs and and fish ponds in Egypt
pigs in China
CE

c. 500
Coffee cultivated
c. 1300 c. 100 in Arabia
Apples cultivated Evidence of crop
c. 4500 c. 3500 in Egypt rotation in parts of
Irrigation in Cotton grown in Indus Valley; China
Indus Valley ancient Sumerians invent the
ard (a light plough)

chapter one the ancient world 29

Those who made up a society’s fighting force—the
soldiers—varied over time and from society to society.
For example, in ancient Rome, only landowners could be
soldiers at first. Some armies, such as those of ancient Egypt,
often included mercenaries—people paid to fight. For a
time in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta, every able-
bodied man was trained as a soldier.
Finally, artisan groups were part of this class of people.
This includes people such as potters, weavers, sculptors,
goldsmiths, artists, and builders and makers of jewellery,
tools and musical instruments. Typically, such roles
had more status than farmers, but rarely were artisans
influential or wealthy.

Source 1.42 Stone relief of a scribe (on the left) from ancient Egypt And at the bottom … slaves
Slaves were usually the lowest social class in ancient
societies. Most were prisoners of war, although slavery was
also the common fate of criminals or of people in debt.
Slaves provided a vital and plentiful source of labour in
ancient societies. They had to do whatever their masters
ordered. This meant that not only was their labour free, but
also it was highly disciplined. Slaves often did farm work or
other manual jobs. Some endured great misery, working in
mines or chained to their rowing posts in ships. The more
fortunate might belong to households, providing domestic
and sometimes tutoring services.
Slaves had few legal or personal rights, although this
varied between societies. Generally, they could not own
property or marry. A very few might be given their freedom.

Check your learning

1 In the earliest societies, people were typically either hunters
or gatherers. What allowed so many different social
roles to emerge among those societies with permanent
settlements?
2 Describe some of the divisions that developed between
social groups.
3 Draw simple labelled sketches to depict the roles typically
performed by each of the following groups within an ancient
society: slaves, merchants, farmers and religious figures.
4 List some different ways in which ancient societies were
ruled.
5 Write down one interesting fact about soldiers in each of
Source 1.43 Artist’s impression of slaves being used to build the Great Wall the following societies: ancient Rome, ancient Egypt and
in China ancient Sparta.

30
Trade and ancient economies
Growing villages and towns, boosted by agriculture, began to exchange goods (natural or
manufactured) they had lots of for other goods they needed. (Trade was practised, too, among
nomadic peoples.) Until the use of currency, trading parties (typically merchants) exchanged
goods agreed to be of equal value. This practice is called bartering. Grain and stone (suitable for
making tools) were among the earliest trade goods.

Impact of changes in transport

Merchants in many early societies commonly travelled on
foot, carrying trade goods on the backs of pack animals.
The invention of the wheel in ancient Mesopotamia allowed
transport in carts. With the building of boats, merchants
could trade up and down rivers, even across seas. The
ancient Phoenicians, for example, were regular sea traders.
They operated throughout the Mediterranean region up to
10 000 years ago.

Rise of economies
Some settlements, because of their location, had access
to certain natural resources. Çatal Hüyük (see p. 27), for
example, was close to natural deposits of obsidian. This
hard volcanic glass thus became a key trading good. The
ancient Egyptian town of Nekhen became a major trading
centre for pots (where they were made in great quantity).
Trade introduced settlements not only to new goods, but
also to new ways of conducting business and new ways of
thinking. Trading towns became prosperous; some became
very wealthy. The first economies began to take shape.
(The economy of a place is the total mix of factors involved
in producing goods and services, and in distributing and Source 1.44 Stone relief of ancient Roman merchants trading cloth goods
using them.)

significance: metal goods and technologies

focus on …

Trade (and hence the economies of early societies) was

boosted significantly by the development of metal-working
skills. Copper, silver and gold were being used in parts of
Europe by around 6000 bce. Four millennia later, bronze (harder
than copper) was in demand, and within another millennium,
iron. Steel was first made about 2500 years ago in China.
The metal deposits, the technology to extract metal from ore,
and metal artefacts—tools, weapons, jewellery, containers and
so on—were all significant items of ancient trade.

Source 1.45 Copper jewellery, made in the 6th century bce

chapter one the ancient world 31

Development of major religions
As indicated on page 18, belief systems commonly evolved to explain the many
things that frightened and mystified ancient peoples. Supernatural beings,
spirits or forces were seen to be responsible. This gave people some comfort that
‘someone’ or ‘something’ was in control.
But these beings had no physical form. So societies created images to represent
them (see Sources 1.21 and 1.22 on p. 18). Cultural behaviours such as prayer and
public worship emerged, at which certain rituals might be observed. Some rituals,
which were often cruel and bloody, were seen to ensure the continuing favour of
the god or gods.
In many societies, a social group developed whose role was to provide a link
between ordinary people and these beings or forces. These were the religious
figures. They were believed to understand things that were a mystery to ordinary
people. Often, a ruler (for example, the pharaoh in ancient Egypt, who was also
the chief priest) was seen to be so closely linked to this ‘spiritual world’ that he
was regarded as a god. This also happened in other ancient societies.
The world’s major religions are outlined briefly below. Confucianism (more a
way of living than a religion) is discussed on page 292.

Hinduism
This belief system of the earliest people of India traces back some 3000 years.
One must be born a Hindu to be a Hindu.
Hindu societies were traditionally divided into strict groups or castes. The
Brahmin (priests, judges, teachers) were the top caste. The lowest social group
were the untouchables, so low that they did not qualify to be part of the caste
system. They did the ‘polluting’ jobs such as cleaning up bodily wastes.
Source 1.46 A medicine man from Rift Valley
Province, Kenya. Such figures were (and still are in Hinduism holds that there are three creator gods (Brahma, the supreme
some societies) believed to have special powers. god; Shiva, the destroyer; Vishnu, the preserver), and many lesser deities.
Enlightenment comes through reincarnation (rebirth in another body). Hindus
typically meditate and make pilgrimages (religious journeys) to holy places.
The natural world of people, animals and landscapes is seen to be part of the
divine world.

Judaism
Judaism is the belief system of the Hebrew people (Jews); it was the first of the
world’s major religions to worship one god.
Believers obey God’s commandments as set out in the Tanakh (the Old
Testament of the Bible), particularly the first five books (the Torah). Practices
include circumcision for baby boys, bar mitzvah ceremonies for boys to mark the
end of childhood, and eating foods prepared in accordance with Jewish dietary
laws (called kosher food). Eating pork is forbidden, as it is for followers of Islam.

Christianity
Source 1.47 Jews praying at the Wailing Wall in Christianity began at the start of the first millennium ce based on the teachings
the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a sacred place for of Jesus Christ. Jesus was a Jew, born in the city of Nazareth to a woman named
Jewish people.
Mary. Believers hold that she was a virgin and that Jesus was conceived by an act

32
of God. His death, by crucifixion, was to ‘blot out’ in God’s sight the sins of
humankind. He became, in effect, a sacrifice.
Like Judaism, Christianity holds that there is one god. Christians typically go
to church, pray, study the Bible and strive to live by its principles, particularly
those set out in the New Testament.

Buddhism
This religion was founded by Siddharta Gautama (Buddha), who was born in
India around 563 bce . To end pain and suffering, he argued, a person must work
towards spiritual enlightenment through repeated cycles of reincarnation. On
reaching this state (Nirvana) a person is freed from all the bad things about
being human.
Buddhism holds that there are Four Noble Truths:
1 Life is full of suffering.
2 Suffering comes because people crave things.
3 By getting rid of craving, one is freed.
4 The only way to do this is to have the ‘right’ understanding, speech, actions,
efforts, livelihood, intentions, awareness and concentration.

Islam
Islam was founded in Arabia by the Prophet Muhammad in the early
7th century ce (therefore it is not discussed in depth in this book). The followers
of Islam are Muslims. Islam proclaims that there is one god (Allah) and
Muhammed is his messenger. The Muslim holy book is called the Qur’an (Koran). Source 1.48 Shinto shrine in the Kii mountains in Japan

People must submit to the will of Allah to enter Paradise when they die. (In
fact, the word ‘islam’ means ‘to surrender to Allah’s will’ in Arabic.) A Muslim’s
main religious duties (the Five Pillars) are to:
1 declare one’s faith in front of witnesses
2 pray five times a day
3 give to the poor
4 eat nothing during the day during Ramadan
5 make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime if possible.

Taoism
Taoism was founded in China by Lao-Tzu (600–531 bce). It
holds that to live forever, a person must become one with
the life force (the Tao or ‘the Way’). This requires balancing
within oneself the yin and yang (opposite) forces that make
up everything in the universe. Meditation helps to maintain
this inner harmony and peace.

Shinto
This was a belief system of the early Japanese people. People
believed that they avoid evil by carrying out purification
rituals and calling on the ancient spirits. Practices include
making offerings to these spirits at shrines. Source 1.49 Buddhist monks at a festival in Thailand

chapter one the ancient world 33

Development of law
The first laws were people’s day-to-day customs. As societies became more
complex, ‘rules’ about how people should behave became more structured.
Those societies that developed a system of writing wrote them down.
The first written laws were recorded about 4000 years ago by Ur-Nammu, the
king of Ur, in ancient Sumer (see p. 24). About 300 years later, Hammurabi, King
of Babylon, recorded a more detailed set of 282 laws: the Code of Hammurabi.
The laws dealt with a range of issues including theft, treatment of slaves and
maintenance of property. Some were very harsh. For example, law 195 states: ‘If
a son hits his father, his hands shall be cut off’.

Law codes framed by religious belief

The law codes of some ancient societies were framed around their beliefs and
religious practices. The laws were seen to be required by the god in whom they
believed. For example, the Jews had the law of Moses, part of which includes the
Ten Commandments. The Muslims had the law of the Five Pillars, based on the
teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (see p. 33).
The law of Australia’s ancient people was also influenced by its people’s
Source 1.50 Carved head whom many think
spirituality: their link to the Dreaming. Punishments were decided by tribal depicts the ruler Hammurabi
elders. These might include public shaming, spearing in the thigh, ‘pointing
the bone’, banishment, even death.

Laws made by people … for the people

The ancient Athenians (of Greece) first put forward the idea
that humans could make (and change) laws to suit their
own communities. These were independent of religious
belief. For example, Draco developed the first law code
for Athens in 621 bce . It was very harsh. (Until then, the
society of ancient Greece had unwritten laws. Draco’s law
code set down very harsh penalties for those who broke any
of ‘the rules’. The English word ‘draconian’, which means
‘extremely harsh’, is one legacy of this code.) Some 30 years
later, Solon refined these laws to make them fairer and
more humane.
By 450 bce , ancient Rome had its first written law code:
the Laws of the Twelve Tables. These were later revised and
extended. One code applied for Roman citizens (civic
law) and one for conquered peoples. Respect for what it
considered to be natural justice later saw Rome (in 212 ce)
grant citizenship to almost all those it conquered—except
slaves. Like ancient Greece’s law, Roman law gave no rights
to slaves.
By around 533 ce , Emperor Justinian I had organised
for all of ancient Rome’s laws to be sorted into a code called
Source 1.51 In accordance with traditional Indigenous law, a youth is taken the Corpus Juris Civilis (the Body of Civil Laws). Roman
into the bush to learn ‘secret men’s business’, as part of his initiation. law went on to influence the legal systems of many
modern countries.

34
skilldrill
Using the language of history

Students who play cricket and basketball will be familiar with terms such as ‘silly mid-on’, ‘maiden over’,
‘zone defence’ and ‘three pointer’. These are part of the ‘language’ of these sports. History also has a
language that includes the terms below. There are, of course, a great many others. You will come across or
use these terms time and time again as you study History.

Source 1.52

Term Definition Term Definition

ancestor someone from whom a person is descended environment the landscape, climate or circumstances in
which people live
artefact something made or produced by people evidence clues that can be drawn from historical
sources in response to inquiry questions
century 100 years ethical in adherence with the morals (right and wrong)
of people and their behaviours
ceremony formal activity, based on custom and tradition inquiry in the context of history, an investigation of
that may be of a political, social or religious historical sources to identify evidence to help
nature to answer framing questions
custom normal way of behaving for a people, or the hunter- people who spend most of their time hunting
traditions of a group of people or society gatherers for and gathering food to survive
city-state settlement made up of a city centre, legacy something left to be passed on to future
surrounded by houses; around the houses generations
is farming land which produces food for
the people
chronology time order settlement people living together in some fixed
arrangement
contestable able to be challenged: the ideas and opinions sustainable able to be controlled in a way that will allow
put forward are open to dispute something (such as a resource) to continue
more or less indefinitely
dynasty a sequence of rulers from the same family tradition something that is done a certain way because
who rule over time it has always been done that way; or the
handing down of beliefs and practices from
generation to generation
emperor person who rules an empire urban related to a city or town

Check your learning

Test yourself with a partner. See how many terms you can remember the meaning of when asked.

chapter one the ancient world 35

bigideas
1.3 What were the key features of ancient societies?
Remember 6 Define each of these terms in your own words:
domesticated, slave, economy, law code, dynasty, artisan.
1 Write down as many key features of ancient societies as you
7 Slavery today is an ‘ugly word’. In our society, we have
can recall. List them in your workbook in a table like the one
learned to value freedom. Yet in many ancient societies,
below.
having a slave was like owning a necessary item of furniture.
Key features of societies Key features of urban Even those who were not especially wealthy had slaves in
with oral cultures societies many societies. Decide how ancient societies would have
fared had there been no slaves. Brainstorm some of the
consequences in small groups.
2 a In which part of the world did the first farming
8 Study the timeline shown as Source 1.40 (see pp. 28–29).
settlements appear? What modern countries is this
What conclusions can you draw from this timeline about the
region now a part of?
spread of farming practices in the world?
b Why did this location lend itself well to farming?
9 In small groups, sharing the research load with other
3 What was the Neolithic Revolution? Why do you think this
members of your group, find out more about two deities
event was called a ‘revolution’?
or spirits that were part of the religious beliefs of two of
4 What do the terms ‘social group’ and ‘social class’ mean? the following: the ancient Greeks, the ancient Australians
and the ancient Mayans. Discuss their similarities and
Understand differences.
5 Think about the roles played by particular groups in ancient 10 Name (or find out about) a place that was and continues
societies. Often these roles depended on each other. For to be sacred or very special to each of the following: Jews,
example, merchants depended on farmers to grow crops Muslims, Hindus and Australia’s Indigenous people. Find
to trade and farmers depended on merchants to sell their out, in each case, what role that place plays in the people’s
produce. Extend the concept map below to build as many belief system.
links between the social roles as you can.
Apply
11 Identify at least five features that you think define modern
Australian society.
Farmers
12 Name at least two jobs in our modern society that you think
uc e would have been equivalent to roles performed by each of
P ro d
r the following: ancient artisans, ancient administrators.
d fo
fo o
13 Through the examples given in this section, you saw how
societies have been changed over time by factors such
Merchants as migration and conquest. Think about Australia for a
tax from
Collect

moment, and what you know about its past. Complete the
following tasks through discussion as a class.
Co a Describe briefly how the society occupying this land prior
lle
ta x c t to 1788 was changed by the arrival of the Europeans.
f ro
m b In what ways do you think it is changing today?
Administrators c Predict what sort of society Australia might be in 200
years’ time. Give reasons for your views.

36 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Analyse Create
14 o A link to the Code of Hammurabi is available in the 16 Below is a cluster of ornaments made by the ancient
obook. Read through the list of laws. Locate at least one in Olmec people of Central America. This collection,
each case that relates to matters to do with the following: which was found in a grave, is thought to have religious
rent, property maintenance, relationships between married significance. How would you alter this display so it is more
men and women, and debts. suitable as a burial good for a famous Australian soldier?

Evaluate
15 Debate this topic: ‘Without trade, societies cannot prosper
or grow.’

Source 1.53 This

collection provides
evidence of aspects
of ancient Olmec
practices. One
custom, for instance,
was thought to be
head binding.

chapter one the ancient world 37

Source 1.54 Crowds gathering outside the Basilica of St Peter for a Mass conducted by the Pope

1.4
What are the legacies of ancient
societies?
Some legacies of ancient societies were evident fairly quickly. For
example, the civilisation of ancient Greece had a direct influence on
that of ancient Rome. So did that of ancient China on ancient Japan.
Others have continued to influence human history. Legacies include
beliefs, traditions, customs, even ways of governing. Over time, some
aspects have changed a little to adapt to a changing world. But the
direct debt owed to an ancient past remains. (The legacies discussed
in this section are only some of what we owe to antiquity. Other
examples are discussed in the depth studies in this textbook.)

Influence on belief systems

Christianity is an example of a legacy from the ancient world. The 2010 Pontifical
Yearbook reports that there were about 1.166 billion Catholics in the world at the
end of 2008. Add to that 600 million Christian Protestants. This represents close
to 27 per cent of the world’s population (2008). That is a significant legacy.

38
Christianity began in today’s Middle East. (Nazareth, in today’s Israel, is recorded as the
birthplace of Jesus Christ, on whose teachings Christianity is based.) However, it was the empire of
ancient Rome that first declared it an official religion in 380 ce . Before that, Christianity had been
outlawed. Christians were killed and tortured, and forbidden to practise their beliefs.
Today, the spiritual leader of the Catholic Church, the Pope, conducts most of his ceremonies
in modern Italy’s capital, Rome. The city draws hundreds of thousands of Christian pilgrims
(see Source 1.54). Ceremonies are conducted in Latin, the formal language of the ancient Romans.
Until the late 1960s, key parts of services in Catholic parish churches were still spoken in Latin.

Influence of Greek beliefs on ancient Rome

Before officially becoming a Christian people, the ancient Romans
revered a large number of gods and goddesses. This was a direct legacy of
ancient Greece. Many of the deities adopted by the ancient Romans were
versions of Greek deities. Source 1.67 on page 45 lists some of these.

Influence of Chinese beliefs and traditions on

ancient Japan
Shintoism was ancient Japan’s official religion, though it was more a
way to live than a religion. Obedience, self-discipline and respect were
stressed, especially respect for the emperor. The values and beliefs of the
Japanese people were, however, influenced significantly by the arrival
(from China) of Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist scholars.
The wealthy Yamato emperors, who had largely unified Japan by
about 350 ce , are known to have contacted the rulers of China. The
Source 1.55 Restored statue of the deities Venus and
resulting Chinese influence saw a change in the court traditions of the
Mars, made in around 175 ce. Venus was the Roman
equivalent of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, and Japanese emperors. By 604 ce , Chinese models of government were also
Mars the equivalent of Ares, the Greek god of war. being adopted.

Influence on political systems

One major legacy of the ancient world is the form of government we in
the Western world know as democracy. This first took shape in ancient
Greece (see p. 167). Some things have changed about the way it works
but its principles continue.
Athens had a much smaller population than Australia. Therefore,
it was physically possible for all its male citizens to participate in the
process of government. They were expected to. This is called direct
democracy. Athenians voted as individuals; there were then no
political parties.
Australia’s population is too big to allow every citizen to participate
directly. So we have what is called representative democracy. Citizens
elect people to represent their interests in government. Those we elect
are mostly members of political parties, although some people do stand
as independents. A candidate wins if they get the majority support of
an electorate.

chapter one the ancient world 39

Legacies in public entertainment
Today we have massive sports stadiums that feature events
such as the AFL Grand Final and play-offs for Soccer World
Cup. Their designs draw on planning concepts that inspired
ancient Rome’s Colosseum (see p. 246). Our horse racing
and trotting tracks, and many of our car racing circuits, are
a legacy of facilities such as the grand Circus Maximus in
ancient Rome.
Spain’s bullfights recall the battles fought between men
and beasts in the Colosseum. Similarly, today’s cage fighting
and boxing matches recall the duels of ancient Rome’s
gladiators, except that today people do not fight to the
death!
Source 1.56 Modern cage fighters getting ready to entertain the crowds
Olympic Games
Today’s modern Olympic Games are perhaps the
most obvious example of a legacy of ancient public
entertainment. These games had their beginnings in
ancient Greece nearly 3000 years ago. They were revived
in 1896 by Pierre de Coubertin. They have been held every
four years (as they were in ancient Greece) ever since, except
during World Wars I and II.
The ancient Olympics drew people from around Greece’s
many city-states to compete against each other to strive for
excellence. There was great prestige and honour in winning.
The aim of the modern Olympics was to encourage
friendship and tolerance among the world’s nations. There
continues to be great prestige in winning.
As in ancient Greece, winners of Olympic events today
Source 1.57 Boxing, ancient Olympics style, shown on a Greek pot are regarded as ‘sporting heroes’ and are likely to receive
great financial benefit.

Drama
Ancient Greek auditoriums provide a model for many
modern drama and movie theatres, particularly in Western
countries. Their stepped seats, arranged in a semi-circle
around the performance area (see p. 186), allowed everyone
to see clearly what was happening.
Many of the words used to describe features of ancient
Greek drama performances (such as the chorus, the
orchestra, the stage and the skene [scene]) have found their
way into the English language. Along the way, however,
some things have changed. For example, the orchestra
in ancient Greece was the semi-circular area within the
auditorium where a group of men known as the chorus sang
Source 1.58 Boxing, modern Olympics style and danced.

40
Source 1.59 Scene from the 2004 movie Troy, showing Brad Pitt as the Greek warrior Achilles (from
Homer’s epic poem The Iliad). Achilles was the son of a deity and a human. His only vulnerable spot
was his heel. In fact, it was an arrow in his heel that killed him.

Literature and the arts

Many novels, poems, plays, children’s stories, movies, television series, paintings,
sculptures—even operas and musical scores—have been inspired by the cultures
of antiquity. For example, many of the plays by the Renaissance English writer
William Shakespeare draw on stories of the lives of people of the ancient world
such as Rome’s Julius Caesar and Egypt’s Cleopatra.

Fairytales, myths and legends

The fairytale Cinderella is similar to the ancient Egyptian tale which translates as
‘The girl with the red rose slippers’. Like Cinderella, the main character loses her
shoe (a red shoe, not a glass slipper). A passing falcon (the god Horus, actually)
picks it up in its beak and carries it to the feet of the region’s young ruler. He sees
that it is beautifully made. He decides that he will find out who owns it. He plans
to make that woman his wife.
Myths and legends of ancient cultures around the world are countless.
Reproduced in books, artworks and told by storytellers, they bring to life the
‘magic’ of past heroes and beliefs. Many of these are stories about the cosmos, the
Source 1.60 Modern artist’s impression of the creation and end of the world, or tales of larger-than-life pranksters.
Japanese creation myth of Amaterasu bringing
light back into the world.

chapter one the ancient world 41

In the extract from the film script below, eight masked men are plotting against their Roman rulers. In
the film, they are members of an activist Jewish sect. Reg is their leader. Such a sect, the sicarii (the dagger
men) did exist. It was active during the time of the Roman occupation of Judea (66–73 CE).

Source 1.61 Extract from the script of the comedy film Monty Python’s Life of Brian

What have the Romans ever done for us?

Reg: They’ve bled us white … They’ve Masked commando 4: Public baths! (more general murmurs of agreement)
taken everything we had, and not just Stan: And it’s safe to walk in the Reg: All right, but apart from the
from us, from our fathers, and from our streets at night now, Reg. sanitation, the medicine, education, wine,
fathers’ fathers.
Francis: Yeah, they certainly know public order, irrigation, roads, a fresh
Stan: And from our fathers’ fathers’ how to keep order … water system, and public health, what
fathers. have the Romans ever done for us?
(general nodding)
Reg: Yeah. Xerxes: Brought peace!
Let’s face it. They’re the only ones who
Stan: And from our fathers’ fathers’ could in a place like this … Reg: What!? Oh. Peace? Shut up!
fathers’ fathers.
Reg: Yeah. All right, Stan. Don’t labour
the point. And what have they ever given
us in return?
(he pauses smugly)
Xerxes: The aqueduct?
Reg: What?
Xerxes: The aqueduct.
Reg: Oh. Yeah, yeah. They did give us
that. Uh, that’s true. Yeah.
Masked commando 1: And the
sanitation.
Stan: Oh, yeah, the sanitation, Reg.
Remember what the city used to be like?
Reg: Yeah. All right. I’ll grant you the
aqueduct and the sanitation are two
things that the Romans have done.
Matthias: And the roads.
Reg: Well, yes, obviously the roads. I
Source 1.62 Film still from Life of Brian
mean, the roads go without saying, don’t
they? But apart from the sanitation, the
aqueduct, and the roads …
Masked commando 2: Irrigation. Check your learning
Xerxes: Medicine. 1 In what way did ancient Greece have an impact on ancient Rome’s religion?
Masked commando 3: Education. 2 Complete a Venn diagram (see p. 161) to compare and contrast the Olympic
General audience: Ohh … events shown in Sources 1.57 and 1.58.
Reg: Yeah, yeah. All right. Fair enough. 3 Describe three ways in which the fairytale Cinderella draws on elements of an
Masked commando 1: And the wine! ancient Egyptian story.
General audience: Oh, yes! True! 4 a In Greek mythology, who was Achilles?
Francis: Yeah. Yeah, that’s something b Name one instance of the legacy of his story for modern entertainment.
we’d really miss if the Romans left, Reg. 5 In groups, read the film script above, sharing the parts. Through discussion,
identify all the legacies of ancient Rome that are mentioned in the dialogue.

42
Architecture and road technology
You do not have to look far in our built environment to
see the debt we owe to the past. The influence of ancient
designers and planners can be seen in sports stadiums,
theatres, horse racing tracks, gymnasiums, health spas and
water-theme parks, public architecture—even road building.
Let’s look at some examples.

Architecture
Many modern cities have obelisks. Some are modern
designs, copied from ancient styles. They may, for example,
show the names of those in a community who have died
in war. Others, such as those in New York, Paris and Rome,
are ancient monuments that have been moved there from
Egypt. In ancient Egypt, the obelisk was a symbol of power
and central control.
Ancient Rome adopted many aspects of ancient Greece’s
architecture. These included building styles and column
designs. Like temples in ancient Greece, Roman temples
were built for their deities. Echoes of the temple designs of Source 1.63 The Maison Carrée in France. This ancient Roman temple was
antiquity can be seen today in many modern structures. built in today’s France (in the town of Nîmes).

The ancient Roman building known as the Pantheon

was built as a temple to all Roman gods. Two aspects of the
construction of this temple have influenced the modern
building industry:
• concrete: a mix of lime, water and volcanic dust
• dome: a huge domed roof with no steel reinforcement
(it stayed in place for nearly 2000 years; its 43-metre
span set a world record for centuries).
Modern buildings that reflect the Pantheon design
include London’s National Gallery, the Pantheon building
in Paris and the Church of St Mary’s in the Maltese town
of Mosta.

Road technology
Rome’s invention of concrete and its road building techniques
have impressed modern engineers. The principles of Roman
road design were so advanced that they are still relevant for
civil engineers today.
The ancient Roman road system in Europe consisted
of 85 000 kilometres of roads. The roads were a vital link
for defence and trade. Evidence of some of these roads still
remains after two millennia. In fact, some were still being
used in the early 1800s. The road network also provided a
‘map’ for the rail and road systems that have been built over Source 1.64 Supreme Court, Washington DC, USA
the last 200 years.

chapter one the ancient world 43

And then … there’s more!
The legacies mentioned so far are the tip of the iceberg. They are among
those that primarily have had an impact on our Western civilisation.
The list would be almost endless if all cultures of the world were
considered. For example, it was in ancient Egypt that the concept of a
365-day year and a 24-hour day first emerged. In ancient Greece, many
mathematical principles were developed that we take for granted today,
such as the Pythagorean theorem. Ancient China gave the world silk,
firecrackers and gunpowder.

Medicine
Papyrus texts provide evidence that the ancient Egyptians had a
broad understanding of medicine. Training manuals describe many
hundreds of surgical procedures such as circumcision. They also detail
Source 1.65 Symbol used today meaning ‘medical ‘prescriptions’ that use a great many herbal potions. Physicians, who
prescription’
were usually priests, knew how to stop bleeding, for example; they
applied pressure as is done today. Honey was used as an antiseptic, and
still is by many today.

Chinese medicine
Chinese medicine has been practised in Asia for about 2300 years and is
becoming more popular in the West. It uses acupuncture, herbs, diet,
special movements and breathing to improve wellbeing. Its principles
draw on the concepts of yin and yang (see p. 291) and the idea that all
things in the world (including within the human body) have to be in
balance.

Law
Roman law, as set out in the Corpus Juris Civilis drawn up by Emperor
Justinian I (see p. 34), continued to shape the legal system of Europe
until the end of the 18th century ce . It is the basis for what we call civil
law today. Civil law distinguishes between laws that affect the State (or
what we call the Crown) and private disputes between individuals.

And the last word is Rome’s!

The civilisation of ancient Rome has had a significant impact on
Western civilisation. Many European languages are based on its chief
language, Latin. Military strategies used by its generals are still studied in
defence training centres. As explained earlier, its literature, legal system,
technology and architecture have all left their mark. In fact, the French
military leader Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821 ce) said that ‘the story of
Source 1.66 Ancient painting showing the eye of Horus,
which was regarded as a symbol of protection and healing the world is the story of Rome’.
power

44
bigideas
1.4 What are the legacies of ancient societies?
Remember 5 How are the designs of the symbols shown in Sources 1.65
and 1.66 similar? In what ways are their meanings linked?
1 a Which ancient civilisation gave us democracy?
6 Conduct some research to find out some of the basic steps
b In what way does it work differently in Australia from the
followed in the construction of a modern road. Look carefully
way it first began?
at Source 1.68. What debt do we owe the ancient Romans
2 What approximate percentage of the world’s population for this technology?
was Christian in 2008? To which ancient civilisation do we
owe this legacy? Apply
3 Study Source 1.67 for a short while. Ask a partner to test 7 Adapt the ancient Egyptian story mentioned on page 41 to
how much detail you can recall. one more pertinent for Australia’s present-day culture.

Source 1.67 Some Greek deities and their Roman equivalents Analyse
Greek deity Roman deity Role 8 Compare Sources 1.63 and 1.64. Write a paragraph to
Zeus Jupiter king of the gods explain how the architecture of these two buildings is similar.

Hera Juno queen of the gods Evaluate

Poseidon Neptune god of the sea 9 Conduct a survey to find out what friends and family think
Dionysius Bacchus god of wine and are the top five legacies of the ancient world. Report your
wild celebration findings to the class.

Aphrodite Venus goddess of love

and beauty
Create
10 Working in groups, share the tasks involved in reproducing
Hermes Mercury messenger of the
a short story, play or a comic strip that illustrates a modern-
gods
day version of a myth from any ancient society. (You will need
to conduct some research.) Use computer software and/or
Understand digital media if possible to present your work.
4 Use a concept map to explore what you think was the
impact of China’s invention of gunpowder on world history.

A Ditches dug either E Pebbles with G Base of large stones H Major road—around
side of road to allow possibly some or timber logs or 8 metres wide;
water to drain away cement added both, tightly packed minor road—around
C
5 metres wide
B Flat, interlinking F Depth of trench
paving stones dug for road about B I The site chosen was
1 metre the lowest part of the
C Road designed to be landscape. A surveyor
higher in the centre D
used a groma to ensure
to allow water to the road would be
flow into ditch A
E straight and flat.
A
D Sand or gravel,
F
packed tightly I G

Source 1.68 How the ancient Romans built their roads

H

chapter one the ancient world 45

depth study

Investigating
the ancient past
You did not get to be ‘you’ overnight. What you know, do and think has
been formed by countless influences: your family, your community, your
friends, your teachers, the media and so on. You are a product of all that
has happened in your past.
So it is with the record of human history. It is Finding out about the past is not easy,
the sum total of billions of human stories, none however. There are vast gaps in our knowledge
of which are exactly like yours. A few have been and understanding. There are also different
preserved, at least in part; the great majority opinions about and perspectives on what
have been lost or were never told. Think, for happened, or might have happened. The search
example, what these ruins of the ancient town for explanations requires persistence, honesty
of Byblos might tell us if they could! People first and an open mind about new evidence. It
lived here some 7000 years ago. also requires questioning, critical thinking
Who we are today, as a people, builds on this and imagination. As well, the researcher must
vast but incomplete human record. Our future, have a great deal of knowledge about the event
as a global people, will be shaped to a large or person being investigated and the time in
extent by what we know about it and, more question.
importantly, by what we learn from it. That is As class, identify an event in the past you all
the challenge for the historian—and for us all. know something about. Discuss what you know
about it, and how.

Key inquiry questions

2.1 How is history investigated?

2.2 What sources can be used in a historical investigation?

2.3 What methods are used to investigate the past?

2.4 Why is conservation important?

Ruins of an amphitheatre at Byblos in Phoenecia (in today’s Lebanon)

‘ … If we knowingly write what ‘The notion [idea] that any one ‘It might be a good idea if the
is false—whether for the sake of person can describe ‘what really various countries of the world
our country or our friends or just to happened’ is an absurdity. If ten— would occasionally swap history
be pleasant—what’s the difference or a hundred—people witness books, just to see what other
between us and hack writers? an event, there will be ten—or a people are doing with the same
Readers should be very attentive hundred—different versions of set of facts.’
to and critical of historians; they, what took place.’
Bill Vaughan (1915–1977 ce),
in turn, should be always on American journalist and
David Eddings (1931–2009 CE),
their guard.’ American novelist who writer
Polybius (c. 201–120 bce), co-wrote with his wife, Leigh
Greek historian who wrote
The Histories

2
Source 2.1 Indigenous art at Injalak Hill, Northern Territory. A historian might investigate the age of
these paintings, who painted them and why. Works such as this are key evidence of Australia’s ancient
Aboriginal people.

2.1 How is history investigated?

In this section, we look at what a historical investigation (or inquiry)
involves. We consider what it is, and how to go about doing it. For,
essentially, the study of history is all about historical inquiry.

What it is … and is not

A historical investigation is not just about facts and dates. It is not about writing
down lots of information, memorising it and, like a parrot, reproducing it in a test
or essay. Not only is that boring, but also you would learn very little.
Harry Potter’s History of Magic lessons were taught by an old, ghostly
character called Professor Binns (see Source 2.2). While the professor droned on
about names and dates during his history lessons, his students scribbled notes of
these details furiously. But they then often muddled things up because, on their
own, the random facts did not make much sense.
Historical investigations are more exciting than that! They are what you think
is significant about what you discover. The fun part is that it’s sometimes okay to
disagree with your teacher. But your view must be supported by evidence.

48
History and the past
The words ‘history’ and ‘the past’ are not the same thing. The past
happened. However, much of the truth of what happened is unknown.
Nor can it ever be fully known.
A historian tries to reconstruct the past from what remains of it,
forming explanations of what might have happened. The aim is to
identify the best version—or the perspective most likely to be correct—
using available evidence.
By asking relevant questions about sources, and using what they
discover to form credible hypotheses (or theories), historians may end
up back at the start: asking more questions about something new that
has now been discovered.

Where does a historian start?

You need only look as far as the family photo album or dig out Dad’s
old roller skates in the garage to find sources of the recent past. Other
sources might include a bundle of Grandma’s love letters, an old piece of
furniture or a 1960s TV interview with the Rolling Stones.
Sources of the distant past are not so readily available. Nor are
they always easy to interpret. There is certainly nobody alive who can
confirm or deny any conclusions investigators reach about them.
Source 2.2 A modern artist’s impression of Professor
Binns, Harry Potter’s History of Magic teacher

evidence: poo, paintings and pieces of bone

focus on …

In 2002, a pile of fossilised faeces (poo) was found in a cave in North America. The specimen was
found to be human. What is more, it was more than 14 000 years old! It provided evidence that
humans were living in North America some 2000 years earlier than was then thought. Most historians
think that the Clovis people (see p. 14) were the first settlers in North America.
More recently, fire sites dated at around
30 000 bce have been found in the Pedra
Furada Shelter in north-east Brazil. Rock
paintings have also been found there, dated
at about 17 000 bce.
What evidence do these new sources
provide? A logical conclusion is that there
were humans living in parts of South America
earlier than 14 000 years ago. Furthermore,
researchers do not think those who left
paintings in the caves in Brazil were
Clovis people.
Who were they then? And how did they get
there? Did they migrate from North America
or not? More evidence is needed to solve
this mystery.

Source 2.3 Ancient rock paintings in the Pedra Furada Shelter in Brazil (used with the kind
permission of Archives Fundação Museu do Homem Americano)

chapter two investigating the ancient past 49

Gathering the evidence
You have missed the grand final of your favourite Archival material
team sport and want to know what happened. (e.g., letters, reports,
documentaries, voice
How reliable would your information be about recordings, newspapers,
the game if you spoke to only one person who official documents) found
watched it? in libraries, archives and on
specialised Internet sites
To get a fuller picture, you would need to
check many items of information: newspaper
reports, television sport reports, game replays, the
comments of those you knew attended the game,
Cemeteries, caves, beach Textbooks and journals
fan blogs and so on.
middens, historic sites Sources of evidence by experts relating to the
Neither can a historian rely on only one source (e.g., with ruins) and so on. matter under investigation
of evidence for an inquiry. It may be incorrect
or distorted. Errors it may contain could be
accidental or the result of deliberate exaggeration
or omission. It may reflect a strong bias. Parts of
Portable artefacts
the evidence it provides may be missing, in some (e.g., tools) and other
instances because the source is damaged. sources (e.g., a skull) in
places such as museums,
libraries and art galleries
It’s a detective’s life!
To get closer to the truth, a historian needs to
be like a detective, constantly looking for and
checking clues. This means looking for and Source 2.4 Some sources of evidence for a historical inquiry
analysing as many sources of evidence as possible.
Examples of sources a historian might look for are
included in Source 2.4.

significance: t he ‘father of history’

focus on …

Herodotus (c. 480 bce–425 bce) was an ancient Greek historian. He is best
known for his nine-volume text The Histories. It reports on the lead-up to
the wars between ancient Greece and Persia from 480 to 479 bce (see
pp. 200-2). It also records information on the lifestyles and beliefs of many
peoples then living around the Mediterranean and Black seas.
Herodotus is a significant individual in history. This is because a large
amount of what we know about certain parts of the ancient world comes
from his writings. He was also the first to record what he read, saw and
heard in a planned and ordered manner. He got some information from
the work of earlier writers. He also drew on his extensive travel throughout
the region, and first-hand observations.
He was the first to be concerned about accuracy. There are known
errors in his text, but Herodotus claimed he always wrote what he saw or
was told.
For these reasons, Herodotus is often called ‘the father of history’. Source 2.5 Bust of Herodotus, made in the 4th century bce

50
Understanding the past: It’s a team effort!
When conducting their investigations (or inquiries), historians rely on the work of many other experts.
These include biologists and geneticists; palaeontologists, anthropologists and archaeologists;
cryptographers and translators; climate change scientists; and aerial and underwater photographers.
In some instances, expert help is needed to locate or to extract sources; in others, to analyse and
interpret them. Answers are needed to questions such as ‘Who made it, and why?’, ‘When did it exist,
or when was it created?’ and ‘Why was it recorded or made?’

Role of archaeologists
Archaeologists locate and uncover sources of
evidence of past peoples. This includes not
only their skeletal remains, but also places
where they lived or travelled: the ruins of their
temples, towns and tombs; artefacts they made
such as pottery, weapons, tools and coins;
inscriptions and stone reliefs they carved; even
rubbish dumps (middens) and fire sites. Some
sources they find are so old they have turned
into fossils or remain only as a ‘shadow’ or
crust in the soil.
Some archaeologists work underwater,
scouring the sea bottoms for sources on or
beneath the sea bed. Ancient shipwrecks are
always an exciting find.

The ‘dig’ Source 2.6 Some archaeological excavations end up being quite deep because the
sources being excavated may be covered by many layers of dirt, rock and debris.
Most sources found on land are buried. They
might be covered by the silt of past floods, sand
blown by the wind or, in some cases, by dense
jungle that has grown over them. Some, like
the ancient city some think could be Homer’s
Troy (see pp. 190-1), lie beneath the ruins of
other settlements built over time on the site.
Archaeologists first rope off or otherwise
protect the site, called the ‘dig’. It is then
marked off into segments, in grid fashion.
This allows the precise location of any items
found to be specified. After surveying the site,
archaeologists remove overlying rocks and
dirt with great care, sometimes using
teaspoons, small brushes, dental tools,
toothpicks—even sieves.
Once a source is fully exposed or excavated,
the archaeologist photographs and numbers it.
He or she records details of its size, appearance
and exactly where it was found. Source 2.7 Ancient human remains must be excavated and examined carefully to avoid
damaging potential evidence.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 51

Searching for sites and sources
Archaeologists locate some digs after a search. Aerial photographers, geophysical surveyors and
other specialists such as sonar technologists may help in this regard. Their specialist skills and
equipment can detect unusual patterns or shapes in a landscape or on a seabed. These can then be
investigated further.

The Serpent Mound

One site easy to locate from the air is the
Serpent Mound of Ohio in the United States
(see Source 2.8). It is about 450 metres long
and one metre high. Historians believe the
ancient Adena people of North America may
have built it. They are thought to have lived in
the area for about a millennium, from about
800 bce .

Accidental discoveries
Archaeological sites are sometimes found by
accident. People may be ploughing a field or
digging a foundation for a new building. For
example, when construction workers were
excavating a site in Hammond Lane in Dublin
in January 2010, they found the remains of an
11th-century Viking settlement. Sometimes,
Source 2.8 The Serpent Mound a weather event such as a flood, landslide or
erosion reveals part of a buried artefact or
ruin.

Ötzi the Iceman

It was an unusually warm summer that
revealed the 5000-year-old remains of Ötzi the
Iceman. The preserved corpse, found in 1991,
was wedged in the melting ice high up in the
Ötzal Alps (north of Italy).
At first the remains where thought to be
the body of a missing skier. A jackhammer was
used to chisel the corpse out, damaging part of
the body.
Once the significance of the find was
realised, the remains were treated with much
more care and respect. They have since been
extensively examined by a range of scientific
experts and are now being carefully conserved.

Source 2.9 The remains of Ötzi the Iceman

52
Key concepts for Evidence Significance
historical inquiry
When you play soccer, tennis or netball, you play by the
rules of the game. This does not mean that you are reciting Continuity and change Cause and effect
them every time you make a move or shoot for goal. You
call on them unconsciously as you play.
So it is with historical inquiry. There are a number of key
Key concepts
concepts to remember as you analyse sources for evidence
and formulate opinions. These are shown in Source 2.10.
They are explained in more detail (with examples) on pages
9 and 23 of Chapter 1 and on the pages that follow. These Empathy Perspectives
concepts should always be in the back of your mind (like
the rules of a game) when you investigate some aspect of
history. The steps you follow to conduct such an inquiry are
Contestability
described in the Skill Drill on pages 60 and 61.

Source 2.10 The key concepts of historical inquiry

An example
Here’s an example of these concepts being used to frame
research questions for an investigation of an incident you
may be more familiar with, the destruction at the World
Trade Center in New York in 2001:
Evidence: What information do available television footage
and voice recordings provide of this event?
Significance: Why did this event command such worldwide
attention?
Cause and effect: What caused these massive buildings
to eventually collapse and what was the result of this
catastrophe?
Perspectives: How might those who planned this event
have felt about the outcome? How might victims of this
attack have felt about the incident?
Empathy: What might have motivated people to mount
such an attack?
Continuity and change: To what extent was this incident
part of the ongoing tensions that have existed between
religious and political interest groups in the Middle East
region for centuries?
Contestability: What are some of the contrasting
viewpoints given to explain how such a major attack on the
mainland of the United States was able to happen?

Source 2.11 The second of two planes that smashed into New York’s
World Trade Center about to hit one of its two towers. The attack by Islamic
extremists occurred on 11 September 2001.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 53

keyconcepts
Cause and effect

You are angry with a friend because At first, pharaohs and other important Egyptians were buried with their riches in
she did not invite you to her party prominent tombs, such as pyramids. This was done in the belief that dead people
(the cause of, or what motivates, your needed access to their worldly wealth and possessions in the afterlife. The tombs
anger). So you do not speak to her were prominent because a pharaoh was seen as both a king and god. This was the
for a week (the effect of your anger). reason (cause) why such large and majestic tombs were constructed.
History is packed with such links The effect of making these ‘storehouses of great wealth’ so obvious was that
between cause and effect. pyramids were robbed This was despite booby traps, dead ends, secret doors and
For example, leaders make errors mazes. Priceless goods were stolen. In the process, many sources of evidence
of judgment (caused or motivated, were destroyed. There are accounts of mummies being ripped to bits and artefacts
perhaps, by their ambition) and trampled as robbers searched for valuables.
therefore lose wars or their lives The effect of this continued theft was that, after about 2000 bce, Egyptians stopped
(effect). Trade increases because a burying their rulers in pyramids. Tombs were instead dug deep into the cliffs in
country has goods that others want the Valley of the Kings. The Egyptians thought such burial places would be less
(cause); this might make that country obvious to robbers and the site could be more easily guarded. However, even these
very wealthy and hence powerful tombs were eventually raided.
(effect). Over time patterns in causes
1 What caused, or motivated, the ancient Egyptians to bury their pharaohs with
and effects become clear; you will see
such a show of wealth?
them often repeated
in history. 2 Explain why structures such as pyramids would have been attractive targets for
grave robbers.
3 What were the effects of this continued pyramid theft on royal burial practices in
ancient Egypt?

Source 2.12 Artist’s impression

of tomb robbers in ancient Egypt

54 big ideas history

keyconcepts
Continuity and change

Over time, many things change about The word ‘currency’ refers to items used money. It was seen to be worth so much
places and the way people live, work to buy and sell products and services. gold or silver. In Australia today, we still
and trade. Some changes happen The items used represent a particular use banknotes, but they are now made
quickly, such as when a volcano value. (We would use a $5.00 note, for of polymer.
erupts. Others take place over a example, to buy something valued at While some aspects of currency have
much longer period of time, such as $5.00; in another culture, that item might continued, other things have changed.
gradual climate change. Other things ‘cost’ five seashells.) Currency has been In Australia, for example, we now use
continue exactly as they have been around in many parts of the world for a plastic cards to buy goods and services.
for long periods of time; one example long time. However, many aspects of it Big businesses now transfer large sums
of this could be things that people have changed. of money electronically, as do people
believe in, such as religions.
The Chinese were using coins made from who shop or bank online. It is no longer
Evidence of change, as well as various metals and stone in 1000 bce. By essential to use cash as currency. Many
evidence of ‘lack of change’ (or 500 bce they were using silver coins. A people, for example, have their salaries
continuity) can be seen all around us coin’s value was set by the material used or wages paid directly into their bank
today. These include such things as to make it (gold, for example, was worth accounts. It is possible that soon money
the way governments work, the way more than silver). This practice was later as we know it will no longer exist.
people buy and sell things, and the copied in the coins used by the Greeks 1 Compare and contrast Sources 2.13
way that people dress or act when and Romans. and 2.14. Which features have
in public. continued through time? What has
So, like our coins, Roman coins
Here are some tips to help you had particular value. Also like today, changed entirely?
identify and analyse change and they often had the image of a leader 2 How did the currency practices of the
continuity. hammered into them (see Source 2.13). ancient Chinese influence the ancient
This is why we say today that a coin has Romans?
Look for what has changed. been ‘struck’ when made.
3 What currency practices used today
Records report that, in 118 ce, the represent a complete change from
Decide or investigate:
Chinese were using squares of painted the past?
• what has caused the change
white deer skin to pay for things. By the
• whether the change was fast 4 What do you think it would be like to
9th century, many different societies
or slow live in a world without cash? Discuss
around the world were using paper
with a partner.
• whether the change was local
or everywhere
• whether the change had a
positive or negative impact, or
no impact at all

Identify anything that is similar

or that has continued. Consider
why it lasted as long as it did,
and what benefits made it
worth keeping as it was.

Source 2.13 An ancient Roman coin depicting Source 2.14 Modern Australian currency
the emperor Nero (54–68 bce) on horseback includes coins and polymer notes

chapter two investigating the ancient past 55

keyconcepts
Perspectives

Different people will have different

views, or perspectives, about the
same topic. Some views will reflect
the prejudices, fears or uncertainties
of those who express them. Some
may be a reflection of a person’s age,
gender or education. Others may
simply reflect a lack of information.
For example, those who see a long
argument between two classmates
will have different views about exactly
what happened. These will depend
on how much they saw or heard,
how much they like or dislike those
involved, and their own biases about
the argued topic.
Australia’s Indigenous people had
been living in this country for tens
of thousands of years before white
settlers arrived. They had well-
established belief systems. Their Source 2.15 A traditional Indigenous Australian family gathering food, fishing and collecting bark to
societies were structured and they make shields c. 1905
had a system of laws. They had
sustainable land management
practices, were great trackers and
Source 2.16
killed animals only for food. Through
rituals and ceremonies, they kept their The inhabitants of this Country are the miserablest People in the World … They have
culture alive. no houses or skin Garments, Sheep, Poultry, Fruits of the Earth … And setting aside
their Human shape, they differ little from Brutes … Their Eyelids are always half
The reactions of those among the
closed, to keep the Flies out of their Eyes …
first white people to observe the
Indigenous people were varied. William Dampier (English explorer), 1688

Here are two perspectives.

Source 2.17
[The Indigenous people I met had] … a considerable portion of that acumen [keen
insight], or sharpness of intellect, which bespeaks [tells of] genius.
Captain Watkin Tench (British naval officer who arrived in
Australia on the First Fleet in 1788), 1793

1 Think about Dampier’s nationality, the times he lived in, and what he is likely
to have known about Australia and its people. How might these factors have
influenced his perspective?
2 Based on what you might already know about the traditional lifestyles of
Indigenous people, can you suggest any reasons for Captain Tench’s perspective?

56
keyconcepts
Empathy

Empathy is the ability to share and

appreciate the feelings of another.
Historical empathy has a related but
slightly different meaning. It is the
ability to understand what happened
in the past from the perspective of the
people living at the time.
It does not mean thinking like a time
traveller—imagining you could go
back in time as you, and relate to
what you find from your point of view.
That would mean imposing your
values on a past people, and judging
them by your standards. Your values
and standards may have then been
Source 2.18 An 18th-century artist’s impression of an Indian woman committing sati
irrelevant.
For a historian, empathy means Most Australians today would be horrified by a wife’s request to be burned with her
stepping aside from who you are dead husband’s body in the flames of a crematorium fire. Even more shocking is
(for the moment!) and seeing things the thought that she might be forced to do so. Yet such a practice, called sati, still
through the eyes of the people who occasionally happens in parts of India (even though it has been outlawed since 1829).
lived at the time. This can help you to
Sati was once a common Hindu custom, particularly for the Rajput caste in the north
understand why they did what they
of India. (Others, such as Mughals, were very critical of the practice.) Britain’s top army
did—what motivated their thoughts
representative in India in the early 19th century, Sir Charles James Napier, reportedly
and actions.
said, ‘You say that it is your custom to burn widows. Very well. We also have a
Someone without historical empathy custom: when men burn a woman alive, we tie a rope around their necks and hang
might, for instance, judge the people them.’
of an ancient society harshly for Let’s put aside, for a moment, our feelings and values about this practice. Let’s view it
owning slaves. Yet, as explained on from a traditional Hindu perspective. Let’s exercise historical empathy.
page 30, this was for many societies
To devout Hindu believers, a woman who committed sati was regarded as a dignified
in the past a completely acceptable
and pure woman. Her suicide was an act of devotion, and deep respect for, her
and normal practice.
husband. Her death ensured that her deceased husband and seven generations of her
Historical empathy is improved by family (as well as herself) would all go straight to heaven.
finding out as much as you can
The practice reflects the traditional role of women in many parts of India. That role was
about a topic you are investigating.
to honour, serve and devoutly obey one’s husband. That obligation was not ended by
You are then able to better
the man’s death.
understand people’s motives and
1 Explain why a woman raised from birth to regard sati as a duty might be prepared
actions because you view them in
to endure such a horrific death.
the context of the times in which
those people lived. 2 a Can you think of any aspects of our modern Australian culture that might
potentially horrify or offend people raised in a different culture?
b As a class, discuss ways in which greater empathy could be shown for the
practices and traditional beliefs of cultures other than one’s own.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 57

keyconcepts
Contestability

A historian tries to find out what

happened in the past by examining
the evidence presented by sources.
But, as you probably realise by
now, not everything recorded about
the past is a fact. Reports may be
carelessly or deliberately distorted.
Details might have been left out or
exaggerated. Artefacts may have
been damaged or changed.
A historian uses available evidence
to reach a considered view (or
hypothesis). This view may contest
(or challenge) views held by others
about the same event or person. This
is fine, as long as all views rely on
supporting evidence.
You may have heard the term
‘history wars’. This refers to the
debate amongst Australian historians
about what really happened when
Indigenous people and white settlers
Source 2.19 Two examples of the Bradshaw/Gwion Gwion rock paintings. Some show people with hair
came into contact. All views draw on decorations, tassels and perhaps clothing. Some show boats with rudders.
evidence. Someone who contests
the view of another may provide new
evidence or a different interpretation The Bradshaw/Gwion Gwion cave paintings are located in Western Australia’s Kimberley
of the same evidence. In other region. (Gwion Gwion is the name local Indigenous people use.) A European cattleman,
instances, they may prove that the Joseph Bradshaw, spotted them in 1891 while looking for land for his animals. He
evidence used by another noticed that they were quite different from other Indigenous art he had seen. In fact, he
is unreliable. said, ‘Looking at some of the groups, one might think himself viewing the painted walls
of an Egyptian temple.’
There is rarely, if ever, a ‘right’ view,
Thermoluminescence dating (see p. 77) indicates some of the paintings could have been
but some views are more warranted
made 17 000 years or more ago. Some experts think they are three times as old. They
than others. Learning to challenge
are dispersed over what scientists think could be up to 100 000 sites.
other points of view, based on
evidence, is fundamental to the study Scholars contest who created these paintings. Many insist they were painted by ancient
of history. Indigenous people. Some argue that they reveal evidence of a farming culture, perhaps
an ancient Asian culture pre-dating the last glacial.
The amateur archaeologist Grahame Walsh, who has studied these paintings in detail
over a long time, holds this latter view. Some argue that his position is racist. His
claims have upset some Aboriginal groups and are strongly contested by some
academic scholars.

58
Source 2.20 Source 2.23
… And the first site, I actually went to with a traditional ‘No’, they said ‘no’. That was human long, long time before
owner. I knew it was a deeply religious … experience to go our time. But we can’t tell the truth because we don’t know
there. As he approached the site he’d stop and he’d talk to they said. Not any Aborigines in the Kimberley know about
stones––just boulders. Then I heard him mention my name Bradshaw painting.
… He was giving my background to the Wandjinas [creator Billy King, Ngarinyin Elder,
spirits of some Indigenous groups, which were believed to www.abc.net.au.austory/transcripts/s696261.htm
bring rain], as it turned out.
Wandjina art … [is] relative to living cultures of today, so it’s Source 2.24
the art that was practised at the time of European contact An indication of the types of boats that were used by
… the Bradshaw art represents a culture of an unknown, Aboriginal people during the peak of the ice age can be
vastly different time and different resources. gained from the ancient Kimberley rock paintings known as
Grahame Walsh, Bradshaw or Gwion Gwion art …
www.abc.net.au.austory/transcripts/s696261.htm
The Bradshaw paintings include graceful images of people,
often with bent knees, long head-dresses, and decorative
Source 2.21 adornments, and commonly holding boomerangs or other
… I, as an academic, would certainly say that we have objects…
two distinct groups of styles of art. I wouldn’t doubt that The dancers in a corroboree photographed at Pago (in the
both were painted by Aboriginal people … Grahame does north Kimberley, near Kalumburu) during the 1930s are
certainly genuinely believe that he’s recording the art and strikingly similar to those shown in Bradshaw paintings … It
he’s interested in its conservation, preservation, and all else therefore seems reasonable to conclude that the Bradshaw
is outside it. But living in Australia in these years, that’s just people were among the ancestors of modern Aborigines …
about impossible. In an area where there are land claims,
Dr Phillip E. Playford, Aboriginal Art and Culture in the Kimberley
where there are traditional Aborigines still living, I think to say and Adjoining Areas: A Historical Perspective, http://www.
that nothing else impinges [has an impact] is an impossibility. kimberleysociety.org/past08.html, 2 April 2008
And a bit naïve, and a totally different world to, say, [the one]
we were both living in when I met him in the 1960s. 1 What is Grahame Walsh’s view about the origins of these
John Mulvaney, paintings? Why does he have this opinion?
http://www.abc.net.au.austory/transcripts/s696261.htm 2 Donny Woolagoodja contests Walsh’s view. What is his
perspective on the paintings?
Source 2.22 3 What evidence does Dr Phillip Playford use to support a
Well, this, they call them Bradshaws, but by right it’s Gwion view that the Bradshaw people were among the ancestors
Gwion. That’s the figure—that word now—people used of Aboriginal people?
to call them before white man came. Gwion Gwion. The 4 a What is John Mulvaney’s perspective on this issue?
people put it up there—our great, great ancestors, before b As a class, discuss why he might say that Walsh is being
you know. Through the past generation that picture was a ‘bit naive’.
there before any European people came, and then they 5 What is Billy King’s perspective?
pass them from generation to generation. And now it’s with
us, in the 20th century.
Donny Woolagoodja, a Warwa man from Mowanjum,
in the far north-west of the Kimberley, http://www.abc.net.au/
dimensions/dimensions_in_time/Transcripts/s578480.htm

chapter two investigating the ancient past 59

skilldrill
Conducting a historical investigation

It is easier to remember something complex if you link it Think

with an image or a simple word or phrase. This is known as a
Think about what you already know about the topic. Think
mnemonic (pronounced ne-MON-nik). The mnemonic TAPS
about what you want, or need to know. Also think carefully
GONE will help you remember the steps for conducting a
about what you are being asked to do. The table below
historical inquiry (or depth study). These letters stand for:
explains some common ‘task’ words you will come across.

Think Ask
Ask Ask questions to help you to focus your thinking. These
questions will help you to select sources that are of most use
Plan for your inquiry. They will also help to guide your analysis of
them. Words such as how, when, where, why, which, who,
Search were, did, are and do are good question starters. You might
ask one or two questions for a homework task and four to six
Gather for an inquiry for which you will produce an essay.
Write each research question on the front of a paper folder (or
Organise create an electronic folder that contains files for each question).
Notes
Plan
Elaborate It is very important to plan. Write the due date for your work
in your diary. Take account of all the things you have to do
Word Meaning between now and then. Decide when you will do what.
Compare Explain how two or more things Transfer key dates into your diary. Tick off the tasks as you
are similar complete them. If you miss a date, work out how this will affect
Contrast Explain how two or more things the rest of your schedule. Prepare an adjusted plan.
are different
Justify Defend your opinion, with examples
Search
Decide where you will search for source material. You will
Evaluate Assess the worth of something search for sources that you hope will be useful in providing
evidence to answer your inquiry questions.
Analyse Critically examine different aspects of Reliable Internet websites are obvious places to search.
a topic These include the sites of organisations and bodies such as
Interpret Explain what you think is the meaning, government agencies, academic institutions, museums and
impact, significance, outcome and so on libraries. You may also search for images and maps using
Google image searches, and in photo libraries such as Corbis,
Predict Make an informed guess about an
outcome Bridgeman Art Library, and NOAA Photo Library. Libraries are
also excellent places to look for books and journals, as well as
Conclude Decide after careful thought magazines such as National Geographic. You may also be able
to talk to people with expert knowledge.

60
Gather Notes
Gather the most appropriate source material from your search. Effective notes are easy to follow and summarise the key
This might mean borrowing relevant resources from a library, points of any evidence that source documents provide.
photocopying relevant pages from texts or downloading and Within each file or folder, distinguish between notes collected
printing relevant pages from Internet sources. Keep all the from different sources. This is especially important if you plan
information you gather together. to use a quotation in your work.

Organise Elaborate
Your thinking needs to be organised. This means having a The final step is to elaborate on, or represent, your findings
clear idea what you have to do, and the date by which your and conclusions in the form required. This may be an essay,
work must be completed. As mentioned earlier, it also means biographical recount, oral presentation, PowerPoint display,
organising: audiovisual presentation, class debate or some other form.
• your research questions into some logical order You may reach any conclusion you like for a historical inquiry if
• how you will analyse the resources you have gathered it is supported by evidence. You may not make a claim simply
• your time so that you can give careful thought to your because you like the idea, or it suits your motives. You must
inquiry.
refute (argue logically against) anything that does not support
It is also important that your workplace be well organised so your conclusion with evidence.
that your work does not get mixed up with dirty socks, food
wrappers, dog leads, apple cores and CDs.
Organise your filing: Place any photocopied or downloaded
Check your learning
pages in a plastic sleeve related to your inquiry question, and
Conduct a historical investigation into one of these topics:
then into the paper folder (or into the relevant electronic file/
folder if cut and pasting online or scanning material). Do the • Stonehenge (Britain)
same for any notes you take. Organise them carefully so you • the mortuary temple of the pharaoh Hatshepsut
don’t lose things. Staple any related loose papers together. • India’s first empire—the Mauryan empire
Organise your sources: Write down the source details of all • Valley of the Kings in Egypt
information you collect. Record this information in an organised • the ancient Greek writer Homer
fashion. You will need these details if you have to prepare a list • the Roman emperor Claudius.
of references.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 61

bigideas
2.1 How is history investigated?
Remember 7 Look carefully at Source 2.25. These people are
archaeologists, exploring the wreck of a ship that sank in
1 Copy the table below into your workbook and draw lines
the Mediterranean Sea during the 11th century.
to correctly link the terms in the left-hand column with
a Draw a sketch of this photograph and include labels that
explanations in the right-hand column.
describe some of the artefacts you can see.
2 Refresh your memory by re-reading the Key Concept
b There is a grid-like outline on the sea bed. What do you
features on ‘evidence’ (p. 23) and ‘significance’ (p. 9).
think it is? Suggest its purpose.
a Using examples, explain the difference between a source
c Explain what the archaeologists are likely to do with any
and evidence.
artefacts they bring to the surface.
b Explain why the ancient Greek historian Herodotus is
8 As a class, discuss the kind of evidence a visit to the local
considered to be a significant person.
cemetery might reveal about your local community.
3 What evidence about Brazil’s early human settlements do
the paintings in the Pedra Furada Shelter reveal? Apply
4 Give two examples of accidental discoveries made by 9 With a partner, write and role play for the class a
archaeologists. conversation with Harry Potter about what studying history
means (one of you will play the role of Harry Potter).
Understand 10 You are an archaeologist heading out to begin the
5 Decide what type of sources an archaeologist might expect excavation of a new dig. The location is a tropical jungle;
to find if the ancient people who lived on a site were known the weather is very hot and humid and it rains frequently. In
to be: small groups, discuss:
a highly artistic and creative a what you will pack as personal effects
b explorers and traders b what small tools and equipment (picks, string, etc.) you
c fierce and warlike will pack in your accompanying luggage
d farmers. c what heavy or large items you will arrange to have
6 Briefly explain why the Gwion Gwion paintings are transported to the site, for both your shelter and the
contentious (that is, why people’s opinions are contested). excavation itself.

Historical term Definition

Source Of note because of its far-reaching or long-term impact, or the effect or influence it created
Empathy Information gained from an investigation of items that supports a particular conclusion
Significance Able to be argued as different interpretations are possible
Evidence Qualities observed in trends or developments where some aspects reflect the past, while others reflect
more recent influences
Continuity and change An item that existed or was made in the past, or that is made about the past
Contestability The ability to view events/people through the ‘lens’ of their times/cultures; an ability to understand what
might have motivated them to act and think as they did

62 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

11 a Write 2 or 3 paragraphs about what you remember
happening in the classroom yesterday.
b Share what you have written with others in a small
group.
c Discuss what this exercise taught you about the situation
historians face when presented with different recounts
about an event in the past.

Analyse
12 Locate an artefact, document or other source of evidence
you have at home that intrigues you. Conduct a mini
historical investigation (using the principles outlined on
pp. 60–1) to find out more about it.
13 As a class, select any recent major event in the news that
all class members are reasonably familiar with. Through
discussion, identify:
a how this event might demonstrate the principles of
cause and effect
b to what extent it is an example of continuity and change
c what different perspectives, or points of view, there
might be about the event.
14 o A link to the official Ötzi the Iceman website is avaliable on
the obook. As a class, or for homework, record at least five
aspects of this historical investigation that especially interest
you, explaining why.

Evaluate
15 Rate yourself as a potential historian. Give yourself a score
between 1 (the best in the world) and 10 (the worst). Think
about what you do well (or are likely to do well), and where
you could improve.

Create
16 Devise a mnemonic (such as TAPS GONE) to help you
remember the key concepts of Evidence, Significance,
Continuity and Change, Cause and Effect, Perspectives,
Empathy and Contestability. Your mnemonic does not have
to be a real word (or words) but needs to be something that
will be easy for you to remember.
17 Invent a device that would be of maximum help to a desert-
based archaeologist.
Source 2.25

chapter two investigating the ancient past 63

Source 2.26 The items this Torres Strait Islander is wearing are sources of evidence of the Indigenous
culture of Saibai Island.

2.2 What sources can be used in a

historical investigation?
Historical sources are items that a historian looks for, and looks at, to
investigate the past. They are not evidence. They may provide evidence,
however, when considered in the light of specific questions.
The first question a historian is likely to ask about a source is ‘Is this a primary
or a secondary source?’ (The difference between these two types of sources is
explained on page 65.)
The historian will also want to know:
• how old a source is
• who made or created it, or where it came from
• whether the source is a reliable and trustworthy source of evidence
• what motives might have been behind its creation
• whether there are any gaps and silences in the evidence it presents (for
example, is there anything missing? Has the source been damaged? Is there
something that the creator has deliberately left out, and, if so, what?)

64
skilldrill
Identify the origin and purpose of sources

The past is represented in many different forms and from a Secondary sources
range of different perspectives. Immediately obvious are
past people’s remains and what is left of what they built, A secondary source is created after the time being studied.
crafted, painted, or—in the case of oral cultures—what they (see Source 2.27 for some examples).
have passed down by way of stories, rituals and ceremonies. A secondary source for one historical inquiry may be a primary
Archaeologists, anthropologists and translators help source for another. For example, a painting of a 10th century
historians by uncovering sources of this evidence. battle by a 17th-century artist is a primary source for that
artist’s life, but a secondary source for the battle.
Primary sources
Primary sources are those that existed, or were written or
made during the time being studied. They have a direct link to Interpretations of past events by
the event, period or person being studied. They may be: historians and other scholars
• the skull of someone who lived then
• the remains of an ancient temple built then
Books, magazine Films and documentaries
• a document or inscription (or its translation) written then
articles and websites of past events
• the oral testimony (or first-person account) of someone
who saw or experienced something at the time.

Source 2.27

Examples of secondary
Source type Value/purpose Limitations
souces for a historial inquiry
Primary Gives direct insight May be inaccurate or
into the past distorted
Is a surviving trace of May be damaged or
a particular time incomplete Graphical displays Maps depicting past
(e.g. timelines) journeys and trends
May be badly
conserved

Secondary Can fill in gaps about May be inaccurate or Source 2.28 Some examples of secondary sources
primary sources distorted
Is often prepared by Is prepared after the
experts in their field time being studied Check your learning
Can provide other 1 Explain the difference between a primary and secondary
valid perspectives source.
Shows how evidence 2 Provide an example of the sort of things that would
can be used to be primary and secondary sources for each of the
construct versions
of the past (called
following: World War I and the Pyramids at Giza, Egypt.
representations) 3 Brainstorm a list of sources (primary and secondary) you
might investigate for some aspect of your local area.
4 Think of another example where a source can be either
a primary or a secondary source.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 65

Primary and secondary sources
for Lindow Man
In 1984, men digging in a peat bog in northern England made
a significant discovery. What they found were the remains of a
2000-year-old body, though its lower abdomen and a leg were
missing. It has since been called Lindow Man.
Lindow Man is a primary source of evidence for a study of
people in this region around the start of the 1st millennium CE .
Investigators might hope for such a source that it would, for
example, provide evidence of people’s diet then, perhaps health
problems, certainly items worn on the body, and perhaps local
customs.
Analysis of this primary source has revealed that the man’s
brown hair was short and his beard trimmed. He wore a fur
armband. He was in his early twenties, around 165 cm tall and
weighed about 62 kg. His fingernails were manicured and he
had a bad case of worms. There is evidence that his skin may
have been painted before death.
He died violently: skull and brain damage indicate two
strong blows to the head. He also had a broken rib, two
broken neck vertebrae (probably due to garrotting—a ‘rope’
Source 2.29 Lindow Man of animal sinew was wound around the neck) and his jugular
vein was slashed. Shortly before death, he ate a burnt cake and
swallowed a quantity of mistletoe (a known sedative).
Why he died is not so certain. Scholars think murder or
execution is not likely. His wounds and body painting suggest
a ritual death, perhaps sacrifice. The burnt cake and mistletoe
are typical foods used in religious ceremonies of the Druids
(priests of the Celtic people). If he was sacrificed, what for?
That is another question for investigators. Was it an ‘appeal to
the gods’ to protect local people from Roman troops, who were
then starting to invade Britain? Or was it to ensure a bountiful
harvest?

Check your learning

1 List some of the things scholars would have been able to learn
about Lindow Man fairly quickly by viewing the primary source.
2 List some other things they learned by further examination and
scientific tests of this primary source.
3 Give three reasons, based on evidence provided by the
primary source, as to why many scholars think Lindow Man
Source 2.30 This is a scientific reconstruction, made in
1989, of what Lindow Man might have looked like when he was sacrificed.
died. X-rays of Lindow Man’s skull (crushed by the pressure 4 In what way does the secondary source for Lindow Man
of the earth) allowed scientists to accurately work out its
(Source 2.30) assist our understanding of this man and his
original size and shape. Educated guesses had to be made
about his eye and skin colour. times?

66
Gaps and silences
Gaps and silences in what is known about the past are created when sources are accidentally
damaged, deliberately destroyed, have never been made or expressed, or have yet to be discovered.
For example, bias can leave gaps and silences in the historical record. The creators of some
sources may view events and beliefs to accord with their own beliefs and cultural norms. Events
or beliefs that do not fit with their own values may be ignored. This might mean that significant
information is left out. While bias in a source can be helpful for a historian (because it reveals the
creator’s perspective), it can also create gaps if sources with different biases are not also available.

Suppressing the voices of

difference
Throughout history, attempts have been
made by the powerful to suppress views that
conflict with the ‘official’ view. Often this
is done by destroying sources that present
differing views.
For example, the Egyptian pharaoh
Akhenaten decided in 1344 bce that Egypt
would worship only one god, Aten, the Sun
god. He destroyed as many records as he could
that declared there were many gods.
Spanish conquistadors (Spanish soldiers in
Medieval times) and priests who conquered
the Mayan people in Central America in the
16th century were also intent on suppressing
the views of the conquered people. They
destroyed most of their codices (fold-out
books), which would have been seen as the
works of pagans or savages.
Suppression of unwelcome voices is not
confined to the far past. In the 1930s, Nazis
in Germany ordered some 20 000 books
burned that did not agree with the regime’s
racist views.
The unfortunate thing for historians is
that much of these destroyed sources would
have provided valuable evidence of the past.
This is why it is important for all historians,
and students of history, to keep an open Source 2.31 Artist’s impression of the efforts of China’s first emperor, Shi Huangdi (221–206 bce), to
mind when examining sources. This means suppress Confucianism. Anyone found reading the works of Confucius was buried alive or enslaved,
knowing our own biases and prejudices, for and their books were burned.

these may influence how we view or interpret

a source. It also means recognising any gaps
and silences in a source. Often these are
deliberate, reflecting the creator’s biases.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 67

freshideas
Thinking about sources

In the Internet age, where so much information is available, it is even more

important to gather information from a variety of reliable historical sources
when seeking an answer to a question. In the study of history it is also important
to distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence.
Source 2.34 Modern
1 Look carefully at the following sources related to the Colossus of Rhodes, artist’s interpretation
reportedly the tallest statue built in ancient times and one of the Seven of the construction
Wonders of the ancient world. It was built on the Greek island of Rhodes.
a Form small groups to answer the following questions. Consider how
reliable the sources are before answering. (Think about who created
them, and why.)
• When was the statue built?
• How tall was it?
• When did the statue fall and why?
• What are the two primary sources? At what point in the history
of the statue were they written?
• Is there any primary evidence of the Colossus today?
b Complete the following table in your workbook for each source.
Rank the sources from most (1) to the least (7) reliable. Justify your
choices for your highest-ranked and lowest-ranked sources.

Source Creator Date created Primary/ Rank

number (if known) Secondary

Source 2.32

Colossus, one of the seven wonders of the world, was built around 304 bcE by
Chares the Lindios (from Lindos), in honor of Apollo the god of the sun (Helios in
Greek) and patron god of Rhodes. It stood one hundred feet tall and it was located
at the entrance of Mandraki harbor. Made entirely of bronze, it was then used as
a lighthouse. It symbolized the strength and wealth of the Rhodian people. It is
believed to have been destroyed in 226 bcE by a powerful earthquake. Later the
pieces, it is believed, were taken by the Egyptians.
Rhodos travel service—/www.rodos.com/index.htm

Source 2.33

The statue was one hundred and ten feet high and stood upon a fifty-foot pedestal
near the harbor mole [pier]. Although the statue has been popularly depicted with its
legs spanning the harbor entrance so that ships could pass beneath, it was actually
posed in a more traditional Greek manner: nude, wearing a spiked crown, shading
Source 2.35 Modern
its eyes from the rising sun with its right hand, while holding a cloak over its left. artist’s interpretation of
http://unmuseum.mus.pa.us/colrhode.htm the Colossus of Rhodes

68
Source 2.36

Even as it lies it excites our wonder and admiration. Few men can clasp the
thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the
limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within
it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist
steadied it while erecting it.
Pliny the Elder, Roman author (23–79 ce)

Source 2.37

As fate would have it, however, an untimely end was destined for the Colossus.
In 224 bc, only sixty-five years after its completion, the statue was toppled
by a strong earthquake, crushing many houses as it fell. King Ptolemy III
immediately offered to pay for it to be rebuilt, but the Rhodians had been
warned by an oracle to let it lie and so declined his generous offer.

The statue lay where it fell for over 875 years until Arab invaders pillaged its
remains and sent the scrap metal to Syria, where it was carried off on the backs
of 900 camels to be melted down—probably into bronze lamps. Nothing of the
Colossus remains today, and the site upon which it once stood has not been
securely identified.
www.amazeingart.com/seven-wonders/
colossus.html

Source 2.38

Colossus of Rhodes (Gk. kolossos, ‘a more than lifesize

statue’), a bronze statue of the Greek sun-god Helios,
one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Erected
to commemorate the successful defence of the city against
a siege in 305–304 bcE, it stood at the entrance of the
harbour (the tradition that it stood astride the entrance is
discredited), and was 70 cubits high (30–35 m, 10–15 ft.).
It was completed c.280 bcE and overthrown by an earthquake
c.224 bcE.
Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, Oxford University Press

chapter two investigating the ancient past 69

Understanding time
A key question historians ask about a source is ‘How old is it?’ That means understanding time.
People also use different ways to describe and measure time. There are precise expressions such
as ‘2 hours, 53 minutes’ and ‘7 July 1842’. Historians also talk about periods of time such as ‘the
medieval era’ and ‘the Great Depression’. Looser expressions include ‘long ago’, ‘in the past’, ‘at the
start of time’ and ‘recently’.
Time is a key part of any historical investigation for two reasons:
1 It locates an event, issue or life at a point within the human story. We see it in the light of what was
happening at the time.
2 It provides a ‘mathematical’ framework to measure (for example, the duration of a monarch’s reign).

Representing time
The calendar used in Australia, the Gregorian calendar, is
the most commonly used calendar in the modern world.
But it is not the only way to measure time; there are also
currently the Jewish and the Islamic calendars, for example.
The Gregorian calendar is a Christian-based calendar. It is
broken into two eras (or long periods of time):
• time before the birth of Christ (bc, short for ‘Before
Christ’)
• time since that event (ad, short for the Latin expression
anno Domini, which means ‘in the year of the Lord’).
The abbreviation bc is placed after the date (for example,
1025 bc), and the abbreviation ad is placed before the date
(for example, ad 1678).
It is becoming more common to use bce (Before the
Common Era) instead of bc, and ce (Common Era) instead of
ad. (This is what has been done in this book.) The letters bce

and ce are both placed after a date. The abbreviations ce or

ad are generally omitted unless there is risk of confusion.

Source 2.39 Ancient peoples sometimes measured time with the fall of Measures of time
shadows on sundials, such as this Mayan sundial. Today, we represent time
with devices such as clocks, mobile phones and online calendars. There are 10 years in a decade. There are 100 years
(10 decades) in a century. There are 1000 years (10 centuries
or 100 decades) in a millennium. Much larger (though less
exact) chunks of time are often described as eras, epochs
or ages.

Century Year it started Year it ended

1st century BCE 100 BCE 1 BCE
7th century BCE 700 BCE 601 BCE
16th century BCE 1600 BCE 1501 BCE
1st century CE 1 CE 100 CE
7th century CE 601 CE 700 CE
16th century CE 1501 CE 1600 CE

70
skilldrill
Sequencing historic events and periods

Timelines are one of the more important

ways of representing information to do Source 2.40 Steps in drawing a timeline
Step 1 Divide, the timeline
bar or line is divided evenly
with time.
into suitable blocks of time.
A timeline is a diagram showing a BCE BCE One showing what you did
BCE BCE
range of events over time. The events 3000 2000 1000 yesterday might be divided
are arranged in the order in which they into hours; one showing key
occurred. Usually a timeline is shown as events in the 20th century
a horizontal or vertical bar or single line. might be divided into
decades.
This allows it to be drawn precisely.
Usually bce (or bc) and ce (or ad) are c. 3100 2528 2150 1504
Step 2 Dates for specific
events are marked. They
shown with directional arrows at one or BCE BCE must be accurately plotted.
both ends of a timeline. The diagrams 3000 2000 1000
(If an exact date is not known,
here show, step by step, how to the abbreviation c. (from Latin
construct a timeline. The example given word circa, meaning ‘around’)
shows some key information about the is placed in front of it.
Start of the Great
history of ancient Egypt. 00
Egyptian 28 Pyramid
2 50 built
3100
kingdom 50 pyramids
Last 5Pharaohs started to be buried
built in the Valley of the Kings Step 3 Brief labels
Check your learning cE 3100
30 2528 2150 1504 are prepared for each
plotted date.
Draw a timeline to show these key BCE BCE
3000 2000 1000
discoveries and inventions.
• Wheel—3500 bce
gypt an
• Silk—2700 bce Start
ing o
of the
Egyptian
Great Pyramid built

kingdom uilt pyramids

Last nPharaohs
t a started
t eK g buried
• Alphabet—1100 bce built
to be
in the Valley of the Kings
Step 4 Sometimes sections
• Paper—105 ce c. 3100 2528 2150 1504 of a timeline are coloured and
• Gunpowder— 900 ce labelled (with the label written
• Rockets —1232 ce BCE BCE on the timeline or externally)
3000 2000 1000
to show particular periods.
• Car—1885 ce Old Kingdom
ngdom
Middle New Kingdom
• Personal computer—1964 ce Kingdom

• DVD—1998 ce

Start of the Great Pyramid built

Egyptian
kingdom Last pyramids Pharaohs started to be buried Step 5 If there is a huge
built in the Valley of the Kings
time span in a timeline, it
c. 3100 2528 2150 1504 will be necessary to break it
Birth of
Christ
into segments separated by
BCE CE a jagged break. The break
3000 2000 1500 30
Old Kingdom New Kingdom
shows that a section of time
Middle
Kingdom has been left out. If this were
Egypt becomes part
of the Roman empire
not done, the timeline would
be too long to fit on the page!

chapter two investigating the ancient past 71

skilldrill
Assessing the usefulness of a source

A useful source, whether primary or secondary, is one that

will improve your understanding for a historical inquiry. To be
useful, a source needs to be relevant to the topic and reliable
(trustworthy). This means you need to know about its origins.
(Historians call this ‘its provenance’.)
Questions you might typically ask about a source include:
• How old is it?
• Where did it come from?
• Who made it?
• Is it credible (for example, was it created or told by an
eye-witness, expert in their field or by a respected body,
such as a museum)?
• When was it made and why?
• Is the information it provides complete and current?
• Is enough evidence provided to confirm a desired
hypothesis, or is further research required?
• Does the information provided match (or contradict) that
provided by other sources?
Also important is knowing the motivation of whoever created
the source. For example, who was a speaker’s or painter’s
intended audience? Is the creator’s gender, race or social
position relevant to what the source reveals? Is there evidence
of bias and, if so, is this helpful to the inquiry? How?

Philip II of Macedon
Source 2.41 is a representation of Philip II, King of Macedon
and father of Alexander the Great (see p. 155). Alexander
became king when his father was murdered in 336 BCE.
This reconstruction was based on a skull found in a tomb at
Vergina, northern Greece. Some scholars say this was the site
of the former Macedonian capital, Aigai, where Alexander is
reported to have buried his father.
The skull was found in a solid gold chest. It featured a 16-point Source 2.41 Reconstructed head made by Richard Neave, a skilled
star—the symbol of Macedonian royalty. Pottery found nearby anatomy artist, who worked for many years for the School of Medicine,
was dated to between 380 and 350 bce. University of Manchester.

The right cheekbone and eye socket of the skull showed signs
of injury. The ancient Greek scholar Didymys Chalcenterus
(63 BCE –1 CE) reported that Philip II ‘had his right eye cut out
Check your learning
when he was struck by an arrow’. Consider the information provided on King Philip II. In the light
of some of the above questions, decide how useful this source
would be for a historical investigation of this king.

72 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

bigideas
2.2 What sources can be used in a historical investigation?
Remember Apply
1 a What is the difference between primary and secondary 8 Imagine that a historian analysed all the artefacts (large and
sources? Explain using examples of the sorts of small) in your bedroom.
questions you would ask about a source. a List at least three questions he or she might ask to help
b Give an example (it can be made up) of a source that with this investigation.
could be both a primary and a secondary source for b Describe two things he or she might conclude about you
historical inquiries. from this investigation.
2 Give three reasons why there might be gaps and silences in c What will the historian’s most significant conclusion
the evidence provided by sources. about you be? Explain.
d Explain two things he or she could not know about you
Understand because of gaps in the available evidence.
3 Through your research, locate two other sources of
evidence for Lindow Man (besides those in this textbook) Analyse
that you think might be useful for an investigation of Lindow 9 o Complete a historical investigation by conducting a site
Man. Explain why each source you choose might be useful. visit to a place near your school (organised by your teacher).
4 Brainstorm as many reasons as you can why it is important Alternatively, a link to a virtual site study is available on the
for historians to know how old a source is. obook. Don’t forget to download and complete the Site
5 Show your understanding of how time is represented by Visit Form.
depicting the life of a man named Eugene Fortesque Fatlip
on a timeline. He was born in 1925 and died in 1995. Below
Evaluate
are some data on the key periods in his life. 10 A historian needs certain personal qualities. Among these
Early childhood: 5 years are honesty, knowledge, judgment, open-mindedness, clear
thinking, analytical skill, self-awareness, curiosity, ethics,
Primary school: 7 years
organisational skill and a willingness to listen. Which three of
High school: 5 years
these qualities do you think is most important in influencing
Trade school: 3 years the types of questions a historian asks about historical
Working life: 40 years sources? Why?
Retirement: 10 years
6 Explain why a historian might question the motives of Create
someone who has created a source. Why is this relevant to 11 Using cut-outs from magazine, small objects, etc., create a
an understanding of what really happened? hanging mobile that provides reliable evidence of who you
7 a Why do you think, throughout history, those with are. Think about your interests, personality, abilities, beliefs,
influence and power often try to destroy records they etc. Bring the mobiles to school, perhaps displaying them
don’t agree with? in batches in the classroom for a day or two. The task is to
examine these sources, asking questions and taking notes.
b Do you think this still happens today? Explain.
See what evidence you can find, for as many mobiles as
c What disadvantages do such actions have for future
possible, to answer the question ‘Who made this mobile?’
historians?

chapter two investigating the ancient past 73

Source 2.42 Three skulls: front Homo habilis (Kenya, 1.88 million years old); centre: Homo erectus, 13 000
years old from Kow Swamp, Victoria, Australia; back: Homo sapiens, 13 000 years old, from Keilor, Victoria

2.3 What methods are used to

investigate the past?
Kow Swamp is the location of the biggest ancient burial site in Australia
so far found. A recent dating method called optically stimulated
luminescence has found that the remains are some 20 000 years old,
older than previously thought.
About 10 000 to 12 000 years ago, Kow Swamp was a large lake. The grave site
was located on its then south-eastern edge. The first of the remains (a partial
skeleton) was found in 1968. Within four years, archaeologists had uncovered the
remains of close to another 40 people.
The physical appearance of the Kow Swamp skulls puzzled scholars. They had
wide faces; prominent jaws and teeth; flat and receding foreheads; and heavy
brow ridges. In fact, they more resembled the distant human ancestor scientists
call Homo erectus. The reality is that they are much younger than the human-
looking remains found at Willandra Lakes (Mungo Man, for example).
One recent theory is that the stocky, robust shape of the Kow Swamp people
was a result of their adapting to climate stress. Some 20 000 years ago, the world
was at the peak of its last glacial.
The research continues, with new tests applied and new theories put forward
to find out more about these remains and their place in Australia’s past.

74
Scientific techniques
Many of the experts called on to help historians and archaeologists with their investigations use
state-of-the-art techniques. Some of these are listed below. Many of the tests are used to assess the
likely age of sources or their chemical composition.

Stratigraphy
(analysis of soil or rock layers)

CAT scans of human remains

Thermoluminescence dating
(analysis of the age of rocks)

Dendrochronology
(analysis of tree rings)

Fluorine testing (analysis of the age

Source 2.43 Analysis of the fossil pollen in this soil core allows researchers of bones)
to find out how plant life in the area changed over thousands of years.
Some scientific techniques
to analyse historical sources

Radiocarbon dating

DNA analysis

Ice-core sampling

Forensic palynology (pollen analysis)

Teeth and ear analysis

(to test for disease, age)

Source 2.44 Air trapped at various sections along an ice core such as this
provides evidence of what the atmosphere was like at different periods in the past.
Scientists can then form conclusions about the climate at a particular time.

Source 2.45 Some scientific methods used to analyse historical sources

chapter two investigating the ancient past 75

Dating methods
Many dating techniques are used to investigate the past, which are
described briefly below. Some are absolute dating techniques. This means
that the age is stated as precisely as possible. Others are relative dating
techniques, which means that the age is relative to the age of something
else. It may be older or younger.

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy involves analysing sources of evidence found in the
different strata (layers marking different geological time periods) of
earth. These might, for example, be revealed during an archaeological
excavation. Items found in the lowest strata will generally be the oldest.
For example, an item found in one stratum (the singular word for strata)
may be known to be 1000 years old. This means that items in the strata
below it will probably be older.
Stratigraphy is not an exact science though, and is thus a relative
dating technique. Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslips
can change the way that strata are arranged.

Fluorine dating
Bones can be dated using fluorine dating. Bones absorb fluorine from the
soil (and groundwater—water that lies below the surface of the ground) Source 2.46 Different strata are marked on this
archaeological dig.
in which they are immersed. The longer they are there, the more fluorine
they absorb. Like stratigraphy, it is a relative dating technique.

evidence: Piltdown man

focus on …

Amateur archaeologist Charles Dawson

found part of a skull in 1912 near Piltdown in
England. The top part, with its large brain cavity,
suggested it was human. However, the jaw was
ape-like. For about 40 years this source was
believed to provide evidence of what was then
described as the ‘missing link’—undeniable proof
of the link between apes and humans. (Scientists
now recognise that the evolutionary process is
more complex than this.)
In 1953, the skull was fluorine dated. This
produced evidence that the skull was a hoax. Its
ape-like jaw once belonged to an orang-utan. It
had been carefully joined to a human skull that
was about 600 years old. The bones had been
stained to make them look older. No-one knows
who did this, or why.

Source 2.47 Reconstruction of the Piltdown man skull;

the brown parts are what Dawson found.

76
Source 2.48 Radiocarbon dating would determine the likely age of mummified human remains such as these. This corpse was found in central Asia.

Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is one of the more accurate but very complex technologies. It is an absolute
dating technique. Special equipment is used to work out how much of a particular form of carbon
(C14) is still present in once-living remains.
All organisms—living things—contain C14. They stop absorbing it when they die. Because
C14 is radioactive, it breaks down over time at a known rate. Knowing how much C14 is in an
organism’s remains thus allows scientists to determine when it died, and therefore how old it is.

Thermoluminescence dating
Thermoluminescence dating measures the radiation that has been absorbed by minerals in
rocks. When these minerals absorb radiation, their structure changes. They release light when the
rock is heated. This light can be measured. The longer a rock has been exposed to radiation, the
brighter the light will glow. Scientists can use these measurements to work out the last time a rock
was heated (and hence its relative age).
Optically stimulated luminescence is used to assess the age of a buried item by dating certain
minerals (such as quartz) in the sediments surrounding it. These mineral grains start building
up energy (from radiation) only when not exposed to sunlight. How long they have been buried
(and thus the likely age of what they surround) is measured by the light signals they emit. When
exposed to sunlight, they re-set their ‘time clocks’ back to zero.

Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) dates a tree is by counting the rings in a cross-section of its
trunk (see Source 2.49). Each year in a tree’s life, a new ring forms. It varies in shape and width
according to the conditions that year. It has two parts: a light part (spring growth) and a dark part
(summer/autumn growth).
Sometimes experts can calculate the relative age of wooden artefacts, such as bowls or
floorboards, by matching the ring patterns in the wood with those in local trees of the same
species. They may discover, for example, that the artefacts are older or younger than trees growing Source 2.49 Trees grow
a new ring every year.
there at the moment.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 77

Source 2.50 The Milky Way

DNA analysis Source 2.51

All living organisms (except some viruses) contain The story I am telling is about my fathers in the Dreamtime
who made the stars travel across the sky … They were not made
deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA holds the genetic code
randomly, but by the Japaljarri-Jungarrayi Dreaming who created
that determines how all living things develop and operate.
the Milky Way and carried stars and witi poles [logs, set on fire at
It is a bit like an instruction manual for using a computer one end to provide light] as he travelled ... We were taught about
program. By analysing the DNA in even the tiniest fragment these Dreamings by our grandfathers, fathers and elder brothers.
of a once-living thing, scientists can identify that living The [people to the north and west of Alice Springs] instructed us in
thing. the Warlpiri law and told us not to forget what we had been taught
Historians often rely on DNA analysis when exploring … I am now telling the Dreaming of the Milky Way, all of those
millions of stars up above us, as I was told it by our old men.
links between ancient remains to determine any genetic
Paddy Japaljarri Sims, ‘Yiwarrakurlu/Milky Way’ in Warlukurlangu
links. It has been used, for example, in searching for
Artists, Kuruwarri/Yuendumu Doors, Australian Institute of
evidence to support early human migration, such as the ‘out Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, 1987, Door 29, p. 127.
of Africa’ theory discussed on pages 6–14.

Oral history Check your learning

The Indigenous societies of ancient Australia had an 1 What new theories were put forward about the Kow
oral culture. With no form of writing, their records were Swamp people when optically stimulated luminescence
preserved in a range of ways. These included the paintings tests revealed the age of fossil remains?
they left, their continued ceremonies and rituals, and in the 2 Find out what CAT scans can reveal about human remains.
stories, laws and traditions they passed on. 3 a What is the difference between absolute and relative
Historians and anthropologists rely heavily on such dating methods?
sources in searching for evidence of these people’s history. b Give one example of each dating method.
Source 2.51 is one example of an oral account of the 4 What can researchers determine through DNA analysis?
Japaljarri-Jungarrayi—a creation story.
5 List three types of sources of evidence a researcher might
use to investigate the history of Australia’s Indigenous
people.

78
Investigating two mysteries
of history
Tollund Man
Tollund Man was found more than 2 metres below the
surface of a peat bog in Denmark (near Tollund) in 1950.
His eyes and mouth were closed. He was about 150 cm tall,
and is thought to have been about 40 years old. He wore a
pointed sheepskin cap and a belt made from hide. His body
was in a foetal position (with his knees drawn up and his
arms tucked in). A stranded leather thong was tied around
his neck. Just as for Lindow Man (see p. 66), historians are
not completely sure why Tollund Man died, though most
think he was sacrificed.
Various methods have been used to test the remains,
in an effort to find out more about this historical mystery.
Some of the findings of this further research and testing are
Source 2.52 Tollund Man’s remains were so well preserved by the peat
detailed in the table below. that the people who found him thought he was a recent murder victim. What
is left of his remains is displayed in the Silkeborg Museum in Denmark.

Source 2.53 Some of the findings about Tollund Man

Source of evidence Findings based on testing methods and investigations

His remains Radiocarbon dating confirmed he died about 350 bce.
Vegetable soup containing barley, weeds and seeds in his stomach The food was in the large intestine, suggesting it was eaten less
than 24 hours before death. Some of the seeds appear in the
region only in spring.
Position of the body The body was placed in a foetal position, with eyes and mouth shut
after death—such care and respect is unlikely for a murder victim or
an executed criminal.
Text of Roman writer Tacitus (56–117 ce). He said of Germanic Further research has confirmed that these same Germanic people
people ‘to the north’: ‘They hang traitors and renegades in trees; worshipped a goddess of spring during ceremonies at which slaves
cowards, evaders and unnaturally immoral people they lower into were sacrificed.
filthy swamps and cover them with branches.’
Peat around the body Radiocarbon dating confirmed this to be about 2000 years old
Scars on the soles of his feet He sometimes went barefoot.
Location of the body Ancient Germanic people regarded watery marshes as places
where they could talk to their gods and goddesses.

Check your learning

1 a What evidence is there that Germanic people hanged traitors?
b Does the treatment of the body after death suggest Tollund Man was a traitor? Explain.
2 a How did researchers know that he died in the Danish spring?
b Why was that timing significant in trying to understand why this man might have died?

chapter two investigating the ancient past 79

Source 2.54 The Sphinx, with the body of a lion and the head of a man

How old is the Sphinx?

The Sphinx has been studied by many scholars and scientists. Scientific tests have confirmed that
There is much we know but also a great deal we do not. For industrial pollution, specifically acid rain, is
example, whose face is represented on this monument? Who rapidly eroding the surface of the Sphinx.
smashed its nose? Are there tunnels beneath it? How old is it? The Sphinx is near one of the world’s largest
The Sphinx lies close to the largest of Egypt’s Giza pyramids, cities, Cairo. And, yes, it does rain in Cairo,
the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Khafre. It was carved from an just not often.
outcrop of limestone rock and was probably once painted. It has There are also rising water levels in the
been buried in sand many times and was last dug out in 1905. ground under the Sphinx. This water moves
into the limestone. When it evaporates in
When was the Sphinx built? the heat, the salts it leaves behind react
Between the front paws of this structure is a tablet inscribed with chemically with the limestone. This causes
hieroglyphs (see pp. 20–1) that describe a dream of the Egyptian it to break down.
king Thutmosis IV (ruler of Egypt between 1424 and 1417 bce). He
ordered that this inscription be made. It includes the statement Check your learning
(translated) that the Sphinx was made ‘in the days of Khafre, when
1 What evidence is there to support the claim that
the world was young’.
the Sphinx was built for the pharaoh Khafre?
Erosion patterns 2 a Why do some scholars contest this?
Some scholars contest this, arguing that the Sphinx was built b What evidence do they point to in support of
around 10 000 years ago. They base this opinion on the different their opinion about the age of the Sphinx?
erosion patterns on the Sphinx. They say some of these were 3 What other factors, besides rainfall, are proving
caused by steady rainfall. (It last rained steadily in the Sahara about to have an eroding effect on the Sphinx?
8000 years ago.) 4 Write down two research (inquiry) questions
Those who contest this rainfall theory argue that there are that would aid in your investigation of some
different erosion patterns only because the limestone outcrop has aspect of the age of the Sphinx that especially
interests you.
both hard and softer layers.

80
skilldrill
Use a range of communication forms: oral presentation

Public speaking can sometimes make even the most confident Tip 1 Prepare your talk so it has a very clear structure
of people nervous. You think you have prepared well. And yet, (introduction, a series of main points, and then a conclusion).
when you finally stand there, in front of a sea of faces, those Then practise, practise, practise! You can do this in front of
rehearsals seem like a bad dream! You feel your heart hammer family members and in front of the mirror. (This helps you
and your palms get sticky. Where have those words gone? observe, and control, any nervous gestures.) Practise until
You shuffle and reach for your speaking cards. Does this you almost know your speech off by heart.
sound familiar? Tip 2 Prepare a set of cards about as big as your palm
It may surprise you that it is a good thing to be a little bit that contain the main points. Hold them out of sight while
nervous. It helps you to be on your guard and to do your best. presenting your talk. Bring them up only if you need to check
But there are some things you can do to ensure that nerves a point you have forgotten. Turn them over as you talk, so you
don’t end up reducing you to a warbling bundle of jelly. don’t get confused where you are up to.
Tip 3 Breathe deeply before you start talking and any time
during your presentation that you feel yourself getting nervous.
An ideal time to do this is when you pause after making
a point.
Tip 4 Look around the room as you talk. Smile from time to
time, where appropriate. It helps, sometimes, too, to shift your
position, perhaps taking a few steps one way or the other.
Tip 5 Project your voice. Don’t mumble or talk too quickly.
Change your tone as the subject matter changes so your
voice is not a monotone, and vary your speed. You might say
something important very slowly and deliberately (and then
repeat it for emphasis).
Tip 6 Avoid irritating gestures (such as constantly flicking your
hair or tweaking your nose) and repeated expressions such
as ‘you know’ and ‘like’. Your audience will be watching your
gestures, as well as listening to your words.
Tip 7 If anything goes wrong (your PowerPoint display doesn’t
work or you find you’ve left your speaking cards at home) don’t
panic! People are there to help with most technical problems.
And if you have prepared well, you might find your oral
presentation is more fluent and natural without your cards!

Check your learning

Find out about the Nazca lines in Peru. Present your findings
in a 3-minute oral presentation.
Source 2.55 This is not the way to make an oral presentation!

chapter two investigating the ancient past 81

examiningevidence
Sources of early Indigenous history

Sources of the first Australians reveal

a mostly semi-nomadic people.
There is evidence they understood
the land and seasons and had great
skills as trackers and mimickers (of
animal noises, for example). They
adapted the natural resources they
found to:
• build their shelters
• manage their environments
• fashion their weapons, tools and
musical instruments
• make carry bags, water
containers and cradles
• keep themselves warm, fed,
watered—and alive.

Source 2.58 Traditional stone fishing traps used by Aboriginal Australians

Weapons and tools, such as saws, chisels Source 2.59 Eel aquaculture of the Gunditjmara
and axes, were made from wood and stone, I realised there was something pretty
often by specialist craftsmen. The returnable clever going on here [after running a
boomerang, usually crafted from tree roots, geography simulation program based
was useful to frighten roosting birds into on the area’s data]. The swamps
waiting nets. The heavier, non-returnable were joined and there were channels
boomerangs were missiles to toss at the connecting the wetland to the river and
Source 2.56 A woomera (top), a shell used legs of larger prey. Nets and three-pronged there were channels continuing on to
in rainmaking ceremonies and a killing stick spears were used to catch fish. Stone traps the sea … It could be one of the oldest
(bottom) (see Source 2.58) were also used. Using a [aquaculture systems] in the world …
woomera, hunters could toss their spears [After testing residues from some of the
three times further than normal. many trees in the area that had had
The diet of Indigenous people depended fires in them, it was evident they had
been used to smoke eels.] Gunditjmara
on where they lived. Coastal people ate lots
weren’t just catching eels; their whole
of fish and shellfish. (The middens found
society was based around eels … A
on many beaches today are evidence of
specialisation had developed here of eel
this.) Archaeologists have now also found
production … they would have been the
evidence that some Indigenous people in
currency these people bargained with.
Victoria—the Budj Bim near Portland, for
Comments of archaeologist Dr Heather
instance, and the Gunditjmara around Lake Builth in a 2003 ABC Catalyst
Source 2.57 This spear head, made from Condah—had eel farms. Parallel stone walls transcript, ‘Aboriginal Village’
the glass of a beer bottle, reflects the skill of were built to trap the animals in small ponds
the creator’s Indigenous forefathers who made
such weapons from stone.
where they could be more easily caught.

82
Source 2.60 This early 18th-century painting (‘Throwing the spear’, Source 2.61 Two Indigenous men using natural resources to start a fire
Ballarat Fine Art Gallery) shows Indigenous men hunting birds.

Animals (mostly eaten raw) provided meat for protein, although were suited to people who were often on the move.
large animals such as emus were usually cooked. Morsels such However, in some areas where food and fresh water were
as witchetty grubs were a delicacy, as were honey ants. There abundant (thus reducing the need to move), the remains
were also berries, fruits, nuts, bird and turtle eggs, seeds and of circular stone-walled structures have been found. It is
water lily stems. Fresh water (for those not camped near rivers thought these were also roofed with bark and branches.
or streams) came from eating frogs and sucking the roots 1 Look at Source 2.56. With a partner, discuss how you
of certain trees. Bottle trees were another source of water. think a woomera worked. Check your understanding
Fires were often started by twirling or sliding a hardwood stick with a reliable text or Internet source.
against softer wood until the friction created sparks, which 2 What evidence does Source 2.57 provide that the
could then be blown until the flames appeared. Breaths fanned Indigenous person who made this was a skilled
the small sparks into a flame. Whenever a group moved camp, toolmaker?
smouldering firesticks were usually carried to start the campfire
3 a What did Dr Heather Builth discover about the
in the new location.
Gunditjmara people?
Indigenous people used fire to hunt (lighting fires to drive b What sources did she review or analyse in reaching
animals towards waiting hunters or into prepared pits), and to her conclusions?
manage the land sustainably. Controlled burn-offs at the right
c What do such findings suggest about these
time ensured that the fuel load in the bush was kept low. It also
people?
helped to encourage new growth, which attracted animals.
4 a What evidence does Source 2.60 provide about
A range of utensils and instruments were made from available
how birds were caught?
resources. Bags were woven from pandanus grass, and ropes
b How do you think Indigenous people caught emus
and twine were made from tree root fibres or the hair or fur of
and frogs?
animals.
Indigenous shelters were typically simple, built from logs and
bark. They provided protection from sun, wind and rain, and

chapter two investigating the ancient past 83

bigideas
2.3 What methods and sources are used to investigate the past?
Remember 10 With a partner, study the cross-section of the tree trunk
shown as Source 2.49. Work out how old this tree is. Share
1 Match the statements in the first column of the following
your findings with a partner and discuss any differences.
table with those in the second. Write the correct sentences
11 Why would a historian or anthropologist investigating ancient
in your workbook.
Indigenous history be very interested in what Paddy Japaljarri
A cryptographer studies human cultures and Sims had to say in Source 2.51?
societies. 12 Answer these ‘what if?’ questions in small discussion groups.
A geneticist uses special equipment to detect Think about the implications of your answers.
depths of and variations in the sea a What if evidence was produced to prove (beyond
bed. question) that the Sphinx was built 10 000 years ago?
A biologist studies fossils. b What if Piltdown man had not been proved to be a fraud?
A sonar technologist studies the science of heredity. c What if the body of Tollund Man had not been found so
carefully arranged?
An anthropologist decodes a written script not yet
d What if further permanent shelters (such as those made
understood.
of stone) of ancient Indigenous people are found in many
A palaeontologist studies living things. other parts of Australia?
2 Explain why optically stimulated luminescence was
significant in the ongoing investigations into the Kow
Apply
Swamp human remains. 13 Divide the class into four groups. Each group will bring to
class a ‘dig’ they have prepared—perhaps a cut-down
3 What does stratigraphy involve?
grocery box, partially filled with sand or earth and a few small
4 Give one example of why DNA analysis has been helpful for twigs and stones. Five small ‘artefacts’ (old and broken are
historians. best) will be buried at various depths. Swap your dig with
5 What sorts of information can scientists obtain from ice-core another group. Using gloves and appropriate ‘tools’, take it
sampling? in turns to conduct a careful role-played ‘excavation’. Write a
brief report on your ‘findings’.
Understand
6 Explain how fluorine dating helped to uncover a historical Analyse
fraud. 14 Look carefully at Source 2.62.
7 What specialist might a historian call on to help with the a Which layer is likely to provide the oldest sources?
following investigations? Give reasons for your choices. b Which layer do you think is likely to have the more recent
a a recently located ancient shipwreck sources—D or B?
b an ancient tablet displaying an unknown script c Why do you think layer C contains no historical sources?
c a mound thought to contain an ancient tomb d Imagine there was an earthquake. It affected the right-
d a rock containing a fossilised human footprint hand side of this section of earth. Layer A on the right-
hand side dropped down to align with Layer D on the
8 What methods and sources do you think historians and
left-hand side.
other scholars would use when investigating the history of a
people with an oral culture? Discuss as a class. • Draw a simple sketch to represent this drop in your
workbook.
9 Draw and label a diagram to show your understanding of
• Explain why it would then be misleading for an archaeologist
what radiocarbon dating involves.
to say that the smashed disk on the right-hand side was
older than the skeleton on the left-hand side.

84 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

A

D
Source 2.62
Different artefacts are
found in different strata,
generally arranged
E according to their age.

15 Read Source 2.63 and answer the following questions: Evaluate

a What human evidence is there to support the hypothesis
16 Assume that you have grown up and are still interested in
that a lost Roman legion might have ended up in China?
history. Which supporting specialist would you most like to
b What scientific methods have been used to try to confirm
be to assist historians in their inquiries? Give reasons for
the reliability of that evidence? What are the results?
your preference. (This may involve some research.)
c What are archaeologists planning to do to further test
this hypothesis? Create
d How do sources prepared by Chinese writers support 17 Pretend you are a dating method of your choice.
this opinion? Use costume and other props to help support your
e If the forebears of these people were indeed a lost role play, which will be delivered to the class as a short
legion of Roman soldiers, what other sources of oral presentation entitled ‘What am I?’ Your presentation
evidence might you expect researchers (especially should make it clear, humorously if you like, what your
archaeologists) to eventually uncover in the region? method involves.

Source 2.63

Genetic tests may prove theory

of China’s lost Roman legion The genetic tests have lent weight to the theory that
Roman legionnaires [see p. 233] settled in the area in the
Sydney Morning Herald, 25 November 2010
1st century bce after fleeing a battle. The clash took place
Nick Squires
in 53 BCE between an army led by Marcus Crassus, a Roman
Genetic testing of villagers in a remote part of China [Liqian, general, and a larger force of Parthians, from what is now
on the fringes of the Gobi Desert] has shown that nearly Iran, bringing to an abrupt halt the Roman Empire’s
two-thirds of their DNA is of Caucasian origin, lending eastwards expansion. Thousands of Romans were killed
support to the theory that they may be descended from a and Crassus beheaded, but some were said to have fled east.
‘lost legion’ of Roman soldiers … Many of the villagers
They supposedly fought as mercenaries in a war between
have blue or green eyes, long noses and even fair hair …
the Huns [see p. 258] and the Chinese in 36 bce. Chinese
Archaeologists plan to conduct digs in the region, chroniclers referred to the capture of a ‘fish scale formation’
along the ancient Silk Route, to search for remains of troops, a possible reference to the ‘tortoise’ phalanx
of forts or structures built by the fabled army unit … formation perfected by the legionnaires [see p. 233].

chapter two investigating the ancient past 85

Source 2.64 A conservator restoring an ancient statue of the horse of Marcus Aurelius (121–180 ce),
Roman emperor for the last 19 years of his life

2.4 Why is conservation important?

Historical sources can be very fragile. Once exposed to the open air,
pollution, humidity (water vapour in the air) and so on, many items
will quickly deteriorate over time. This is quite apart from being stolen,
or broken by careless handling. To remain safe and pristine for future
generations, key sources need to be conserved.

How are sources conserved?

Tourist numbers are growing rapidly in places such as Pompeii (see pp. 214–5)
and the Indigenous art caves in the Kimberley (see pp. 58–9). Too much trekking
over the same ground, too much touching and too much breathing in a confined
space can damage sources, especially if very old. As well, such actions may
sometimes cause offence to others, or show disrespect to others’ beliefs.
Conservators are now taking a range of measures to protect certain objects and
places from overexposure. This is why Indigenous cave art, for example, is often
fenced off. Such actions respect the spirituality of Indigenous people but they
also protect this ancient art from damage. It is also why certain old buildings in
Australia are put on a heritage list, which forces their conservation. Vulnerable
parts may be roped off, or protected by boardwalks.

86
It is also why many sources are stored in libraries, art galleries and public museums. Some
examples of these include:
• the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales, which houses a huge collection of
historical sources on Australiana
• the Melbourne Museum which, among other things, includes the Bunjilaka Aboriginal
Cultural Centre (the aim of the Centre is to ‘keep alive’ the oral stories and history of Victoria’s
Koori people — those from the south-east of the state)
Venues such as museums and galleries provide security and proper storage facilities. But their
design also sets the right environmental conditions. Some items, for example, must have muted
light or a low humidity. As well, the staff working in such institutions have the training and skills
to know how to restore and repair damaged items. They must also know what sort of artefacts
are the most important to conserve. Sometimes this judgment is influenced by different cultural
perspectives. Other times, it is to preserve evidence that might be crucial to preserving someone’s
‘voice’ in an area of contested history.

Source 2.65 The Gallery

of First Australians in
the National Museum
of Australia in Canberra
includes this display, which
provides evidence of the
strong connection Torres
Strait Islanders have long
had with the sea.

Preserving heritage
Sources of our past are part of our heritage. They are a reminder of the glories and terrors of past
times, and the mistakes and great advances made. They remind us where we have come from, and
what shaped our societies and cultures. They give us a sense of who we are as a people.
Conserving these remnants of the past ensures that future generations will also be entitled to
enjoy the same appreciation of their heritage.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 87

Source 2.66 One of the glazed lions from Babylon’s Processional Wall

A conservation case study: The ruins of ancient Babylon

One of the means by which the past can be conserved is to reconstruct it. This
has happened for the massive Ishtar Gate in Iraq.
The double gate was the main entrance to the ancient walled city of
Babylon. It was built some 2500 years ago by Nabopolassar, the father of
Nebuchadnezzar II. A paved Processional Way linked the two gates through an
extended gatehouse. The way was lined with glazed brick reliefs of animals. Some
of these reliefs are now housed in various museums around the world.
Babylon began as a city-state of Mesopotamia (see p. 24). Between 612 and
331 bce , it was the busy hub of two empires (Neo-Babylonian and Persian). Its
ruins are a vital part of Iraq’s heritage.

Recreations of the front wall

Source 2.67 The remains of the Processional
Way at the start of the 20th century
The gate’s foundations were excavated in the 20th century. The front gate was
reconstructed in Berlin’s Pergamon Museum, using what glazed bricks could be
found on the site. These glazed bricks recreated a blue wall with rows of bulls and
dragons—symbols of two Babylonian gods. As not all bricks were recovered, the
Berlin reconstruction is shorter than the original front gate.
A smaller reproduction of the front gate was also built in Iraq by the former
leader Saddam Hussein as an entrance to a museum opened in 2011.

Conserving the remains of the ruins

Computer scans have identified the nature of the damage being caused to the
original gate foundations that remain. Groundwater is the main problem. Its salts
are eroding the brick reliefs at the base of the mud brick gate.
A conservation plan developed by the World Monument Fund and Iraq’s State
Board of Antiquities and Heritage includes diverting water away from these ruins.
Longer term, the hope is to generate wide-scale interest in the conservation of
the ancient area of Mesopotamia, from Ur to Nimrud. It is hoped this will attract
Source 2.68 The reconstructed Ishtar
Gate in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin scholars and tourists to help boost Iraq’s war-torn economy.

88
A conservation case study: The Tomb of Menna, Egypt
The Tomb of Menna is one of 146 tombs dug into a hill on Egypt’s West Bank at Luxor (formerly the
ancient city of Thebes). They are the tombs of nobles and officials. Menna died about 3400 years ago,
during ancient Egypt’s 18th dynasty. Amenhotep III was probably ruling as the pharaoh when he died.

Why is Menna’s tomb significant?

Menna is described in a tomb inscription as ‘a
scribe in the fields of the Lord of the Two Lands of
Upper and Lower Egypt’. As a scribe, he had high
social status and probably a great deal of wealth.
This conclusion is supported by the evidence
found in his tomb, which is beautifully painted
and well preserved. Scenes throughout the tomb
feature detailed depictions of members of his
family. There are also many farming and riverside
scenes that provide information about agricultural
practices and about life along the river at that time.
Menna’s tomb has proved to be very popular
with tourists. Over time, though, the continuing
stream of visitors, together with changing
environmental conditions, has begun to damage
the precious wall paintings.

Conservation action
In 2006, the Tomb of Menna Project was begun.
Its aim was to document, and so help to preserve, Source 2.69 One of the paintings from the wall of Menna’s tomb
the tomb’s art. A number of universities and
conservation agencies were involved. Using
advanced scientific methods, the conservators
implemented a careful strategy that included the Check your understanding
following tasks:
1 In your own words, explain why conserving the remains of our past is
• cleaning parts of the paintings important.
• analysing the properties of the paint used on 2 What role does the Mitchell Library play in this regard?
the wall
3 Why do you think archaeologists and conservators thought it worthwhile
• taking high-resolution digital photos and to reconstruct the front part of Babylon’s Ishtar Gate, using what
joining them to create an exact visual record original glazed tiles they could find? Why, for instance, did they not just
of the tomb’s art (this provides a base against build a copy?
which the condition of the paintwork can be 4 What sort of benefits, both now and in the future, do you think
checked, and will help conservators to quickly conservation actions for the Ishtar Gate will have? Brainstorm in small
detect any further deterioration) groups, listing as many benefits as you can think of.
• building a new wooden floor and rails to stop 5 a What is being done to help to conserve the Tomb of Menna in Egypt?
people getting too close to the paintings, or b How effective do you think these measures will be? Explain.
going where they were not meant to within 6 Think of something old you know of in Australia (a natural feature of
the tomb significance, a building or an important artefact). Develop a strategy
• installing low-impact lighting. you would implement (if you had the money and unlimited resources) to
conserve it for future generations.

chapter two investigating the ancient past 89

freshideas
Doughnut thinking

It is easy to argue for what you believe in. It is not always easy, as some debaters will
agree, to argue a case for something that you do not personally support. But it is a very
worthwhile activity. It forces you to take both sides of an issue for a time and to think
about issues from different perspectives. It encourages you to communicate, helps to
exercise your memory (for you do not take notes) and it sharpens your critical thinking.
Here’s what you do for this task (all up, the activity should take about 10 to 15 minutes):
Step 1: Form two concentric circles. (Your teacher may choose to conduct this activity
outside of the classroom.) Those in the outer circle face inwards; those in the inner circle
face outwards. You effectively form a circle of facing pairs.
Step 2: The topic to be argued is: ‘Public access to all significant Indigenous sites should
be forbidden in order to aid in their conservation’. Those in the outer circle will argue the
‘No’ case with their inner circle partner, who will argue the ‘Yes’ case. Debate in pairs for
about a minute.
Step 3: Those in the outer circle move to the right to a new inner circle partner two
people away. Repeat the argument process.
Step 4: Those in the outer circle move to the right to a new inner circle partner two
people away. This time, those in the outer circle argue the ‘Yes’ case and their partner
in the inner circle the ‘No case’. Source 2.70 To Indigenous people,
Step 5: Repeat Step 4. Women’s dreaming (shown here) is a
sacred site belonging to the Pintupi
Back in the classroom, as a class discuss how useful you felt this exercise was for
Aborigines. Because of the large number
appreciating both sides of an argument. What did you learn from it? Importantly, what of tourist visiting sacred Indigenous sites,
did you learn about the differing views about conserving key Indigenous sites? some people think that public access to
such sites should be limited.

90
bigideas
2.4 Why is conservation important?
Remember Analyse
1 Explain why increasing numbers of visitors to some historical 7 Find out more information about the Glenrowan Tourist
sites pose concerns for conservators. Centre (see Source 2.71) through an Internet (Google)
search. In what different ways does the centre help to
Understand conserve aspects of the history of Ned Kelly?
2 Look at Source 2.69. On the basis of this source, what are
some things we know about the Egypt of Menna’s time? Evaluate
3 With a partner, discuss what the conservator is doing in 8 Which of all the places of historical interest on Australia that
Source 2.64. What do you think the red-and-white line you might have visited, or know a little about, do you think is
might signify? most important to conserve? Why?
4 What sort of personal qualities and skills do you think a
good conservator would need? Why?
Create
9 o A link to the World Heritage Conservation site is available
5 Find out in what ways the Jewish Holocaust Museum &
on your obook. Use the interactive tools the site provides
Research Centre in Melbourne helps to conserve the past.
to compile an A3 facts chart of four conservation sites that
Apply interest you.

6 What do you think it would be like to live in a world where

everybody knew nothing at all about the past, beyond their
own lives? With a partner, consider some of the questions
and concerns people who lived in such a world might have.
Do you think it would be a better or worse world than the Source 2.71 An enactment of the shoot-out with Ned Kelly at the
one you live in? Give reasons for your response. Glenrowan Tourist Centre

chapter two investigating the ancient past 91

The
Mediterranean
world
The Mediterranean region is where the roots of Western civilisations were
laid down. In its ancient past, it was ‘home’ to a diversity of peoples.
Among these were the Phoenicians, Minoans, Mycenaeans, Hittites, Greeks,
Romans and the varied peoples of the Levant (the western part of Asia).
Two of the world’s first civilisations—ancient Egypt and ancient Sumer—
also developed there.

The Mediterranean region is the Its lands encircle the Mediterranean

meeting point of three continents: Sea. A mostly temperate climate allowed
Africa, Asia and Europe. This fact of agricultural settlements to prosper
geography influenced its history. It in much of the terrain. Long rivers
became a place where people from vastly provided fertile lands, transport routes
different cultures and races met and and water for irrigation.
interacted. The waters of the Mediterranean Sea
are mostly calm. Once ancient societies
had built and mastered the use of boats,
it provided an ideal route for trade and
the exchange of ideas and beliefs—and
for conquests.

Source A1 The Mediterranean region and

some of its ancient civilisations and empires

92 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

the mediterranean world 93
Key events
BCE

c. 3150 c. 2500 c. 1279 c. 1150

Upper and Lower First (and biggest) of Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II begins his 66-year reign Mycenaean domination in
Kingdoms of Egypt the Giza pyramids built Peloponnesian Peninsula
united under one ruler, as the tomb for the ends; Greece enters a
probably Mendes Egyptian pharaoh Khufu ‘Dark Age’ about which
little is known.
c. 3000 c. 2000
Hieroglyphs start Beginnings of Minoan c. 776
being used in Egypt; civilisation on Crete First Olympic Games held
sculptures being at Olympia in Greece; city-
produced on the states starting to form in
Cyclades Islands c. 1525 Greece
Eruption of super-
volcano on Thera (now
island of Santorini) c. 753
begins the decline of Legendary founding of
Minoan civilisation Rome by Romulus

c. 1324 c. 650
The pharaoh Messenian people revolt
Tutankhamen dies; his against domination by
tomb, found in 1922, the city-state of Athens
was almost untouched (Greece) and are put down.
by robbers They are made slaves and
Sparta becomes a military
Painting of Ramses II ready for war state.

Sculpture of a harpist
made in the Cyclades c. 1490
about 4400 years ago Hatshepsut becomes a pharaoh in Egypt, unusual because she is female

The mortuary (funeral) temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor, Egypt

Source A2 Timeline of some key events in the history of the ancient Mediterranean region

94 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

CE

510 c. 461 202 50 380 395

Republic of Rome is Rome defeats Londinium (later known as Roman army begin Roman empire
Under Pericles, the
established theCarthaginian general London) starts being built withdrawing from Britain, permanently divided into
Golden Age begins in
Hannibal, ending the leaving Celts unprotected eastern and western
Athens
Second Punic War against the later invasion empires
c. 500 64 of the Germanic tribes
between Rome and Fire destroys Rome;
Celtic people move c. 460 Carthage such as the Saxons
from central Europe emperor Nero blames the 476
Greek historian
into places we Christians and uses this The Ostrogoth leader
Herodotus writes his
now call Spain and Histories 146 as an excuse to persecute 410 Odovacer enters Rome
France Rome ends them further Visigoths plunder Rome and forces the last of the
independence of last of western Roman emperors
c. 447 the Greek city-states, a to give up his rule
c. 480 Work starts on the region it had dominated
King Leonidas of Parthenon in Athens
Sparta tries to hold
since 168 79
back the advancing Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Persian invasion c. 331 44
at the pass of The Macedonian king, Julius Caesar, a
Thermopylae Alexander the Great, powerful leader who
conquers the Persian wanted total control of
empire; Greek influence the Senate-dominated
Statue of Leonidas (called the ‘Hellenistic republic of Rome, is
period’) begins to assassinated
spread throughout
central Asia and
beyond 30
Egyptian ruler Cleopatra
commits suicide after
her 21-year reign;
ancient Egypt made part
of the Roman empire Fossilised remains of someone killed in Herculaneum by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius
27
Octavian becomes a 80 c. 315
ruler of Rome and is Colosseum opens in Roman emperor Constantine (who becomes a Christian)
renamed Augustus. Rome with huge loss of orders the building of several Christian churches,
He was not called an life (men and animals) for including St Peter’s in Rome
emperor, but is often public entertainment
described as such
because of the power
the Senate allowed him 117
to have. Height of the Roman
empire

122
Roman emperor Hadrian
orders a wall to be built in
northern Britain to keep
out northern barbarians

Part of the interior of St Peter’s Basilica (church)

in Rome

the mediterranean world 95

Source A3 Artist’s impression of ancient Sumerians bringing offerings to the gods they believed lived in the ziggurat temples

Explorers, traders and conquerors

The river valley settlements of ancient Sumer and Egypt were among the first civilisations in the world. They emerged
in the Mediterranean region some 5000 years ago. Each had a complex culture, advanced technologies and strong trading
networks. But, in time, each was taken over by stronger powers.
Sumer became part of the Akkadian empire during the 23rd century BCE .
Egypt, after being ruled by foreign powers such as the Hittites (a Semitic people), Nubians and Libyans, became a part of
three empires: the Persian empire (until 330 BCE), the Hellenistic empire until 146 BCE and the Roman empire until 476 CE .
Besides these two river valley civilisations, there were also other societies emerging around the Mediterranean Sea and on
some of its islands. These are detailed below.

Society/culture Location within the Comments

(period) Mediterranean region

Cycladic people Cyclades (group of islands in the Aegean Bronze Age culture; dependent on trade; included the strong
(c. 3000–2000 BCE) Sea) trading island of Delos
Minoans Crete Bronze Age culture; sea merchants; a founding culture of ancient
(c. 3000–1100 BCE) Greece
Mycenaeans Mainland Greece; Peloponnesian Bronze Age culture; merchants and warriors; a founding culture of
(c. 1600–1100 BCE) Peninsula ancient Greece
Phoenicians (Punics) Eastern Mediterranean, made up by parts The region’s first sailors; active sea explorers and traders; thought to
(c. 1550–300 BCE) of modern Lebanon, Syria and Israel. have invented the bireme; built the cities of Byblos, Tyre and Sidon
Ancient Greeks Roughly today’s Greece, but also included Active sea traders; set up many trading colonies around the
the western coastal strip of modern Turkey Mediterranean and Black seas
Hittites Anatolia (part of today’s Turkey) and Active traders; often at war; ended the Old Babylonian empire in
(c. 1700–1200 BCE) northern Syria; spoke an Indo-European Mesopotamia; took on aspects of culture of ancient Sumer which
language they spread through their contacts in the Mediterranean; ruled Egypt
between 1648 and 1540 BCE

Source A4 Some of the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean region

96
From time to time, the different peoples
of the region had contact with one another,
mostly as traders. Goods, ideas, information
and technologies were exchanged. For example,
from the Egyptians, the Greeks learned about
making ‘paper’ from the papyrus plant. The
Phoenicians, the first to develop an alphabet,
would influence the written languages of both
the ancient Greeks and Romans.

The rise and fall of empires

The Mediterranean region was part of some
very large empires (see Source A1 on pp. 92–3),
formed and ended through war.
Persian empire: Formed in the 6th century BCE
by Cyrus the Great (‘father’ of the
Achaemenid dynasty). His grandson, Xerxes I
(520– 465 BCE) fought the Greeks at the Battle of
Thermopylae (see p. 201). A later descendant,
Darius III (c. 380–330 BCE), was defeated by
the Macedonian king Alexander the Great in
330 BCE , ending the empire.
Hellenistic empire: Set up by Alexander the
Great when he defeated the Persians in 330 BCE .
One of his aims was to spread Greek culture. Source A5 Mosaic detail of the Battle of Issus (333 BCE), between Persian and Macedonian
armies. Three years later, Alexander the Great had made the Persian empire part of his own
(A Hellene is a native Greek.) After he died Hellenistic empire.
in 323 BCE , squabbling broke out among his
generals. His great empire was divided in three:
the Macedonians, the Ptolemies (in Egypt) and
Check your learning
the Seleucids (in Syria). Ancient Rome would
later make all three parts of its empire. 1 a Which three continents meet in the Mediterranean region?
Carthaginian empire: Included tracts of land b Suggest how this might have influenced the region’s history.
in southern Spain and northern Africa, and 2 Use an atlas and Source A1. Find and name two modern day
Corsica and Sardinia. It was headed by Carthage countries which were once part of two or more ancient empires.
(north Africa), a trading city set up by the 3 How many years had passed after Rome’s legendary founding
Phoenicians. Ancient Rome made this empire by Romulus when Odavacer deposed the last emperor of the
part of its own after the Punic wars, fought western empire?
between 264 and 146 BCE . 4 Through research, prepare an illustrated facts chart on one of the
Roman empire: At its peak (around 120 CE), ancient Mediterranean people’s listed in Source A4.
included all lands around the Mediterranean 5 Explain how each of the following empires ended:
Sea. Its huge size was a factor in its decline. • Persian
Though split in two, its Western empire could • Carthaginian
not withstand waves of barbarian invasions. • western Roman.
It ended in 476 CE . By then, Christianity, a 6 By the early 7th century CE, much of the Mediterranean region
religion from Judea, dominated both parts of was part of another empire: the Islamic empire. Discuss as a class
the empire. what lessons we can learn about Western civilisation from this
brief overview.

the mediterranean world 97

depth study

Ancient Egypt
About 30 000 years ago, the Sahara Desert of north Africa was a grassy
plain. It began to dry out about 8000 bce. This climate change forced
hunters and gatherers in the region to move on. Many drifted towards
the flood plain of the Nile River. The remains of semi-permanent
settlements have been found there dating back to about 5000 bce.

From this simple start developed one of the the cultures of the different settlements along
world’s first civilisations: ancient Egypt. It lasted the river evolved into a common culture adopted
for nearly 3000 years. by all. Advances were made in communications
The Nile, 6700 kilometres in length, was and building and engineering expertise
Egypt’s lifeblood. It provided water to drink and developed.
to use for irrigation and washing. Its habitat Powerful rulers, called pharaohs, expanded
contained food, as well as plants to make things Egypt’s territory and extended its trade. Grand
people needed. When it flooded, it dumped monuments were built that would last for
fertile silt on the floodplains, enriching the soil. thousands of years. Some of the most impressive
It was also a route for transport and trade. In structures in the world— the great rock temple
short, the river sustained the society. at Abu Simbel and the Giza pyramids—
As the population grew, the society became were among these. Scholars are amazed that
more structured. Most of its people were farmers. such precise workmanship could have been
Those who did not farm adopted other social accomplished so long ago.
roles, such as soldiers and merchants. Over time,

Key inquiry questions

3.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?

3.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?

3.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?

3.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?

Detail from Ramses II’s temple at Abu Simbel (in southern Egypt) at night
3
bigpicture The Djoser pyramid is the oldest building in
the world made from cut blocks.

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was ruled under one government from
about 3100 bce. There were 31 dynasties (or family
generations) of rulers between then and 30 bce. This
represented the rule of at least 70 pharaohs (or kings).
During its long history, there were three kingdoms
in ancient Egypt. Each was followed by a so- called
Intermediate period. The Second and Third
Intermediate periods were times when Egypt was
ruled by conquering powers: the Hyksos (from
c. 2650
ancient Palestine), the Libyans and the Nubians. Djoser step pyramid built in Saqqara
(an ancient burial ground)
In 332 bce, Egypt was made part of the empire of
Alexander the Great. (It was at the time part of the
Persian empire.) In 30 bce, it became part of the
empire of ancient Rome.

gdom
le Kin
Midd 0
– 173
Predynastic 2055
period 8000 – 2700
BCE Old Kingdom 2686 – 2180

c. 2055
c. 2686 Start of Middle
Kingdom, a time of
c. 1730
c. 3200 Start of Old
peace and cultural End of Middle
Evidence of first Kingdom, the c. 2180 Kingdom,
Pyramid Age revival
hieroglyphs End of Old followed by
Kingdom invasion and
c. 8000 rule of Hyksos
People moving into c. 3100
Nile River valley c. 2700 c. 2100
Kingdoms of Upper The Book of the
and forming small and Lower Egypt Evidence of writing
settlements on papyrus Dead being used in
unite under one funeral ceremonies
government

Source 3.1 Timeline of some key events and developments

in the history of ancient Egypt
This bust of Cleopatra was created during the 30
time of her rule as the last pharaoh of Egypt.
Last Ptolemaic
ruler,
Cleopatra,
commits
suicide and
Egypt becomes
part of the
Roman empire

c. 716 524
Start of Nubian Start of Persian
rule of Egypt rule of Egypt
c. 1213
Death of pharaoh BCE
Ramses II

332
Egypt made part
c. 600 of the empire of
First attempts Alexander the
069
0–1 made to link Nile Great; start of the
155 River to the Red Ptolemaic dynasty
dom c. 1069
King Sea by way of a
Ne w End of New kingdom, followed canal
by rule of Libyan invaders
c. 1275
Battle of Kadesh; pharaoh Ramses II
claims a great victory against the Hittites
c. 1325
The pharaoh Tutankhamen
buried in the Valley of the Kings
Mortuary temple of the pharaoh Hatshepsut

c. 1473
The woman
Hatshepsut
becomes pharaoh

c. 1550
Start of New
Kingdom, an age of
empire building

101
Source 3.2 Aswan today. The boats and houses are modern, but this Nile scene is much as it was in
the times of ancient Egypt.

3.1 How do geographical features

influence human settlements?
Physical features played a vital role in shaping ancient Egypt. In
fact, without the Nile River, Egypt would never have developed as
a civilisation. Fed by tributaries to the south, the river was Egypt’s
lifeblood. Its resources, and its ebbs and flows, helped the people to
survive and prosper. It also influenced many aspects of their lifestyle.
The Nile River was not the only geographical feature to influence the
development of Egypt. There were also the highlands and mountain ranges to the
south. Their melting snow and heavy spring rains provided floods each year that
nourished the desert soil with fertilising silt. The vast deserts that surrounded
ancient Egypt’s lands were another feature: they provided both a protective buffer
and resources. And there were the adjacent seas: the Mediterranean Sea to the
north, and the Red Sea to the east.

102
River
iver
Sahara
SD e s e r t
D

Nile
ile
AFRICA
C

Land height
Mediterranean Sea Over 2000 m
1000 to 2000 m
Nile Delta
500 to 1000 m
200 to 500 m
Cairo 0 to 200 m
Depression
Sea
Physical features in and around Egypt
Ar
ab
Ni

0 250 500
le

Ancient Egypt was a long, narrow country in north-eastern Africa.

ia

kilometres
n

The world’s longest river, the Nile, ran through its entire length of
De

Re

1st cataract 4000 km. It drained to the north, through a delta into what we call
se

Aswan High Dam

d

the Mediterranean Sea.

rt

Toshka Lakes Lake

Se

Nasser
Sahara Desert
The Nile River
a

2nd cataract
Nubian
Desert
3rd cataract Ancient Egypt’s desert environment made the Nile a critical
R iv

4th cataract
geographical feature. It was so essential for the society’s survival that
er

5th cataract the people worshipped it as a god (see Source 3.4).

The Nile has three main tributaries: the White Nile, the Blue
At b

6th cataract
Nile and the Atbara River. The Blue Nile and the Atbara River begin
ara

Khartoum
Darfur White Nile Dam in the highlands of central Africa. Every summer, they are flooded
Ra Ri
ve
ha r by melting snow and torrential rains. These waters gush into the
d
Ri
ve
r
Nile, carrying a load of dark mountain silt that is rich in nutrients.
Lake The source of the White Nile is a series of linked lowland lakes. It
Blu

Tana
contributes a smaller but steadier volume of water to the Nile.
e
ile

Arab Nile
N

Rive
r
White
Today, dams (such as the Aswan Dam) catch much of this torrent;
in the days of ancient Egypt, the swollen river flowed freely over the
Sudd river’s flood plain. That time in the Egyptian calendar was called the
Jur River

Ba
Mo

Inundation, or Akhet (see Source 3.6).

hr
u nt

a l-

The ancient Egyptians called the fertile dark land around the river
ain

Je b
Nil

Kemet, which meant ‘black land’. This was where most people lived.
el
e

The expanses of desert on either side they called Deshret. This meant
Nile r t

‘red land’.
e
A lb

Lake Albert
Lake Kyoga Source 3.4
Victoria Nile
He [the Nile, seen as the god Hapi] is the creator of all good things, as master
Lake Edward Lake of energy, full of sweetness in his choice. If offerings are made it is thanks to
Victoria Him. He brings forth the herbage [grass] for the flocks, and sees that each god
Lake Kivu
receives his sacrifices … He spreads himself over Egypt, filling the granaries
Kyaka River [grain storehouses] … watching over the goods of the unhappy.
Source 3.3 Map of ancient Egypt, with location map
From an ancient hymn to the Nile
(above) and aerial photograph of the Nile (above right)

103
Source 3.5 Artist’s impression of the central role that the
Nile River played for ancient Egyptians

Crops included wheat, barley, lentils, Flax plants were turned

beans, onions, cucumbers, grapes and into a cloth called linen
figs. Trained baboons were sometimes to make clothing.
used to pick figs growing too high for
people to reach.
Bricks were made from river bank mud.
It was sometimes mixed with straw for
strength. The mud bricks were packed into
moulds and left to dry hard in the sun.

Pleasure boats moved travellers up and

down the river. Some boats were adapted
as funeral boats to carry the bodies of
pharaohs to their tombs.

River wildlife included fish,

birds, frogs, crocodiles,
eels, hippopotamuses and
snakes. Ducks and geese
were hunted with wooden
sticks or caught in nets.

Small fishing boats

were made from
bundles of strapped
papyrus reeds.

The riverside papyrus plant was used to

Severe floods could wash away all traces of farm
make a type of paper (also called papyrus),
boundary lines (usually marked with stones). Officials
as well as boats and baskets and furniture.
known as ‘rope stretchers’ re-measured and re-marked The river provided fresh
any lines that had disappeared. water for drinking,
beer making, cooking,
washing and irrigation.

104
Farmers provided labour
(during the Inundation) to build
structures such as the pyramids.

son
sea A
t
ay

es

KH
J

rv

E
M
Ha

un

T—
to

et
U—

I nu
ch

oO
M ar
S H OM
When the Nile flooded (known as the

ndat
ctob
Inundation) the river level rose around

ion
er
8 metres. The silt it left behind on the
floodplains fertilised the soil.

Villages were built on raised

mounds above the usual
flood line.
ry
Nove Fe brua
mber to
on
PROY g s eas
ET—Growi n

Source 3.6 The ancient Egyptian ‘seasons’

A network of canals Check your learning

(and later reservoirs)
directed and stored 1 Study the illustration and labels shown as Source 3.5.
river water for use in a What was the Inundation and why was it so important
irrigation. for the ancient Egyptians?
b What problems might it cause?
A shaduf was used to c What devices did the ancient Egyptians use or construct
raise water from the to help store and distribute water to fields?
river and direct it into d How were buildings made and villages designed? What
irrigation canals.
link does this have with a riverside environment?
e Create a table that sorts the animals you can see in this
illustration into three different categories:
• animals used for farming and transport
• hunted animals
• dangerous animals.
f For what different purposes were boats used?
2 In groups, discuss how people would have built boats from
reeds. Draw sketches and suggest likely design, tools,
measurements and so on.
3 Find out through Internet research how a shaduf worked.
Suggest a modification or addition that would have made it
work better.
Merchant boats and barges moved trade
goods to and from markets. Barges also 4 Look carefully at Source 3.6. If you had lived in ancient
transported the massive stone blocks used Egypt, what ‘season’ would it be now? What would be
to construct the pyramids. happening?

105
Source 3.7 This satellite view of the Nile shows the Nile like a green ribbon in an expanse of desert. Note its expansive delta.

The deserts of north Africa

Ancient Egypt lay within what is now the biggest desert in the world: the Sahara.
It is mostly a harsh, inhospitable place.
Egypt’s surrounding deserts provided it with some security against attack.
Advancing armies would have had a long, hot walk if attacking from the east or
west.

Desert resources
Besides being the habitat of many animals hunted as game (such as gazelles,
hares and the fennec fox), the deserts were sources of minerals and rocks. Rocks
quarried by the Egyptians included granite, flint (an extremely hard rock),
sandstone, limestone and alabaster (a kind of white marble). Slaves worked the
quarries, though under horrific conditions because of the heat and dust.
Metals such as copper, silver, gold and (later) iron were sometimes extracted
by heating and melting the metal-bearing ores dug from desert mines. Egypt’s
stores of gold increased significantly when it conquered the gold-rich region of
Nubia to the south. (In fact nub is the Egyptian word for ‘gold’.)
Egypt’s access to such resources had an impact on its trade (and wealth).
It also influenced the materials used to construct its buildings, and to make
Source 3.8 The sting from the tail of a scorpion
is very painful; the venom of some species is so
jewellery, utensils, furniture and other artefacts.
toxic it can kill people. As mentioned earlier, the Nile River influenced people’s beliefs. Besides
the god Hapi, there was Sobek and Thoth. Thoth, the god of wisdom and
intelligence, was often shown with the head of a river ibis. Desert animals
influenced belief systems as well. For instance, fear of creatures such as snakes
and scorpions found their way into magic spells!

106
Source 3.9 Influence of desert animals on some ancient Egyptian beliefs

Desert animal Impact on belief systems

Scorpion Serket, the Egyptian goddess of the dead, is shown with a scorpion on top of her head.
Cobra The cobra symbolised Wadjet, a goddess of Lower Egypt. A raised cobra head was part of
the design of the pharaoh’s uraeus (see p. 117). It was a symbol of the pharaoh’s power.
Vulture This is the symbol of Nekhbet, a goddess of Upper Egypt.
Jackal Anubis, the Egyptian god of the dead, is depicted with a jackal’s head. (Jackals often hung
around places where the dead were buried.)
Falcon The god Horus is shown with a falcon’s head. He was the sky god, and one of ancient
Egypt’s earliest deities.

How the deserts influenced lifestyle

The ancient Egyptians had to adjust to an environment that had a very hot, dry
climate. As might be expected, theirs was mostly an outdoors lifestyle. Most
people worked outside as farmers, fishers, builders, and merchants. People cooked
and often slept outside their homes (frequently, on the roof) because of the heat.
Leisure time was also mostly an outdoor activity. Evidence from tomb
paintings and texts indicate people hunted, sailed, swam, fished, cruised up and
down the Nile and trapped birds in nets.

Houses for a hot climate

Rich or poor, most Egyptians lived in houses of similar design. These had flat
roofs and were made from sun-dried mud-bricks. Tomb drawings show multi-
storey homes. However, many scholars think this may have been an attempt to
show the number of rooms. Archaeological evidence suggests most dwellings
were single-storey structures.
The one-room homes of poor farmers had dirt floors. In urban areas, houses
were joined, a bit like apartments and terrace housing today. Narrow alleyways
provided access.
Source 3.10 A headrest used by the wealthy. It
allowed air to circulate around the head and neck.

Check your learning

1 Why did most ancient Egyptians choose to settle on Kemet land?
2 Study Source 3.5. How did the Nile River influence the lifestyle of ancient Egyptians? Explain by writing a
poem OR performing a song OR preparing an ‘observation notebook entry’ of data and sketches.
3 How did physical features to Egypt’s south contribute to the Inundation?
4 Suggest three reasons why the Nile River was worshipped as a god by the ancient Egyptians.
5 How did the deserts surrounding the settlements of ancient Egypt have an impact on:
• some key resources
• potential sources of food
• people’s beliefs?
6 In which two ways did desert animals influence the lives of ancient Egyptians?

107
evidence: living with dust and glare People often slept on
focus on …

the roof.
Ancient Egypt’s proximity to deserts made dust, glare and
wind-blown sand a fact of life. Eye infections or irritations
Thick mud-brick walls
were common ailments. Stone reliefs have been found in
were good insulation.
tombs that depict groups of blind people.
Ancient papyrus texts record that bat’s blood was one
Roof vents let heat and
treatment for eye complaints; another was rubbing a paste
smoke escape.
of mashed human brain and honey over the affected eye.
Men and women alike wore heavy eye make-up—eye
shadow and eye liner—in part to protect their eyes from dust
and glare. It was mostly black or green (colours of fertility).
Kohl (the black colour) was a lead compound. The green
colour was malachite, a compound of copper. More recent
scientific studies provide evidence that malachite produces a
Roof-top devices might direct cooler air
chemical action in skin cells that boosts the immune system.
into the home by allowing a breeze to blow
So perhaps the ancient Egyptians were on to something!
through pads of wet linen. The pads might
Men and women also wore wigs, usually over a shaved be kept wet from the drip of a nearby tank.
scalp. Shaving kept heads cool (when at home, without wigs)
and allowed scalps to be more easily kept clean. A cone of
solid perfumed fat might be worn on top of a wig on special
occasions (see Source 3.11). As it melted in the heat, sweet-
smelling liquid dripped over the face and upper body, cooling
Tiny windows helped to
the skin. keep out the heat, dust
and flies.

Check your learning

Look carefully at Source 3.12. Based on this source and what
you have already learned about ancient Egypt, answer the
questions that follow:
1 Identify some of the outdoors activities that you observe in
this illustration.
2 Where did people often cook and sleep? Why?
3 Why are the buildings and walls white?
4 What were the houses made of?
5 Find a section of this illustration that you think would have
been the coolest place to be in this village. Give reasons for
your opinion.
6 What resources from Egypt’s local environment would
have been used to build a settlement such as shown here?
Explain the processes.

Source 3.11 Detail from an ancient Egyptian tomb painting showing a 7 Working in groups, use source 3.12 for inspiration to build
woman wearing kohl make-up and a cone of cooling fat on top of her wig. a typical village in ancient Egypt.

108
Houses were made from dried mud bricks.
Only important buildings such as temples
were built from stone. Meals were prepared outside—often
in a courtyard or on rooftops—so
that the smoke and heat from cooking
could escape.
Palm trees provided
some shade.

The lower room of a two-storey house

(if there were multi-storey homes) was
insulated by the room/s above it.

Most buildings were whitewashed with a

lime solution to reflect the heat.

Floors were made from packed earth

or, sometimes, tiles; both these
surfaces would be cool to the touch.

Source 3.12 Modern artist’s impression: cool house designs for the hot desert environment of ancient Egypt

109
Source 3.13 Tomb painting of Nefertari (c. 1290–1254 bce) playing senet, a popular game in ancient Egypt. She was one of the
main wives of pharaoh Ramses II. Note her see-through dress.

Cool fashions
People in ancient Egypt adapted to the hot, dry climate they lived in by dressing
lightly. Men (including the pharaoh) were often bare-chested and wore short linen
tunics. Women typically wore long close-fitting linen dresses. Most clothing (like
house walls) was a ‘cooling’ white, as white reflects heat. (By contrast, dark colours
absorb heat.) Because linen was a natural fabric, made from the flax plant, it ‘breathed’,
allowing perspiration to evaporate more readily.
The linen worn by the wealthy was fine and see-through, and often pleated (see
Source 3.13). Coarser fabric was worn by the poor. Children were usually naked, as
were slaves. Children’s hair was commonly shaved except for a fairly long tuft on one
side of the head.
Leather or papyrus sandals (some a bit like today’s thongs) might be worn by
wealthier folk, but most people went barefoot.
Source 3.14 Papyrus sandals,
such as these from ancient Egypt
and now in the Louvre in Paris,
Fighting dirt and smells
would have been very cool to wear. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus was impressed by the personal hygiene of
priests in ancient Egypt. He noted that they kept their bodies and clothes very clean.

110
Riv

Rhine
er CASPIAN

Od
Channel Islands Vol

Riv
g DEPRESSION

er
Point Ri a

er
S U D ETIC MOUNTA ve Riv
St Mathieu

Se
I r er

in

River

NS
e
Riv
Loire er
ube D
ATHIAN MO nister

R iv
B a y Dan
CARP U Riv

er
o f River River NT er

R iv

za
er
r

AI
Cape Finisterre B i s c a y Rive

Tis
Grossglockner

NS
Sea of
MASSIF Mt Blanc THE ALPS 3801 m Azov C A S P IA N S E A

Ga Rive
CENTRAL 4807 m CAUCASUS
Krym MOUNTA

ro r
Dour A

ne
Po PE River N

nn
Eb INS
o ro PYRE NN TRANSYLVANIA Mt Elbrus 5642 m

R ho
River NE ES IN
ES ALPS

AD
Iberian
Riv

DI
Gulf of B L A C K S E A

RI

NA

Mo iver
Tagus Peninsula er Lions

AT
Tiber
BALKAN

RI

R
River

rav
River

C
IC
Corsica Elba AL MOUNTAINS
PS

a
SE
Balearic Islands

A
alquivir River Balkan
uad Minorca
Mt Vesuvius Peninsula
G

Ibiza Majorca Sardinia 1281 m

Mulhacen 3477 m Mt Olympus
Strait of Gibralta
r M E D
TYRRHENIAN
Cape Teulada
2917 m AEG EAN ASIA
I SEA
T IONIAN S EA
E Sicily Mt Etna
3323 m SEA Naxos
R
N Cape Rhodes
R Malta Tainaron Crete Karpathos

A
N
E A N S E A
0 300 600 900 km
SCALE 1:27 000 000
1 centimetre on the map measures
270 kilometres on the ground.
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

Source 3.15 Physical map of the Mediterranean Sea and surrounds

The Mediterranean and Red seas

The Mediterranean Sea is around 2.5 million square continuity and change: joining the seas
focus on …

kilometres in area (including the Marmara Sea, the small Ancient writers such as Aristotle report that the idea of
body of water between the Aegean and the Black seas— linking the Mediterranean and Red seas was considered
see Source 3.15). It has no tides and mostly stable wind some 4000 years ago. That interest continued. The pharaoh
patterns, so it has very few storms. Its waters wash about Senusret I (1965–1920 BCE), for example, explored the idea
of building a canal. The pharaoh Nekau II (who ruled from
46 000 kilometres of coastline, much of which twists
610–595 bce) continued the ‘dream’ by starting to build one.
around sheltered bays and natural harbours. The climate
of the region sees mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. By the late 6th century bce, ruling arrangements had
These factors made the sea a natural transport route for changed in Egypt. The Persians were in control. Yet the
‘dream’ continued. Persian king Darius I built a canal linking
those societies living around or close to it.
the Nile to the northern end of the Red Sea. Interest in
The Red Sea (to Egypt’s east) is about 1400 kilometres
joining the seas continued under the rule of Ptolemy II
long. It separates the continents of Africa and Asia. Like (283–246 bce), the ancient Romans and much later
its surrounding deserts, the Mediterranean and Red seas Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821ce).
provided Egypt with a natural buffer against invasion from
The reason for this continuing interest was that a link
across the sea. At least this was so until ancient societies
between these two seas offered significant trading
began to build boats big enough to carry large armies. advantages. It would give Mediterranean societies sea
Ancient Egyptian traders were exploring both these access to India—and beyond. In the mid-19th century,
seas early in their history. The first known Red Sea voyage a Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps, put a proposal to
they made was about 4500 years ago. The intent was to set Egypt’s then ruler that was accepted.
up trade with a region then called Punt (possibly either in The Suez Canal was opened in 1869.
today’s Somalia or in Arabia).
You can detect this canal in Source 3.7. It links the left-hand
Other ancient societies using the Mediterranean Sea as a upper fork of the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.
trade route at the same time as the Egyptians included the
Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Minoans, Mycenaeans, Greeks
and Romans. This encouraged Egypt’s contact not only
with these peoples, but also with faraway Asian traders.
111
bigideas
3.1 How do geographical features influence human settlement?
Remember 7 Something is sustainable if it can be continued over an
extended time. In what ways would you say the Nile helped
1 List reasons why the civilisation of ancient Egypt developed the ancient Egyptians to sustain their lifestyle?
where it did.
8 If you lived in a location such as ancient Egypt, what might
2 Draw a mind map to display the different ways in which the the advantages and disadvantages be in shaving your head
ancient Egyptians used the Nile River. and wearing a wig?
3 Describe two ways in which the ancient Egyptians adapted 9 Examine Source 3.16.
their clothing to best suit their desert environment.
a During which months, on average, is there no rain in
4 You are providing the voiceover for a feature documentary Cairo? What is the average temperature for each of
on the Nile. Write the segment in which you explain why it these months?
flooded every year and how this benefited the settlements of b Melbourne’s highest average monthly rainfall is 59 mm.
ancient Egypt. Make it interesting; remember it’s a speaking This occurs in September, November and December.
role. Which month records Cairo’s highest rainfall? What
5 What did ancient Egypt’s location have to do with eye percentage does Cairo’s top monthly rainfall represent of
make-up? Melbourne’s top monthly rainfall?
c Estimate in which month the temperature range is
Understand greatest (that is, there is the biggest difference between
6 Use Sources 3.3, 3.7 and 3.15 and Google Earth to explore the maximum and minimum temperature).
some of the most obvious geographical features within and 10 Conduct some research on the Egyptian god Sobek. How
adjacent to ancient Egypt. Record five observations that is this deity linked to the location of ancient Egypt? Draw a
particularly interest you. simple sketch to help illustrate your answer.
11 Copy and complete a much larger version of the following
Y-chart in your workbook. Using what you have learned
about ancient Egypt’s environment, and referring particularly
Av. monthly Average
temp. rainfall to Sources 3.5 and 3.12, see how many items you can
Max include in each segment. One entry has been made for each
Min
CAIRO to get you started.
°C mm
Looks like:
35
• a hot place to live
30 30 •
•
25 25

20 20
Sounds like: Feels like:
15 15 • a farmyard • sweaty
• •
10 10
• •
5 5

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Source 3.16 Climograph for Cairo (located near the Pyramids at Giza Source 3.17

112 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Apply
12 In small groups, discuss how the physical features of
the environment in which you live has an impact on your
community. Give specific examples and arrange for a
spokesperson to report back to the class.
13 Modify the headrest shown as Source 3.10 so it is
more suitable for a person living in each of the following
environments: close to the summit of a snow-covered Source 3.19 Statue of Anubis in King Tutankhamen’s tomb
mountain; in the heart of the Amazon jungle.

Analyse Evaluate
14 Examine Source 3.18. 16 In your workbook, draw up and complete the following PMI
a What physical features at points A to E might benefit each chart about living in ancient Egypt’s environment.
site? Plus (good things about it)
b You are the leader of a small migrating community of Minus (bad things about it)
ancient peoples. Based on your analysis, which of these
Interesting things about it
sites would you choose to settle in, and why?
15 Look at Source 3.19. This is a representation of the Create
Egyptian god Anubis, god of the dead.
17 o A link to a video of Egypt and its desert environment is
a What animal was used to represent Anubis and why?
available on the obook. Prepare a creative response to
b What colour is the statue? Why might ancient Egyptians
this experience by completing one of the following:
sculptors have chosen this colour to commonly
• write a short poem
represent Anubis?
• create a 3D artwork using only sand (and some means
c What precious metal do you think was used to make the
of holding it together)
ears and collar of this statue? Why?
• compose a piece of music (or rhythmic beat) you think
would be more suitable for this clip
• write a diary entry that you would have recorded had
you been there.

C
D

Source 3.18

chapter three ancient egypt 113

Source 3.20 Artist’s impression of foreign travellers at the court of a pharaoh

3.2 What shaped the roles of key

groups in ancient societies?
The society of ancient Egypt was well organised. For a start, it had a
long tradition of central government. After the early 15th century bce,
there was also a professional army. People knew what their social
responsibilities were. Some of these roles were shaped by the society’s
laws and traditions. Some were determined by religious beliefs. Others
were determined by a person’s wealth and abilities (such as whether
they could read and write).

Pharaohs—their roles and responsibilities

The pharaoh was the head of the ancient Egyptian society and almost always a
man. Religion largely shaped their role: they were regarded as god–kings. They
were seen as descendants of Ra, the Sun god, and the human form of the god
Horus. People knelt and kissed the ground when they met the pharaoh. Even an
accidental touch might mean death.
The pharaoh was the top decision-maker but would usually seek advice from
the vizier (the second-in-command). Pharaohs were very wealthy, owning all the
land and its resources. They demanded heavy taxes, usually paid in produce.

114
Source 3.21 Responsibilities of the pharaoh, as god–king

Earthly responsibilities (shaped by the law) Divine responsibilities (shaped by religion)

Direct the civil administration Act as chief priest

Command and control the army Keep the gods happy so the Nile flooded every year and harvests
were plentiful

Protect the people and keep peace and order Appoint priests

Make all laws, and sometimes make decisions in the courts Oversee religious ceremonies and festivals

Order tax collection Build temples to honour the gods

Manage building, mining, trade and irrigation Perform religious duties

The rulers of ancient Egypt

By about 3300 BCE , the Nile settlements were grouped into two
kingdoms: upper and lower Egypt. These united in about 3100 BCE
to form the world’s first known government. Some historians think
this was the work of King Menes, who went on to become Egypt’s
first pharaoh (or king). Others contest this. They say an earlier
king, Narmer, may have been responsible. The official crown of the
new ruler blended the crown designs of the two former kings.
For the next 2800 years, Egypt was ruled by pharaohs. During
this time, three strong centralised kingdoms rose and fell (see
pp. 100–1). These were periods when Egyptian rulers governed
with authority.
The First Intermediate Period (2180–2055 BCE) followed on from
the Old Kingdom. During this time, Egypt was divided: pharaohs
ruled in one part and powerful priests and officials in another.
The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1730–1550 BCE) and Third
Intermediate Period (c. 1069–524 BCE), as mentioned earlier,
were times of invasion and subsequent takeover by other powers.
In 332 BCE , Egypt was conquered by the king of Macedon
known as Alexander the Great. The Ptolemaic dynasty he
installed in Egypt finally ended in 30 BCE when its last ruler,
Cleopatra, committed suicide. After that, Egypt became a colony
of ancient Rome.

Dynasties
The laws and traditions of ancient Egypt saw a pharaoh pass on
his power as ruler to a son (commonly the eldest) of his main
wife. (Polygamy, the practice of having more than one wife, was
common in the ancient world.) If the main wife did not have a son,
the son of a lesser wife became the heir. When someone outside
the family seized power (as happened from time to time) a new Source 3.22 A stone head of the pharaoh Amenhotep III made
dynasty began. in the early 14th century bce

115
Ramses II—19th dynasty ruler
Ramses II, or Ramses the Great, ruled from 1279 to 1213 BCE . He became pharaoh
at the age of 25 on the death of his father, Seti I. He lived to be 91. He is said to
have had over 100 children.
Ramses II had red hair and was tall by Egyptian standards. These unusual
physical qualities, as well as his position as military commander and great
builder, influenced how his people viewed him.
He built more monuments and temples than any other pharaoh. This
included a funeral temple for his mother (called the Ramesseum), a huge temple
at Luxor and the Temple of Ramses (described as ‘beloved of Amun’ at Abu
Simbel. The temple includes four 21-metre-high stone images of Ramses, each cut
into the rock.
Ramses II was a warrior king . He led successful military missions against
the Nubians, Libyans and the Hittites. His defeat of the Hittites at the Battle of
Source 3.23 Mummified head of Ramses II. Kadesh in 1274 BCE is reported in Egyptian texts as being a great victory, and a
Notice his red hair. significant achievement for Ramses II. More recent discoveries of the Hittite side
of the story suggest some of these claims might have been propaganda.

Hatshepsut—18th dynasty ruler

Hatshepsut—one of the very few female pharaohs—ruled between about 1473
and 1458 BCE . When her father, the pharaoh Thutmose I, died, she married her
half-brother Thutmose II, the new pharaoh. When he, too, died, rule passed to
Thutmose III (a baby born to a lesser wife) as Hatshepsut did not have a son.
Hatshepsut ruled for a while on the young boy’s behalf before taking full control.
When she became pharaoh, Hatshepsut wore a false beard, men’s clothing and
a bull’s tail, and changed her name to its male form. She was very ambitious and
believed her father had wanted her to rule, not her brothers.
Some of her key achievements as pharaoh included:
• restoring the trade networks disrupted by former invaders
• funding many trade expeditions, to import goods such as frankincense trees
• constructing many buildings, including her own massive temple.
These words are inscribed in hieroglyphs in her tomb: ‘I will make you the
first of all living creatures. You will rise as king of Upper and Lower Egypt, as
your father Amon [the Sun god], who loves you did ordain [say would happen]’.
Hatshepsut’s mummy was only identified in June 2007. A tooth had also been
located elsewhere in a box inscribed with her name (see Source 3.25).

Source 3.25

Source 3.24 An ancient carving of Billed as the most important find since the discovery of King Tutankhamen’s tomb, the
Hatshepsut long-lost mummy of Queen Hatshepsut … has been identified. Egyptian antiquities chief
Zabi Hawass told a packed news conference … that two of the new mummies found in a
tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor about a century ago was Hatshepsut … A box that
contained the tooth [found separately from the mummy] was inscribed with the female
pharaoh’s name and a scan … found that [it] matched within a fraction of a millimetre the
space of the missing molar in the mouth of the mummy.
Courier Mail, 29 June 2007

116
Crown symbolised position as chief ruler.
This was the official crown; its design was
Uraeaus (gold headpiece
a combination of the crown designs of the
shaped like a cobra’s head)
former kings of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.
symbolised magical powers
Pharaohs also wore a range of other headgear.
and a readiness to strike.

Flail (a whip) symbolised

False beard made from goat’s total authority.
hair, symbolised status as a god

Heavy jewelled collar

symbolised great wealth.

Crook symbolised role as a

shepherd of the people.

Animal tail (usually from a bull)

symbolised strength and fertility.

Source 3.25 Artist’s impression: the

pharaoh and his symbols of power

Check your learning

1 Give two examples in each case of the pharaoh’s divine role 6 What evidence was used to identify Hatshepsut’s remains?
and earthly role.
7 Suggest what items you think the following people should
2 Explain how this dual role would have influenced the way wear or carry to reflect their social role. For each item,
Egyptians behaved towards their ruler. indicate what it symbolises:
3 a What was a dynasty? • the Prime Minister
b Why did a dynasty usually change? • head coach of the Australian Wallabies
4 Ramses II and Hatshepsut were significant individuals in the • the Principal of your school.
history of Egypt. List 3 points for each to justify this claim. 8 How did the Ptolemaic dynasty end?
5 Copy and complete this table in your workbook, adding as 9 a How did Hatshepsut adjust her appearance to suit her
many entries as you can. role as pharaoh?
Item worn or carried by What it symbolised about b Do you think people today feel pressured to change
the pharaoh the pharaoh’s role their appearance and behaviour when they move into a
public leadership role? Discuss as a class. Give examples
if possible.

117
significantindividuals
Tutankhamen

Tutankhamen (1344–1325 BCE) was

a boy when he became pharaoh.
Some think Akhenaten, the pharaoh
he succeeded, may have been
his father. Scientific analyses of
his remains reveal that he was
around 170 centimetres tall, with a
slight bend in his spine. He had an
overbite, a cleft palate, buck teeth
and an elongated skull. He was only
19 when he died.
Source 3.26 The mummified head of
He did not live long enough to do Tutankhamen
much that was remarkable. He did,
however, reverse the command of
Akhenaten that the people worship Despite his short life, Tutankhamen is
only one god—Aten the sun god. He significant because his tomb is the only
also reversed Akhenaten’s decision ancient tomb in Egypt so far found not
to move the capital to Memphis. to have been broken into by robbers. It Source 3.27 The
Tutankhamen declared that Egypt’s contained over 5300 sources of evidence reconstructed head of
old gods could again be worshipped. Tutankhamen
of his life and of burial practices at the
He restored their temples, priests and time. These sources include his decorated
festivals, such as that for the Apis bull gold throne and his nest of coffins.
(see p. 127).
The discovery
The English archaeologist Howard Carter
found the tomb in 1922. It was at the
end of a rubble-filled tunnel, dug into the
cliffs of the Valley of the Kings. Carter
reported: ‘At first I could see nothing …
but … as my eyes grew accustomed Source 3.28 The gold
to the light, details of the room within mask found fused to
emerged slowly from the mist, strange Tutankhamen’s head and
upper body
animals, statues and gold—everywhere
the glint of gold!’
Tutankhamen’s mummy lay within a solid
gold body-shaped coffin (110 kilograms His body was covered in amulets and
in weight) in the burial chamber. This jewels, and he was wearing an 11-kilogram
coffin was enclosed by two more coffins. solid gold burial mask inlaid with precious
In the treasure chamber next door were stones. Carter and his team used hot
four canopic jars holding the pharaoh’s knives to prise it off. They also cut the body
mummified liver, lungs, stomach up to retrieve the jewels and amulets that
and intestines. were wrapped up in his bandages.

118 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

contestability: why did

focus on …
Tutankhamen die?
Scholars contest why Tutankhamen died. A hole at the
back of his skull and a floating shard of bone behind the
eyes led some to think he was murdered. This view, held
for a time, has been contested in more recent years.
In 2005, an extensive number of CT scans were taken of
Tutankhamen’s remains. These led the notable Egyptian
archaeologist Zahi Hawass to conclude that he died of
complications (possibly gangrene—the rotting away of living
tissue) from a broken leg. He thinks the break became
infected. The hole in the skull, he thinks, may have been
a mummification accident. New analyses have suggested
that malaria may have also been a contributing cause to
Tutankhamen’s death.

1 In one paragraph, explain who Tutankhamen was.

2 Why is he regarded by historians as significant?
3 Compose a letter that Howard Carter might have
written to his family the day after discovering and
entering Tutankhamen’s tomb. Check some websites
to find out more about the tomb’s contents.
4 At the time of writing this book, gold was worth $1395
per ounce. There are 28 grams to an ounce. Work out
Since then, conservators have been getting increasingly the value of gold in Tutankhamen’s mask, based on
concerned at the damage being done to Tutankhamen’s mummy. this information.
The breath of thousands of visitors and the heat and humidity
5 a Why were Tutankhamen’s uncovered remains at
they introduced were taking their toll on the tomb environment.
risk?
Tutankhamen’s remains stayed within his coffin until November
b What has been done to help to conserve them?
2007, when they were moved into a climate-controlled acrylic
case within the tomb. His head (see Source 3.26 and feet poked 6 Explain why the cause of Tutankhamen’s death has
out either end of a covering linen cloth. been contestable.

chapter three ancient egypt 119

Key social groups in
ancient Egypt
The society of ancient Egypt was a
hierarchy. At the top was the royal
family: the pharaoh and his family.
Nomarch
At the bottom were the slaves and
I govern one of our
the poorest of the poor farmers. country’s 42 nomes,
What shaped the differences or provinces. I help the
between the social groups vizier by collecting tax. Vizier/s
(besides wealth) was manual labour Like other important I’m the pharaoh’s second-
and wealthy people, in-command. I give him
(physical labour). Some 4200 years I wear garments of the advice. This gives me
ago, the vizier Ptah-hotep wrote finest linen and lots considerable influence. I
(in his language) that: ‘manual of gold jewellery. supervise the other officials
labour is not well regarded; the and judge law-breakers. I
also make sure people pay
inaction of the hands is respected’.
their taxes—in grain, goods
Men usually did the jobs or their labour.
their fathers did. They learned
the skills a bit like apprentices learn
trades today. Education was the key
to improving one’s social standing.
Scribe
A merchant, or even a humble I am one of the very few who can read and
farmer, could do this by learning to write. Hence, my role is greatly respected.
read and write. I record the pharaoh’s orders and decisions,
and help the vizier and the director of the seal
to keep tax records. I also keep accounts for the
army, write letters for local people and prepare
inscriptions for tomb walls and sculptures.

Soldier
I am a professional soldier. I am very skilled
at using a pike (you would call it a spear).
Potter I march on foot but ever since the Hittites
Some of the pots I make I pay to the came into Egypt, we also have chariots. Our
pharaoh as tax. Some are exported to army divisions—all named after gods—
other countries. Most of my mates are usually consist of about 5000 men. Often,
craftsmen, too. A few make jewellery; I fight alongside mercenaries—men from
others, papyrus, boats or furniture. other countries who are paid to fight for us.
I wish I was smart enough to be a scribe.

Farmer and his wife

Except for the slaves, we’re at the bottom of the heap (along
with tomb builders, pig herders and beggars). I grow wheat
and barley, and the flax used to make linen. My wife here helps
me in the field when she can. I work very hard, digging canals
for irrigation and preparing the soil. During the flood, I and my
fellow farmers often help out with the pharaoh’s building work.
Source 3.29 Social hierarchy in ancient Egypt I pay over half of the grain I produce as tax to the pharaoh.

120
Pharaoh
My main duty is to keep life
in balance—on this Earth
and beyond. I am powerful
because I am a god and
have great wealth.
Chief priest
I represent our country’s top priest,
the Pharaoh, in looking after the
gods. This is a very privileged
position. I am allowed to go into the
inner part of the temple where the
statue of the god is kept. Each day
Director of the seal I wash it, wrap it in clean linen and
My role was a bit like Australia’s bring it food. If I didn’t do this, bad
Treasurer. I manage all the goods things would happen. On special
(food and other products) that come days, I take it out to show the
into the pharaoh’s storehouses. Most people. My priests and I don’t wear
of it is tax; some items are imports clothing made from animal products.
from other countries. We shave all our body hair and wash
many times a day.

Merchant Priestess
I am a trader. I’m always sailing up and My husband is a nomarch. Most of my fellow
down the Nile, with goods from Egypt such priestesses are married to senior officials.
as linen, papyrus and grain. Goods I bring My main role is to help look after the temple
back from other places include ebony goddess and to sing and play music if the
wood, ivory, incense, copper and baboons. Pharaoh visits our temple.
Every now and then, I sail north to other
more distant markets, across what you
would call the Mediterranean Sea.

Stonemason
I spend my days making stone statues
(usually of the pharaoh), carving the
blocks used to build temples and Linen workshop supervisor
pyramids, and engraving the walls of I was at home for many years raising
tombs. My role is shaped by the skills my seven children. To help out, I
I have learned. Oh, and my father was made linen from flax. My husband
a stonemason, too! used to trade it in the local market
for other things we needed. I now
have a supervisor’s job, managing
women in a linen workshop. I’m
too stiff and old to be singing and
dancing at temple festivals.

Slave
I was born in Libya, but was captured as a prisoner of
war. Other slaves come from Syria and Nubia. There
aren’t a lot of slaves here, though. My master uses me
as a field hand. Some of the lucky slaves work in the
palace of the pharaoh—much better than working in
the quarries or mines.

121
Slaves
You may have read or seen in movies that slaves were used to build the pyramids.
There is little evidence to support this. Records suggest that there were few slaves
during the Old Kingdom, when the pyramids were built. Rather, it is thought
they were built by peasants, who then made up the bulk of the population. Most
were farmers with little to do during the Inundation.
The number of slaves in ancient Egypt did increase during the Middle
Kingdom, even more so during the New Kingdom. Most were prisoners of war.
Their capture followed military campaigns in places such as Nubia and Syria.
Others were bought at markets or were unlucky travellers captured by slave
traders. Some were the ‘currency’ used to pay debts or taxes. Some ancient texts
suggest that some slaves were volunteers!

The role of slaves

Slaves were given as ‘free labour’ to temples, even to the pharaoh’s household.
Their role in these places was more that of faithful servants. They (and any
children they produced) became almost ‘part of the furniture’.

Source 3.32
Source 3.30 This bronze figure of an Egyptian
slave was made about 3400 years ago. I gave them captains of archers and chief men of the tribes, branded and made into slaves
impressed with my name; their wives and children were made likewise.
Translated extract from Papyrus Harris, James Henry Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt, Part IV, folio 405.

Slaves sent to work the gold and copper mines of north Africa’s deserts were
the most unfortunate. For them, dying of thirst or heat exhaustion was a likely
end. But most slaves in Egypt lived fairly pleasant lives. They could own land,
for example, and hire servants. They could marry those who were not slaves.
The more talented (or beautiful) might ‘rise up through the ranks’ to senior or
privileged positions. Some became favoured soldiers or bodyguards, even of
pharaohs. It was more common than, say, in ancient Greece or Rome, for them to
be given their freedom.

Check your learning

1 What key responsibilities shaped the role of the director of the seal?
2 a Explain why the life of farmers in ancient Egypt was difficult. Give as many
reasons as you can.
b How might a farmer’s social role and standing potentially change if he learned
Source 3.31 Stone relief from a tomb at to read and write?
Saqqara, showing Nubian slaves, Egyptian guard
and Egyptian scribes 3 The powerful roles in ancient Egyptian society were those of people who were
wealthy, had political power or had religious authority. Discuss as a class to what
extent this represents the situation in Australia today.
4 List the physical or mental qualities, or acquired skills, that you think would have
made a slave an ideal person for each of the following:
a the pharaoh’s household
b working in the desert quarries
c working in a local temple.

122
Source 3.33 Tomb art, painted about 4500 years ago in Thebes, showing Egyptian women celebrating at a feast, attended by servants

Role of women
The role of most women in ancient Egypt was to raise a family. Pregnancy was always a celebrated
event. It was common for a woman to have lots of pregnancies and many women died in childbirth.
Girls might have married when they were as young as 12, and were expected to have a child quickly.
Life expectancy was low. A poor woman might live until she was 30.

Rich and poor women

Poorer women typically devoted their entire lives to raising their children, keeping house and
helping their husbands with their work. This might mean long and hard work in the fields, planting
and harvesting crops.
Upper-class women, such as the wives of pharaohs and officials, had a more pampered life. They
had servants to help with the children and household chores, and to wait on them. As well, they had
fine clothing and jewellery to wear. If they were the eldest child, they inherited their father’s wealth.
Unlike most people in ancient Egypt, they lived mostly indoors. But outings might include going to a
feast such as shown in Source 3.33.

Rights and freedoms of women in ancient Egypt

The man was the head of the household in ancient Egypt. Yet Egyptian women had more freedom
than in many other ancient societies, such as ancient Greece. Religious beliefs may have played a
part in this. The ancient Egyptians saw their ‘world’ as being controlled equally by male and female
deities (gods and goddesses).

123
Women could own land and businesses, keep the children if there was a
divorce and openly breast-feed their children. Under Egyptian law, they could
make wills. They could also testify in court and bring legal actions against
men. Herodotus wrote (perhaps he was a bit shocked) that they had ‘reversed
the ordinary practices of mankind’. He described seeing women trading in the
marketplace while men sat at home and wove cloth.
As well, women could hold down jobs (evidence suggests often for the same
pay as men). For poorer women, a job meant manual labour, as only boys were
educated. They might work on farms, look after animals or become wig makers,
weavers, singers, dancers or professional mourners (see below). Wealthier women
might work as priestesses.

The power ‘behind the throne’

Wives and mothers of pharaohs often had a lot of power. But it lay in ‘wheeling
and dealing’ behind the scenes. Hatshepsut was a powerful woman. Another was
Nefertiti (see Source 3.34).
Nefertiti was the main wife of Akhenaten, the pharaoh who ruled between
1351 and 1334 BCE . Ancient art shows her close by her husband’s side at religious
Source 3.34 Bust of Nefertiti ceremonies, even standing beside him in a war chariot. She may have been
pharaoh for a short time when her husband died, but historians do not know
for sure.

change and continuity:

professional mourners
focus on …

Funerals all over the world continue to be

occasions where people are understandably
distressed. It is a time of great grief for those
involved. Frequently, those who show their
grief most openly are women: relatives,
perhaps, or close friends.
Herodotus describes seeing people’s grief
at funerals in ancient Egypt. But his writing
makes it clear that a number of things have
changed since his time. For a start, at least
at funerals in Australia today, women do not
smear their heads and faces with mud as they
did in ancient Egypt. They do not walk behind
the funeral procession with their breasts
exposed, dresses tied up, hitting themselves!
Nor are professional mourners hired to weep
and wail at the funeral of an important man.
This was often done in ancient Egypt if there
were too few female family members.
Source 3.35 Artist’s impression: funeral procession in ancient Egypt

124
bigideas
3.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?
Remember Evaluate
1 Order these social roles (from top down) according to how 12 Complete the following table based on what you have
they were perceived and valued in ancient Egypt: potter, learned about Egyptian women and their lifestyle. Give a
merchant, pharaoh, farmer, priestess, vizier, scribe. rating from 1 (best) to 5 (worst) for each category. Discuss
2 The role of the pharaoh in ancient Egypt was shaped to a your assessment with a partner.
large extent by the fact that he was seen to have ‘godly’
Lifestyle factor Rating score
powers. Give two examples to support this statement.
Wealthy Poor
3 Prepare an illustrated facts sheet on the role of the pharaoh. women women

Understand Social rights due to their role

4 Explain why almost all scribes in ancient Egypt were men. Personal freedoms in society
5 Look at Source 3.33. Identify which are the wealthy women Work opportunities
and which are the servants/slaves. Draw up a table to
Daily lifestyle
compare your observations of each social group.
6 Why was Nerfertiti a significant woman in ancient Egypt?
Create
7 Compare and contrast the roles of a chief priest and the
13 Look at the coronation pectoral of Tutankhamen
vizier in ancient Egypt.
(Source 3.36). Use this image for inspiration to design a
8 Work in small groups to role-play a two-minute conversation pendant suitable to be worn by the person appointed as
for the class between four or five characters selected from the Australian Minister for Defence.
Source 3.29. Your dialogue should reflect the differences
between these social roles as you understand them.
9 In general terms, explain some of the ways by which the
laws in ancient Egypt shaped the role of women.

Apply
10 a In groups, and following discussion, use Source 3.29 as
a model to draw up what you think represents the social
hierarchy in Australia.
b Discuss your findings as a class. Decide to what extent
your modern hierarchies are an example of change and
continuity, when compared with the social hierarchy of
ancient Egypt.

Analyse
11 o A link to a short video on the likely reasons for the death
of King Tutankhamen is available on the obook.
Think carefully about the evidence presented. What do
you conclude?
Source 3.36 This pectoral was found in the tomb of the pharaoh
Tutankhamen. He wore it at his coronation as pharaoh.

chapter three ancient egypt 125

Source 3.37 Ancient painting of some of the main gods of ancient Egypt

3.3 How do beliefs, values and

practices influence lifestyle?
Religious beliefs dominated the lives of the ancient Egyptians. These
beliefs determined what they valued and how they saw their leader (as
a diety). They inspired their art, their ceremonies and the content of
much of their writing. They affected their social structure (priests and
priestesses) and influenced much of what was built (temples, pyramid
tombs) and any preparations for war. They also shaped their views
about death and how they prepared for it.

Who were the deities?

Options The ancient Egyptians saw just about everything as being controlled by their
hundreds of gods and goddesses. Some deities were local; each of the 42 nomes
How beliefs, values and practices (provinces) in Egypt had its own gods, for example.
influenced the lifestyle of the ancient Some gods were seen to have created the world and its living things; others
Egyptians is discussed in respect to
controlled the forces of nature. There were also gods of fertility, wisdom, love,
the three topic areas listed below.
music and dance, death, health and childbirth. The Sun god Ra (or Re) was the
Choose one of these:
main god. He rode across the sky each day in a boat.
• everyday life (pp. 128–131)
Ra is the figure sitting in the boat shown in Source 3.37. He has a symbol of
• warfare (pp. 132–135) the Sun on his head. Arched over him is Nut, the universal mother. Her curved
• death and funerary customs body represents the curve of the sky. Endlessly, she swallows the Sun at night and
(pp. 136–141) gives birth to it again next morning. Nut’s brother-husband, Geb the Earth god, is
Related activities are on pages 142–3. stretched out underneath her. His angled limbs suggest the mountains and valleys
of the land. Nut and Geb’s parents were Shu and Tefnut.

126
Source 3.39

In the beginning there was a dark, endless ocean called Nun. Ra, the creator god, let out a deep breath and created
his son Shu, the god of the air. From his saliva, he created his daughter Tefnut, the goddess of moisture. He then
moved across the waters of Nun and land appeared. He stood on the land and ordered animal and plant species
to come out of the ocean. Later, he created people from his tears.
From a translated legend of the ancient Egyptians

Traditions and ceremonies

The ancient Egyptians built many temples where priests and priestesses served the gods and
goddesses they believed lived there. The priests burned incense, made offerings and held festivals.
Ordinary people made shrines within their homes where they said prayers and left offerings.
People played instruments such as sistra (metal rattles) to keep away evil spirits. They also wore
amulets to attract the protection or good will of the gods.

Animals and deities

Many gods are represented with animal heads or other animal parts. For example, the goddess
of war, Sekhmet, was shown as a lion. The crocodile, sacred to Sobek, the god of water, was often
spoilt by priests as a pet.
The Egyptian goddess Bastet, the protector of homes, was shown as a cat. The ancient
Egyptians valued cats highly for they protected their prized grain stores by killing vermin.
Households treated them very well; harming or killing a cat was often punished by death. The
Greek historian Herodotus wrote that when a cat died the occupants of the house would mourn
and often shave their eyebrows to show their loss.

Source 3.38 A mummified

cat. Animals, such as
ibises (a type of bird), were empathy: t he Apis bull
focus on …

also mummified in large The Apis bull lived a life of luxury in a temple at Memphis. It was sacred to the creator god
numbers.
Ptah. Its funeral ceremony was as grand as any pharaoh’s. After it died and was mummified,
another bull of the same colour (black, with a white blaze on the nose) was found to replace it.
We may think such behaviour is very odd today. But we need to view this from the point of view
of the ancient Egyptians. We need to call on our historical empathy. For them, animals were an
integral part of their belief system. They would have been motivated to show such reverence to
a bull out of a deep sense of respect and awe.

Source 3.40
Sculpture of
pharaoh paying
respect to the
Apis bull

127
Everyday life
We saw earlier how the physical features of ancient Egypt influenced
the way the ancient Egyptians lived. Water, for example, was so precious
that it was controlled by rulers.

Housing and furniture

The design and function of houses reflected Egypt’s hot, dry climate, as
well as the lack of wood in the environment. Furnishings were sparse
(mostly storage chests, pots and stools) for rich and poor families alike,
though it was more elaborate and decorated for the rich.
The wealthy might have villas of stone (not mud bricks); their plates
would have been gold, rather than clay; their floors tiled, rather than
dirt. They even had basic bathrooms by the time of the New Kingdom.
These villas were commonly built behind a high perimeter wall. Inside
were gardens and groves of shady trees. There might be a pool.

Appearance
Source 3.41 This tomb painting from Thebes depicts For those who could afford it, looking (and smelling) good was valued
aspects of the villa of a wealthy Egyptian highly. This meant cleanliness and neatness, bathing often and
removing body hair (sometimes using tweezers). This was considered
especially important for priests.

Source 3.42

[The priests] shave their whole body every other day, so that no lice or other
impure thing may adhere [stick] to them when they are engaged in the service of
the gods. Their dress is entirely of linen and their shoes of the papyrus plant …
They bathe twice every day in cold water, and twice every night.
From The History of Herodotus—Euterpe, by Herodotus, c. 431 bce

Slaves could be smelly and sticky. Records describe how one pharaoh,
Pepy II (c. 2278–2184 BCE), solved the problem of annoying flies. He
surrounded himself with naked slaves smeared with honey.

Oils, perfumes and wigs

Great attention was given to make-up, partly to protect the eyes (see
p. 108), and to the use of skin oils and perfumes. Workers were often
given oils as their wages.
For the sake of cleanliness and cooling, shaving the head was
common, even if it was then covered with a wig for special occasions.
However, unwanted baldness and grey hair were not welcomed. Ancient
remedies for these ‘defects’ included lettuce leaf massages on bald
patches and henna for grey hair.
Servants and slaves were forbidden to appear anything like their
wealthy masters and mistresses. Many went about their business naked
Source 3.43 This tomb statue of Nofret, a noblewoman (or nearly so), and had simple hairstyles.
from the ‘golden age’ of the 4th dynasty (c. 2613–2494 bce),
shows the type of wig, make-up and elaborate jewellery
typical of someone of her social status.

128
Marriage, love and childbirth
Egyptians married as teenagers. Marriage was usually a business matter,
arranged by the parents when the partners were young. This is why a
man might, for example, marry his sister—to keep the money in the
family. It is also why a pharaoh’s heir was the child of another wife if his
main wife could not produce a son.
It seems not much fuss was made about weddings: the woman simply
left home to live with her new husband. Yet, marriage was seen (by
law and religious belief) as a serious commitment. Ancient documents
outline wills, inheritance issues and details of the adoption of children.
Text records also provide evidence of some seeming loving relationships.

Source 3.44

He stares me out when I walk by, and all alone I cry for joy; how happy is my
delight with the lover in my sight … every glance [of his] which rests on me means
more to me than food and drink …
Translated extract from an ancient Egyptian poem

Source 3.45 This sculpture comes from the tomb

Childbirth of a couple buried together in a tomb at Saqqara.
Childbirth was a risky business. There was a high loss of life of both The level of affection shown here (the woman’s arm
behind the man) is uncommon among Egyptian
babies and mothers. Some women gave birth in special ‘birthing houses’
paintings and carvings.
linked to temples. People called on responsible deities for help. Hathor,
the goddess of women (represented as a cow), was one to approach.
Amun-Ra (or Ra), the main Egyptian deity might be asked to send a wind
to cool the mother.

Education
Boys generally did the same jobs as their fathers,
with wealthy boys likely to receive some formal
education, such as learning to read and write.
Girls learned to be good wives, mothers and
housekeepers (unless they were wealthy, for then
servants or slaves did most of the work).

Music and dance

The ancient Egyptians had a range of musical
instruments, including harps, drums,
tambourines, bells and lutes. They also used their
voices and their hands (to clap).
Music and dance were part of the procession
Source 3.46 Two sistra. A sistrum made a loud
ritual of a funeral. They were also ways to communicate with deities clanging sound when shaken as the moving metal
such as Sekhmet. People who had done the wrong thing greatly feared parts banged into each other.
this goddess for they believed she would destroy the wicked. Dancing
was a way to appeal to her mercy. Another purpose of the sistrum,
besides honouring the god Hathor, was to frighten off the desert god Set
(the god of chaos).

129
Medicine
Through their practice of mummification (see pp. 138–9), the
ancient Egyptians discovered much about the human body. In
fact, the ancient Greeks learned a lot from them. For example,
Egyptians knew to use hot knives during surgery to seal blood
vessels. A number of papyrus texts have been found, including
the Ebers Papyrus, which detail what the Egyptians knew
about anatomy, and some of their treatments.

Source 3.48

To renew bowel movements in a constipated child: an old book, boil in

oil, apply half on the belly to re-establish evacuation.
A translation of a medical treatment from the Ebers Papyrus

Some health problems

Ancient Egypt was not a healthy place to live. Malnutrition
was common, especially among the poor, though obesity and
cancer were rare.
• Egypt’s proximity to the river meant lots of mosquitoes,
which spread diseases such as malaria.
• Its water (the source of their staple drink: beer) would have
often been dirty and contaminated.
• Rotting vegetation (after a flood) and the rubbish and
human waste dumped into the Nile River and canals caused
regular outbreaks of bacterial infections such as dysentery.
• Sand blown in from the deserts and breathed into the lungs
Source 3.47 A prosthesis (artifical body part) from ancient Egypt, often led to silicosis (a lung disease).
made for someone who had lost a foot • Airborne sand and stone fragments used for grinding
grains for flour caused tooth damage, leading to decay and
infections. Ancient texts record a 9th-century BCE woman
from Thebes having 13 abscesses and an infected cyst in her
mouth when she died, aged 35.
Regular washing and shaving, and the use of herbs, seeds
and vegetables such as garlic, onions, fennel, celery, thyme,
cumin and coriander went some way to avoiding health
problems.Only the wealthy ate lots of meat, some from desert
game such as wild donkeys and hedgehogs. Hedgehogs were
cooked in a clay wrap. When the baked clay was knocked off
the animal’s spines came with it!

Magic and spells

The practice of medicine in ancient Egypt also relied heavily
on magic and the deities. Hence, priests were often involved in
treatments by reciting spells and conducting rituals for medical
conditions.

130
Communications
Only around one per cent of people in ancient Egypt learned to read and write. These people,
almost always men, were highly respected. They were called scribes. Their abilities gave them
access to a wide range of jobs, including record-keeping for the pharaoh.
The written script of the Old Kingdom was hieroglyphs (see p. 20). Over 750 symbols were
then used; this number increased over time. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, stories, hymns,
drama scripts (between gods), proverbs and love poems were being recorded.
With the passage of time, simpler scripts were developed: the demotic and hieratic scripts.
These could be written more quickly, and were used for everyday writing.

significance: t he Rosetta Stone

focus on …

In 1799, a French soldier found a slab of stone near the

town of Rashid (formerly Rosetta) in the Nile delta. This
discovery proved to be enormously significant, for it enabled
the hieroglyphs script (then a mystery to scholars) to be
decoded.
The stone featured a statement by the pharaoh Ptolemy V
(204–181 bce), written in three different ‘languages’:
hieroglyphs (the top band; see Source 3.49), the Egyptian
demotic script (the second band) and Greek (the bottom
band). In 1822, a brilliant translator named Jean-François
Champollion used this inscription to decipher hieroglyphs.
Since then, translators and historians have been able to
discover a great deal about the history of ancient Egypt.

Source 3.49 The Rosetta Stone, now housed in the British Museum

Check your learning

1 In what ways did ancient Egyptians show that they valued cleanliness and their physical appearance?
2 Copy and complete this table in your workbook to compare and contrast some of the ways that
differences between rich and poor were evident in the way ancient Egyptians lived.

Aspects of lifestyle typical of the rich Aspects of lifestyle typical of the poor

3 Why might a woman giving birth pray to Amun-Ra?

4 Explain why ancient Egyptians often suffered from each of the following: bacterial infections,
bad teeth, silicosis.
5 Why were scribes so highly valued?
6 Explain why the Rosetta Stone is such a significant historical artefact.
7 What practice of the ancient Egyptians helped to advance their knowledge of anatomy?

131
Warfare
Ancient Egypt had a fairly peaceful early history. This was
due in part to its surrounding physical features, which were
natural barriers against invasion. Egypt’s ‘army’ then was
like a loosely organised police force. It kept law and order
in Egypt, protected the pharaoh and the pharaoh’s palace,
guarded borders and made sure people did not rob trading
ships.
For the occasional battles with others (short campaigns
into Nubia to the south, for example), mercenaries were
typically used. Egyptians were afraid to die on foreign soil,
where their bodies would be left in the open to rot. It was
important to them, because of their beliefs, to have the
rituals of a proper funeral.
Egypt’s warfare systems were changed, however, by the
arrival of the Hyksos people.

The Hyksos and their impact

Some scholars say that the Hyksos invaded Egypt and seized
Source 3.50 Part of the remains of Tanis in Egypt, which some scholars power. (They did rule Egypt as the 16th dynasty for about
think may have been the walled city of Avaris (in the Nile delta area). The a century after 1630 BCE , during the Second Intermediate
Hyksos built Avaris as their capital.
Period.)
Others contest this; they argue that the Hyksos took
power only because Egypt’s Middle Kingdom rulers were
then weak. When they did so, it is argued, they had already
been in Egypt for some time. They first arrived, so these
scholars say, as skilled migrant workers, brought in for the
Middle Kingdom’s building boom. Most scholars agree they
probably were a Semitic people.
The Hyksos introduced ancient Egyptians to new ideas
about warfare. They brought in new types of weapons,
some made of bronze. There were also new types of helmets
and shields, new ways to attack city walls (such as using a
battering ram) and ideas about better ways to build forts.
Until the Hyksos arrived, there were no horses in Egypt.
To be able to expel these foreigners (which they did
c. 1560 BCE), the Egyptians had to have a fighting force
that was just as good. After Thutmose III set up Egypt’s
first professional army, the Egyptians drew on, and further
developed, many of the Hyksos innovations. This was
a significant factor in Egypt’s expansion and military
Source 3.51 The remains of a wall painting from ancient Egypt depicting strength during the New Kingdom.
a battle with Nubians. The horse-drawn chariot was another important
‘fighting machine’ introduced to ancient Egypt by the Hyksos.

132
The army and the pharaoh’s military role A division of foot soldiers 10 battalions in
a division.
The head of Egypt’s army was the pharaoh. In this role,
the pharaoh not only commanded operations, but also led 2 companies in a battalion
troops into battle. Out front with the pharaoh in a battle [500 soldiers
charge was a highly trained group of soldiers known as the 5 platoons in a company
‘Braves of the King’. [250 men]
One of the pharaoh’s key tasks was to protect the 5 squads in a platoon
[50 men]
Egyptian people from attack. Because he was considered to
be a god, he had to inspire confidence in his people that 10 men in a squad
he could do this. This was partly why many pharaohs built
larger-than-life statues of themselves. The 4th-dynasty
pharaoh Khafra, for example, requested that 23 life-size A brigade of charioteers Brigades made
statues of himself be made and erected in one temple alone. up of 2 squadrons
(sometimes more)
Structure of the army
The New Kingdom army included both foot soldiers and
5 companies made
charioteers. There were still mercenaries, as before, but up a squadron
troop numbers were now swelled by conscription and,
sometimes, prisoners of war. As well, many Egyptians chose
Company of 10 chariots
to join up for army service.
A squadron of charioteers typically included 50 horse-
drawn chariots, with two soldiers in each chariot. Source 3.52 Hierarchical organisation in the Egyptian army
One man steered the horses and the other wielded the
weapons (usually a bow and arrow, and a spear). There is
evidence that the 18th-dynasty pharaoh Thutmose III had
1000 chariots; later pharaohs had even more. Chariots were
eventually replaced by cavalry, which was a key part of the
army by the time the Persians ruled Egypt.

Chariots and charioteers

It cost a lot of money to buy a chariot (and horses). The
role of charioteer was therefore open only to wealthy
men. It was valued as an elite role among fighting men.
Successful charioteers were looked on as heroes. For a time,
the charioteer became a symbol of power. It is perhaps not
surprising that many ancient paintings depict pharaohs in
chariots.
Like many other weapons of war, the chariot also served
peace-time purposes, such as hunting larger game animals.
It is thought that the pharaoh Tutankhamen (see pp. 118–9)
might have been hunting in a chariot when he had the
accident that many scholars now think killed him.

Source 3.53 Artist’s impression of the pharaoh Thutmose III at the head of
his army. Thutmose III mounted many battle attacks against the Hyksos and
eventually expelled them from Egypt.

133
Life of an Egyptian soldier
Evidence from ancient records indicates that army life
was tough. Discipline was strict, and there was a rigorous
program of weapons training and physical exercise.
Wrongdoers might be whipped. Military excursions
sometimes meant long marches through the desert.

Source 3.54 Model of Egyptian soldiers

from the tomb of Mesehti, an official of the
11th dynasty (c. 2134–1991 bce)

perspectives: army life

focus on …

Many men chose to join the army as a way to become rich. Scribes often travelled with the army. They typically had a different
Wealth would give talented soldiers a chance to improve their perspective about life as a soldier. They saw it as an awful existence.
social position—even, perhaps, to become a pharaoh! (The Many encouraged young Egyptians not to join the army.
pharaoh Ramses I, who ruled for about two years in the early
13th century BCE, was once an army officer.) Papyrus texts tell of Source 3.55
the booty (and sometimes tracts of land) given to officers (and Come [let me tell] you the woes of the soldier … He is awakened
priests) after a battle. Some of this plunder is likely to have been at any hour. One is after him as [after] a donkey. He toils until
handed down, in turn, to worthy soldiers. There are texts that the Aten [sun] sets in his darkness of night. He is hungry, his
describe soldiers being given items of gold jewellery. belly hurts; he is dead while yet alive … He is called up for Syria.
Beyond riches, there was a commonly held belief that the He may not rest. There are no clothes, no sandals … His march
is uphill through mountains. He drinks water every third day; it
memory and name of a war hero would live forever. There
is smelly and tastes of salt. His body is ravaged by illness. The
was also the prospect that a brave fighter might be seen as
enemy comes, surrounds him with missiles, and life recedes from
deserving of the title Amkhu. The funeral of such a person was
him.
paid for by the pharaoh.
Translated extract from the writing of the scribe Wenemdiamun,
from Ancient Egyptian Literature, Miriam Lichtheim,
University of California Press, Berkeley, 1976, Vol.1

Navy
People along the Nile River were using papyrus rafts more
than 5000 years ago. There are records of sea expeditions
(in trading boats) in both the Mediterranean and Red
seas by about 2500 BCE . There were some sea battles, with
Egyptians using devices such as grappling hooks (devices
for grabbing and hauling) to engage enemy vessels.
However, it seems most boats in use before the New
Kingdom were primarily for trade. Even when boats were
used for warfare, it would appear that the majority were
used just as troop carriers.

Source 3.56 These columns and walls in the

Mortuary Temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu are
covered with stone reliefs and paintings. Among them
are details of Egyptian warships.

134
Weapons and armour
Soldiers did not wear much clothing (largely beacuse of the heat): perhaps
a belt and a loincloth or (later) short tunic. Nor did they wear headgear.
Some charioteers worn a type of armour on their upper torso: a series of
leather straps. Only the pharaohs, it seems, wore metal armour, and then
not always. It consisted of a series of overlapping bronze pieces. Headgear
worn by the pharaoh in battle was typically the khepresh or blue crown.
Its hard covering of semi-precious stones gave some protection from
arrows to its wearer.
Many weapons (particularly before the New Kingdom) also served as
farming tools (or were versions of farming tools). For example, axes might
chop down palms as well as enemy torsos, spears might kill creatures such
as lions as well as men, and throwing sticks were useful for hunting birds.
Many weapons, such as the mace, had religious or ceremonial significance.
Archaeologists commonly found weapons among grave goods.

Treatment of enemies
Ancient Egyptians could be barbaric in their treatment of enemies. There
are accounts of mutilation of corpses, with body parts such as limbs and
penises chopped off to present to the pharaoh or to the gods. But there
were also many occasions of mercy. For example, conquered leaders
were sometimes allowed to continue to rule their local region if they
Source 3.57 Section from the Palette of Narmer, some acknowledged the pharaoh as supreme ruler. As mentioned earlier, some
5000 years old. It showed the king Narmer about to use a prisoners of war were not killed, but enlisted as soldiers in the army.
mace to kill an enemy. Such an image is a symbol of the
king’s power.

Flint and bronze knives Check your learning

1 What changed the way warfare was viewed in
Battering rams and scaling Bronze (and later, iron) ancient Egypt? Explain.
ladders (for attacking swords and daggers
2 Explain why the ‘Braves of the King’ were valued
fortifications)
soldiers. Can you suggest an equivalent group in
Australia’s modern army?
Composite bows (a design 3 Many ancient paintings and stone reliefs show
Slings influenced by Hyksos bows: pharaohs as charioteers. Why do you think this
wood and sinew made them might be the case?
WEAPONS OF more flexible than those made
EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS only of wood, and hence
4 Write and perform a role play with a partner
stronger when firing arrows) that demonstrates the different perspectives
Battle axes
that might be held about army life by an
ambitious young Egyptian soldier and the scribe
Wenemdiamun.
Spears
Maces with stone or
5 Suggest why the mace would have been valued
copper ‘heads’
as a symbol of power in Egypt.
6 After some battles, ancient Egyptians might chop
Wooden clubs off parts of those they had slain in battle and
present them to the pharaoh or as offerings to
gods. Why do you think they did this?
Source 3.58 Some weapons of Egyptian soldiers

135
Death and funerary Ba: the personality,
which moved back
customs and forth, allowing the
dead person to join his
Ka: the spiritual essence of a
person, which returned to the
‘heavens’ on a person’s death
Religion played a major part in the Ka and being reunited
life—and death—of ancient Egyptians. with the person’s body
every night.
Death was not seen as the end, but the
start of a different sort of existence in
the afterlife for those who were worthy. Akh: a person’s life in the
To be worthy one had to live a good afterlife, a combination of
Ba and Ka
life. It was also necessary to observe a
number of rituals. Chief among these
were:
Name: what a
• preserving the body after death person or deity
• having all the right things said and needed to exist
done (e.g. magic spells and rituals) Shadow: the part of the soul that is
linked to the body and can take its
• ensuring that the dead person had shadowy form (similar to what we
access to what he or she would need might call a ghost)
in the afterlife (these items needed
to be included in the tomb of the
dead person).

Source 3.59 The different parts of a person,

according to ancient Egyptian belief

The tomb
The earliest tombs were often graves in the desert. The hot, dry sand soon sucked all moisture from
the corpse and preserved the body. The poor continued to be buried this way even when burial
practices changed. For example, with time, tombs of the wealthy and privileged in society (such as
pharaohs and their family) became more elaborate and intricate. Bodies were buried in baskets and,
later, human-shaped coffins.
The first above-ground tombs were
called mastabas. These were large,
box-like structures, built in places
such as Saqqara. By about 2400 BCE ,
many mastabas had complex internal
designs, with stone reliefs decorating
the walls. They disappeared after the
Middle Kingdom.
Other impressive above-ground
tombs included mortuary temples (see
p. 101) and pyramids (see pp. 140–1).
When grave robbers started becoming
a problem, tombs for important people
such as pharaohs began to be dug
underground in places such as the
Valley of the Kings (see p. 140). This
began to happen from about 1500 BCE . Source 3.60 This person was buried in a pit in the Egyptian desert 5400 years ago, along with some
possessions. The well-preserved body had a number of broken bones.

136
The Book of the Dead
Those entering the afterlife were believed to need magic spells and special prayers to protect them.
By the New Kingdom, these were documented in a text known as the Book of the Dead. This built
on earlier ‘sacred’ texts known as the Coffin Texts, and before them, the Pyramid Texts. A copy of the
Book of the Dead was buried with dead people so they had access to the passwords, spells and secret
knowledge needed to reach the afterlife.

Mummification and burial

An elaborate process called mummification was used (see details on pp. 138–9) to preserve the body
after death. The mummified body was carried to the tomb in an open coffin as part of a procession.
A final ritual was to ‘open the dead person’s mouth’. A priest touched all head openings of the
mummified body with an adze (an axe-like tool) to awaken the dead person’s senses. The coffin was
then sealed up and placed in the stone sarcophagus.

Burial goods
Egyptians buried their dead with goods they believed would be needed in the afterlife: clothing,
jewellery, pots, furniture, wigs, tools, chariots, boats, food, even (at first) servants. Small models of
servants later substituted for real servants. Wall paintings were believed to provide the dead person
with ‘real life’ experiences.

Thoth, the god of wisdom, writing

down the result of the weigh-in

Judges

Anubis

Osiris, the
Amnun representation
of the pharaoh
after death

The dead person. His or her heart was weighed against a feather from the headdress Horus, the representation of
of Ma’at, the goddess of truth and justice. If lighter, the person was admitted to the the pharaoh while alive
afterlife. The monster god Ammun gobbled up the heart if it was heavier.

Source 3.61 Ancient Egyptian painting of the ‘weighing of the heart’ ritual

Check your learning

1 Explain why the corpse shown in Source 3.60 is surrounded with goods. Why is it so well preserved?
2 What were each of the following: mastabas, mortuary temples, pyramids?
3 Why was it so important to ancient Egyptians to preserve the body when someone died?
4 What was the Book of the Dead, and what role did it play in Egyptian funeral proceedings?

137
The internal organs were dried in natron (a natural The liver, lungs, stomach and intestines were
powder, a bit like salt), rubbed with fragrant oils removed through a cut on the left side of the
Preparing for the afterlife and put into canopic jars. The lids were shaped like abdomen. A hook, pushed up through the nostrils,
the heads of the four gods they presented. The jar removed the brain (thought to be a useless organ
As already explained, the ancient
containing the liver had a lid like a man’s head; the that produced only mucus). The heart was left in
Egyptians believed in an afterlife. lungs, a baboon head; the stomach, a jackal head; the body.
But death was not kind to and the intestines, a falcon head.
everybody! The ‘unfortunates’ were
those who did not please the gods
or did not prepare properly for their
journey through the Underworld
to the next life. The Underworld
was a dark place to the west, where The body was
the Sun ‘died’. Travellers in the thoroughly washed.
Underworld came across heavy Prayers were said from
gates and confusing crossroads and The Book of the Dead.

could meet terrifying creatures and

spirits.
Preparing properly meant,
among other things, mummifying
the body.

Priest.

Dead body being brought for

mummification, followed by
professional mourners

The mummy was put into a body-shaped coffin.

Often more than one coffin was used, each one
Source 3.62: The mummification process sitting inside the next. For important people like
pharaohs, the nest of coffins was placed inside a
stone box, called a sarcophagus.
The body was then covered with natron for 40 days.
This, and the dry air, sucked out any moisture. The
body was washed again in water and smeared with
fragrant oil.

The fully bandaged mummy was

painted with sticky resin, and
then more cloth was wrapped
around it.

Once the body had been embalmed, it was wrapped

with rolls of fine linen (a bit like bandages), starting
with the head and neck. Toes and fingers were
wrapped separately, and then sometimes each
covered with gold caps. Sacred amulets such as
the scarab were wound into the bandaging. As the
body was being wrapped, prayers from The Book of
the Dead were said over it.

Sometimes dead or stillborn children,

pets (cats, dogs and monkeys) and other
animals such as rams and crocodiles were
mummified and included in the tomb.
The blocks had to be dragged up a ramp During the Inundation, farmers made up
(probably built of mud bricks) that changed most of the workforce; the floodwaters
shape as the pyramid ‘grew’. Historians meant they could not work on their farms.
have different views about the shape
of this ramp. Some think that a ramp
was built that wound its way around the
growing structure.

Source 3.63 Historians think the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza took
around 20 years, using some 100 000 workers.

The pyramids
The Egyptians built many complex structures. Perhaps none were more
amazing than the pyramids. More than 160 have been found. They were
built as tombs. One, the Great Pyramid at Giza, is the only remaining
wonder of the ancient world. It was built around
2580 BCE as the tomb of the pharaoh Khufu.
When tomb robbers became a problem, the
practice for burying pharaohs changed. As
mentioned earlier, they started being buried in
tombs carved into hillsides in the Valley of the Kings.
The longest (the tomb of the pharaoh Seti I (1292–
1190 BCE) stretches into the rocky earth for
around 100 metres.
There are different views about how the
pyramids were built. The accuracy of the Great
Pyramid’s construction has mystified many
scholars. Some have even suggested it was
built by aliens. Another view is that there
was a highly advanced culture that existed
in Egypt before the Old Kingdom.

Source 3.64

140
The faces of the Great Pyramid all have A pyramidion (smaller pyramid cut from Barriers were built in the pyramids to
the same angle: 52°. Each side faces one piece of stone) once sat on top of the stop robbers from stealing the pharaoh’s
one of the four points of the compass. Great Pyramid. It was around 8 metres treasures. These included false doors,
Other mathematical evidence reveals the high and coated with electrum, a mix of dead-end passages, very low ceilings,
ancient Egyptians had an understanding of gold and silver. tunnels blocked with rubble or massive
decimals, fractions and geometric series. rocks, deep pits and the statues of the
most-feared gods at doorways.
The pyramid itself was coated with panels
of white limestone when finished. These
panels were removed during the European
Middle Ages to build nearby palaces
and mosques. On completion, the Great Scholars think that the blocks were
Pyramid was about 146 metres tall. probably dragged across the sand on
sleds. Sleds would have had less drag on The base of the Great Pyramid is almost
the sand. Around 30 men would have been flat. There is no more than a 4-centimetre
The outer layer of blocks, some engraved
needed to pull each block. difference in level between the north-west
with the names of working gangs (the
and south-east corners. The pyramid’s
‘enduring gang’ is one name), are placed
length divided by twice its height gives
so precisely that not even a knife blade can
3.14159. These are the first six digits of
fit between them.
the mathematical number called pi.

Most of the Great Pyramid’s 2.3 million

blocks weigh 2.5 tonnes or more—a total
weight close to that of 850 000 African
bull elephants. Most blocks are locally
mined limestone. Others are heavy granite,
transported down the river on barges from
Aswan, about 800 kilometres to the south.
Heavier blocks were used around the
burial chamber, and as barriers in some
Check your learning passageways.

1 What does the construction of the Great Pyramid say about the knowledge and skills of
its designers and builders?
2 a What materials were used to construct the pyramids and where did they come from?
b Suggest what challenges and difficulties this would have involved.
3 Why do you think something so big and complex was built as a tomb?
4 Can you suggest any ways by which important people today are honoured when they die
and are buried?

141
bigideas
3.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?
Everyday life: Complete questions 1–4, 5, 9, 10, 13, 17, 19.
Warfare: Complete questions 1–4, 7, 11, 14, 18, 20.
Death and funerary customs: Complete questions 1–4, 6, 8, 12, 15, 16, 21.

Remember 7 An Egyptian soldier has been told he

Analyse
is to be sent on a military campaign
1 Who was Ra? List some other to Syria. Compose a short letter he 13 Look carefully at the device shown
members of his ‘family’ and the role might send to his wife outlining why in Source 3.47. How do you think it
each played in the belief systems of he fears such an event. was made? How do you think it was
ancient Egyptians. worn?
8 Explain the difference between a
2 a What could happen to someone person’s ka and ba, according to 14 Look carefully at Source 3.52.
in ancient Egypt who killed a cat? ancient Egyptian belief. a How many squads were there in
b Why do you think cats were so an infantry division of the army?
9 Describe two ways in which the
valued in Egypt? b How many companies of chariots
established roles for men and women
were there in a brigade of two
Understand in Egyptian society were reflected in
squadrons?
the ways they lived.
3 What evidence is there that ancient 15 Study the mummification process
Egypt was a society ruled to a very Apply illustrated in Source 3.62. Convert the
large extent by its religious beliefs? information into a flow chart.
10 In what ways do modern music
4 Explain why the bull chosen to be the and dance styles reflect the values 16 Study the various elements illustrated
Apis bull was a very lucky animal. and practices of 21st-century life in in Source 3.62. What evidence does
5 The Egyptians were not allowed to Australia? Discuss in small groups, this source provide about ancient
build their own private dams. Water giving examples to support your Egyptian beliefs and values, and their
was seen to be ‘owned’ by the ruler. views. impact on people’s lives?
What does this suggest about the 11 Design a means of transport for
value of water? the Chief of the Defence Forces
Evaluate
6 Source 3.65 is part of one of the in Australia in the 22nd century ce 17 Rate Jean-François Champollion on a
prayers recited during the ‘weighing that you believe symbolises the scale of 1 (best) to 5 in terms of how
of the heart’ ceremony (see Source significance and political power of you judge his significance to history.
3.61). What evidence does it provide that office. You might like to make a Give reasons for your view.
about what ancient Egyptians valued model of it, if time allows. 18 Which role do you think would have
in a ‘good person’s life’? 12 Find out through research how some required the most courage: the
of the Egyptian deities were depicted. charioteer who steered the horses
Source 3.65 (often requiring a direct charge at the
I have not caused pain. I have made Look particularly at their heads.
no man to suffer hunger. I have made Draw sketches to show how you enemy) or the charioteer who wielded
no one to weep. I have done no murder would depict each of the following: the weapons? Give reasons.
… I have not added to the weight of god of peace, god of greed, and god 19 Conduct a debate on this topic:
the scales … I have not carried away of courage. The building of the pyramids at
the milk from the mouths of children. Giza as royal tombs was a waste
I have not driven away the cattle of manpower, money and creative
which were upon their pastures. effort.
Extract, Book of the Dead

142 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Create
20 Conduct research to find out about
some foods commonly eaten in
ancient Egypt. Create a recipe or
plan a meal that could have been
enjoyed in the times of ancient Egypt.
Remember to only include ingredients
and food that would have been
available at the time.
21 As an enemy commander of foot
soldiers only, design at attack
strategy to combat an advancing
army of Egyptian infantry and
charioteers.
Explain your strategy to a partner,
using small items (pebbles, sugar
cubes, small blocks, etc.) to illustrate
the layout and movement of your
troops.
22 Source 3.66 shows a boat (now
reassembled) that was found in a
corner of the Great Pyramid.
Write a statement that might have
been read by the priest officiating
at Khufu’s funeral. It will included
reference to this boat.

Source 3.66 The boat buried in a corner of the Great Pyramid, the burial place of the pharaoh
Khufu, also known as Cheops (who ruled from c. 2551 to 2528 bce). A boat was needed so the dead
person could sail across the sky with the god Ra.

chapter three ancient egypt 143

Source 3.67 Artist’s impression of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III leading his army’s attack on the
Hebrew site of Har Megiddo c. 1479 bce. Many strategists today consider him a military genius who
greatly extended ancient Egypt’s territory.

3.4 How do contacts and conflicts

change societies?
Ancient Egypt’s location gave it a number of advantages in terms of trade.
For example, the Nile River allowed its merchants ready access to the
Mediterranean Sea and beyond. The trade contacts they established with
new markets helped Egypt to develop and prosper. So did the lands Egypt
acquired through military conquests, especially during the New Kingdom.

Trade
Tomb paintings, text extracts and some artefacts confirm that Egyptian traders
were making contact with other countries almost from the start of their history.
There were early expeditions up and down the Nile, down the Red Sea and across
the deserts.
Egypt had plenty of grain and dates, papyrus, flax (to make linen), stone, fish,
oxen and salt. Mostly through barter, Egypt traded goods such as these—together

144
Black Sea 6

Cas
pia
nS
ea
CRETE 17
1 CYPRUS 5
Me
di te 4 12 16 12
rran Byblos 14
e an 12 2 13 7
Sea
11 3 RETENU Trading route
4 Commodities traded
Memphis 1 Olive oil
LIBYA Pe 2 Cattle
rs 19
ia 3 Silver
n
G 4 Copper
Thebes ul
f
7 5 Mineral powders (for eye make-up)
15
ARABIA 6 Horses
7 Camels
8 Monkeys and baboons
13 NUBIA 9 Ostrich eggs and feathers
Re

10 9 10 Exotic woods (e.g. frankincense)

d S

18 11 Arabian 11 Stone
ea

12 Semiprecious stones
Sea
2 13 Gold
14 Cedarwood
15 Iron
N 16 Lapis lazuli
17 Turquoise
8 18 Ivory
18 10 20 0 600 km 19 Chickens
PUNT 20 Incense

0399
Source83.68
SAL BAH1
Some of he key trade routes of the ancient Egyptians. Although trade missions on land (travelling with camel
-3-11
caravans through deserts) were common, travel by boat or barge was faster and easier.

with artefacts—for those it had little of. For example, trade with Nubia
increased Egypt’s own stores of gold and gave it access to exotic goods such
as ivory and ebony.

Check your learning

1 Examine Source 3.68.
a List some of the goods Egypt obtained from Nubia, from other parts of
Africa, and from Retenu (what Egyptians called the region then known as
Canaan and Syria).
b Check a modern atlas. From what modern country did Egypt obtain each of
the following: chickens, lapis lazuli, incense trees?
2 Draw a concept map to show how imported goods listed in Source 3.68 might
have helped to change the society of ancient Egypt.
3 Explain how the exchange of goods was sometimes a way to reinforce how
Source 3.69 Egyptian tomb painting showing
rulers perceived the power of other countries.
Nubians carrying goods. Some exchanges 4 Look at Source 3.69. List those goods you can readily identify. With a partner,
were ‘gift giving’ rather than barter. What was discuss what the items you cannot identify might be.
given reflected the power balance: a ruler who
respected the power of Egypt might give ‘better’
(or more) goods than they received.

145
Conflict
Egypt’s army at the start of the New Kingdom was more
professional than it had ever been. Its soldiers had better
military equipment and were better trained. Egypt was thus
in a stronger position to pursue military strategies beyond its
borders.
The military efforts of Thutmose III (see p. 133)—
including the victory won at Har Megiddo—saw a large part
of southern Syria brought under Egypt’s control.
A growing threat to Egypt around this time were the
Hittites, another people keen to build their empire. From
about the 14th century BCE , the Hittites were starting to push
south from today’s Turkey down through the coastal regions
of the western Mediterranean Sea. Egypt had maintained
a trade interest in this region (especially around Byblos)
for a very long time. It was a hub of economic and cultural
activity.

Campaigns of Seti I
Source 3.70 Stone relief on the Temple of Karnak showing prisoners The 19th dynasty pharaoh Seti I used Egypt’s strengthening
returning to Egypt from the battles of Seti I in Canaan and Syria. ‘military muscle’ to further expand Egypt’s influence.
Returning home from a later campaign against the Libyans, Seti I is said
There are gaps in what we know about his campaigns (and
to have decorated his chariot with the heads of enemy soldiers.
opinions are contested). But he did fight conflicts in Canaan,
Syria, Libya and Nubia in a bid to increase Egypt’s power and
prestige. He is described in ancient texts as marching against
cities in Canaan ‘like a fierce-eyed lion, making them [those
he fought] carcasses in their valleys, overturned in their
Black Sea
blood like those who exist not’.
One city that Seti I temporarily reclaimed for Egypt
from the Hittites was Kadesh, in Syria. Stone reliefs and
inscriptions on a wall in the Hypostyle Hall in Karnak’s
Temple of Amun provide evidence of this conflict. Historians
debate its outcomes. It does seem that Seti I acquired a large
amount of booty from the battle. He also seems to have
Eu reached an informal agreement with the Hittites, for shortly
Ugarit Orontes ph
rat
River es after he returned to Egypt, Kadesh was back under Hittite
Byblos SYRIA R control.
Mediterranean Sea Tyre Babylon
Megiddo Whatever he achieved, it was not enough for his son and
successor, Ramses II. Ramses was determined that Egypt
N Dead Sea
A would gain total control in this part of the world. For him,
NA
CA Extent of Hittite empire at
that meant taking Kadesh away from the Hittites. The Battle
the time of Ramses II of Kadesh that he later fought is historically significant
N EGYPT Area ruled by Egypt under (see p. 147).
Ramses II
Red
0 400 km Nation of Amurru
Sea

992
Source_SA
3.71 _BA 1 Egypt’s territorial expansion during
Map showing Egypt the and
New
3-11
Kingdom

146
Source 3.72 Ramses II celebrated his proclaimed victory at Kadesh with many texts and stone reliefs. This one, at the Abu
Simbel temple, shows him on the attack.

Campaigns of Ramses II
The 19th-dynasty ruler Ramses II was one of the most significant of Egyptian pharaohs. He was in
power for a long time, from c. 1279 to 1213 BCE . Under his rule, Egypt’s economy boomed, helped by
strong trade. He was also a remarkable soldier.

The Battle of Kadesh

The Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) is thought to be the largest chariot battle in history. It is also the first
battle for which records exist on both sides, and it led to the world’s first peace treaty. No wonder it is
regarded by historians as significant!
Ramses’s plan of attack was to divide his troops into four divisions: Re, Seth, Ptah and Amun. The
divisions would march north to Kadesh through the desert, a day apart. A smaller troop, the Ne’arin
(possibly mercenaries from Amurru), would attack from the west.
Ramses II led the Amun, the first division to cross the Orontes River. Camp was set up on a plain to
the south of Kadesh (see Source 3.73). Two nomads (Hittite spies) told Ramses the Hittites were a long
way away, so he was confident of successfully taking Kadesh. When he discovered he had been tricked,
he sent his vizier south to tell the other divisions to hurry up.
Meanwhile, the Hittite king, Muwatalli, was waiting for the right moment to attack. His army
crossed the Orontes River, taking the Re division by surprise. The division was decimated, with
survivors fleeing to the Amun camp. Then the Hittites turned north, intent on finishing off the Amun
division. It was a tough battle and Ramses was reduced to fighting for his life. So sure were the Hittites
of victory that they started looting the Amun camp.
For a time, the battle waged back and forth, until the Ne’arin troops arrived. This took the Hittites
by surprise, and they retreated. They fled back across the Orontes River, plunging (so Ramses II said)
‘into the water, even as crocodiles plunge, fallen upon their faces’.

147
cause and effect: the Battle of Kadesh
The ancient city of Kadesh lay on the trade route that linked the Mediterranean Sea to the northern part
focus on …

of ancient Syria. Egypt lost its influence over the city during the reign of the pharaoh Akhenaten (around
the mid 14th century bce). The deep-seated motivation for the battle is that Egypt wanted Kadesh back.
The trigger cause is thought to have been a request by the province of Amurru (see Source 3.71) to help
it free itself from Hittite rule.
It was unclear who won the battle. Ramses II claimed a stunning victory; in fact, he declared the victory
was his alone. The inscriptions he had made after the battle, known as the ‘Poem’ and the ‘Bulletin’,
proclaimed his god-like success.

Source 3.74

… I was before them like Seth in his monument. I found the mass of chariots in whose midst I was,
scattering them before my horses …
Translated extract from the ‘Poem’

Hittite records include a

statement by a later Hittite
Kadesh Kadesh Kadesh
leader, Hattusilis III, mocking
REMAINS
Ramses’ claims of a victory. OF
The longer term effect of this AMUN
battle was the historic peace AND
REMAINS RE
treaty Egypt signed with AMUN
OF RE
the Hittites in 1269 bce. To PTAH
strengthen the deal, Ramses
married a Hittite princess. PTAH
Among other things, the
RE
treaty recognised that Kadesh
belonged to the Hittites. The
treaty secured some 70 years of SETH
peace for the Near East region.
PTAH SETH
Key Ne’arin army
Swampy landscape Forest Egyptian army
Orontes River Hittite army

Source 3.73 How the Battle of Kadesh unfolded

Later conflicts
The Third Intermediate Period saw Egypt come under the ruling influence of the Libyans (for about
200 years), followed by invaders from Kush. The Kushites, in turn, were pushed back into Nubia by the
invading Assyrians during the 7th century BCE . By the late 6th century, the Persians were in control.
These various invading powers all introduced differing cultural influences into Egypt.
In 332 BCE , Egypt experienced another change. It became part of the empire of the Macedonian
king Alexander the Great when he defeated the Persians. The Ptolemaic dynasty he set up in Egypt
was based at Alexandria. This city became an advanced cultural centre and port with a magnificent
library and huge lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the world).
In 30 BCE , with the suicide of the last Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra, Egypt became a province of
ancient Rome.

148
bigideas
3.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?
Remember Apply
8 Imagine that because of some dire circumstance, Australia
1 Name some regions or places that Egypt had contact with
is cut off from all contact with the rest of the world. As a
during its early history.
class, brainstorm how you think this would influence our
2 List five goods that ancient Egypt exported and five goods it society in both the short term and the long term. Decide
imported. what your discussion reveals about the impact of trade on
3 Explain why the foreign cities of Byblos and Kadesh were societies.
important to Egypt.
4 a Who did the Egyptians fight at the Battle of Kadesh? Analyse
b Why was this battle so significant? 9 Look carefully at the map shown as Source 3.71. Use
a modern atlas to identify which modern countries (in
Understand whole or in part) were under Egyptian rule during the time
5 Based on what you have learned about ancient Egypt, list of Ramses II.
some examples of how the following imports changed (or 10 Study the strategy maps shown as Source 3.73.
how you think they would have changed) life in ancient a Think about how the Battle of Kadesh unfolded. What
Egypt: horses, lapis lazuli, leopard skins, baboons, timber, advice would you have given Ramses II so that he could
ivory, gold. avoid the near-defeat he suffered?
6 Suggest how the military campaigns of Thutmose III and b How do you think his propaganda about his god-like
Seti I influenced morale of the Egyptian army. achievements would have been received in Egypt? How
7 Look at Source 3.75. Given what you know about Ramses do you think it influenced the perceptions of ordinary
II and the Battle of Kadesh, explain why this tomb painting Egyptians?
is a good example of propaganda. How do you think the
Hittites might have reacted to this?
Evaluate
11 In groups of three, conduct some research about the rule
of Egypt by each of the following: the Libyans, the Kushites,
the Persians. Share the research task. Decide, through
discussion, which of these foreign peoples you think had
most impact on ancient Egypt, and why. Report your
findings briefly to the class.

Create
12 Find out more about the Battle of Har Mediggo. Then
complete one of the following tasks:
• Write a poem about the battle from the point of view of
Source 3.75 This
Thutmose III.
tomb painting shows
Ramses II as a • Draw a series of strategy sketches (similar to those in
‘superhero’ at the Source 3.73) to show how the battle unfolded.
Battle of Kadesh. It
• Design a stone relief or wall painting to commemorate
is only one of a great
many monuments the victory of Thutmose III. Refer to Sources 3.72
and paintings he and 3.75 to decide on the extent to which you will
had produced as incorporate propaganda.
propaganda for his
achievements.

chapter three ancient egypt 149

connectingideas
Ancient Egypt
Living forever Source 3.77
Still from the 1992
movie Forever Young
United Nations figures for the human lifespan (2005–2010) list a range from
82.6 years (Japan) to 39.6 years (Swaziland). Yet for many people—today, and
throughout human history—a lifespan is not enough. Ways are found through
religious beliefs and other means to try to live forever.

Most religions hold that there is a life for people

beyond death, an afterlife. Some hold that one
gets there through one’s own efforts or beliefs.
For others, ‘getting there’ depends on what others
do for them when they die. This was the case, for
instance, in ancient Egypt. For Egyptians, people
had no chance of reaching the afterlife if certain
things were not done after they died.
1 a Describe some of the procedures followed in
ancient Egypt when a person (particularly a
pharaoh) died.
b Explain why these practices were followed.
2 In your workbook, create a Venn diagram to
compare and contrast funeral preparations and
proceedings in ancient Egypt with those you may be
more familiar with.

Source 3.76 Artist’s impression of how human

brains might be preserved in the future.

Some hope that science will find the answers, based on what has been discovered about the brain and
cooling. A remarkable case of survival is that of Anna Bagenholm, a 29-year-old Norwegian woman.
In 1999, she fell into an icy stream while skiing. Her head became trapped under the ice. Despite the
efforts of rescuers, she was submerged for well over an hour. When finally freed and taken to hospital,
her electrocardiogram graph was a flat line. A large medical team worked on her for nine hours, and
brought her back to life. She has since recovered, save for some nerve damage to her hands.
1 How does this story change our perception of what ‘being dead’ means?
2 Why might such an event interest those who want to ‘live forever’ by means of science?

150 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Forever Young was one of a great many Hollywood movies that deal with this topic. In
this film, a young test pilot has a friend who develops a prototype chamber for cryogenic
suspension. When the pilot’s girlfriend goes into a coma after an accident, the pilot asks
his friend to put him in the chamber for a year. He does not want to have to watch his
girlfriend die. Circumstances mean his chamber is left for 53 years, until discovered by boys.
Accidentally, they start the reversal process. Straight away, though, the pilot’s body starts to
age. It is a race against time to find his girlfriend (who is still alive) before he dies.
1 How is the scene shown in Source 3.77 like and unlike scenes you have seen of Egyptian
mummies in their coffins?
2 In this movie, the body was preserved by being frozen. How were the bodies of dead Egyptians
preserved?
3 When exposed to ‘real time’, the pilot’s body started to break down and age quickly. What has
been done to stop decay to those Egyptian mummies removed from their coffins?

Source 3.78 Sculptor

As of 2010, some 200 people have had their dead bodies (or heads)
Daniel Edwards with his
‘frozen’. This field of science is called cryogenics. The body or head sculpture of the head of
is placed in liquid nitrogen (−160°C). Special liquids (similar to the famous baseball player
Ted Williams, who had his
engine antifreeze) are circulated through the blood vessels to stop
head frozen when he died
the cells freezing. These people hope that one day technology will in 2002 at age 83
be advanced enough to bring them back to life. Those who stored
only their heads might have to make do with a robot body.
1 The most important body part for those choosing to participate in
cryogenics is the brain. It has to be preserved at all costs for life to
have any chance of continuing. Did the ancient Egyptians agree?
Explain.
2 Many ancient Egyptian tombs were broken into by robbers. There
are accounts of mummies being pulled apart to get at priceless items
enclosed within their bandages.
a What impact might such vandalism have had on these dead
people’s quest for an afterlife?
b What events do you think might adversely affect the search for life
in the future for those who choose cryogenic freezing?

What happens after death has been, and continues to be, a major item of interest for many human beings? In small
groups or as a class, brainstorm different ways in which this interest has affected human lifestyles throughout history.

chapter three ancient egypt 151

depth study

Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece included what we know today as Greece as well as the
parts of modern Turkey that lie around the Aegean Sea. It also had
many colonies or settlements around the Mediterranean and Black
seas. The temple remains shown here are on Sicily. They were once
apart of the ancient town of Selinus, founded by the Greek colonists.

A common view is that Greece had three Ancient Greece is sometimes called the
founding cultures. The first was that of those ‘cradle of Western civilisation’ for the debt that
groups living on the Cycladic Islands (in the Western society owes to the early Greeks. This
Aegean Sea). The other two were the cultures includes democracy as a form of government,
of the Minoans (Crete) and the Mycenaeans Western drama and the modern Olympic
(mainland Greece). Games. Some modern architecture and sculpture
Ancient Greece entered a ‘dark age’ around also draws on its classical traditions. As well,
1200 bce . It lasted for about 400 years. It was not the work of its mathematicians, thinkers and
until about the late 9th century bce that there is storytellers continues to inspire.
evidence of emerging urban settlements. This Much is being done to conserve the remnants
is why some regard the start of Greece’s ancient of this grand civilisation. For example, UNESCO
civilisation as 776 bce —the year of the first has listed 17 locations in Greece as World
Olympic Games. Heritage Sites.

Key inquiry questions

4.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?

4.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?

4.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?

4.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?

Ruins in the ancient town of Selinus, on the south coast of today’s island of Sicily
4
Finishing line for races at the ancient Olympics

bigpicture
Ancient Greece
The period of ancient Greece’s history with which
people generally are probably most familiar lasted
only about 400 years. It began with the first Olympic
Games (776 bce) and ended in 323 bce when
Alexander the Great died. He was then the King of
Macedon and had made Greece part of his empire.
Many argue that Alexander’s death marked the end
of ancient Greece. Others contest this. Some argue
it was 146 bce when ancient Rome took control of
the last independent Greek city-state. Others say
that it lasted for another 300 years or so within the
Hellenistic (Greek) empire Alexander created.

76
7
First recorded Olympic Games

c. 1450 c. 1100
Eruption of volcano Mycenaean civilisation
on Thera declining

BCE

c. 2500
c. 3000 Start of Minoan civilisation c. 750
Start of Homer credited
Cyclades with writing the
culture Illiad and the
Odyssey

A typical
Cyclades A wall panel from the Minoan palace on Crete
sculpture
197
Rome finally defeats Macedon,
forcing it to give up the Greek
states it fomerly controlled

332
Alexander dies after
defeating the Persians
and setting up an empire
480
that spread Greek culture
Battle of Salamis
(Second Persian War)
c. 340
Macedon develops
490 c. 460 the catapult as a
Battle of Marathon Herodotus writes weapon of war
(First Persian War) his account of the
Persian Wars
5
08
Cleisthenes introduces
reforms in Athens, setting
the scene for democracy
146
Rome conquers last
36
3 A sculpture of resisting city-state in
Alexander becomes king Alexander the Great Greece: Corinth
of Macedon after the
assassination of his father
(see p. 74)
4
61
Start of hostilities
between Athens and
Sparta, which led to
the outbreak of the
Peloponnesian Wars

c. 610
Sappho of
Lesbos born
4 47
Construction of
the Parthenon
on Athens’
Acropolis
starts
c. 720
First Greek colonies
set up in today’s
Sicily

Source 4.1 Timeline of some key events and developments

in the history of ancient Greece

chapter four ancient greece 155

Source 4.2 Part of the coastal landscape of Greece, in the Peloponnesian Peninsula

4.1 How do geographical features

influence human settlements?
Ancient urban societies often sprang up in fertile river valleys. The
four earliest civilisations (Sumer, Egypt, Indus Valley and China) did,
but not ancient Greece. Its history reflects the particular way its people
adapted to the physical features of their environment.
Ancient Greece was located in south-eastern Europe. Its territory curled
around the Aegean Sea (see Source 4.5). It also included the many islands that
dot the sea. (There are about 1400, though only one in five can support human
settlement.) Its coastline traces around countless sheltered inlets and bays.
Away from the fertile coastal plain, Greece’s interior is mountainous, marked
by deep valleys and rocky outcrops. None of its rivers can be easily navigated, if at
all. The melting snow in spring swells many into raging streams; yet, by summer,
some are just a trickle. The Pindus range runs the length of mainland Greece. The
highest peak, Mount Olympus, was regarded as the home of the gods.
Generally, Greece has a so-called ‘Mediterranean climate’. It has sunshine
throughout the year, with wet and mild winters and dry, warm summers. Local
variations are due largely to its geography. Greece’s many islands have balmy
winter temperatures, while its mountains can be bitterly cold and snow-covered.

156
Impact of physical features on settlement patterns
The first known fixed settlements on Greece’s mainland were in the Peloponnesian Peninsula and
on the fertile plains in Thessaly. Evidence has been found of scattered mud-brick villages built
around 7000 bce . There were also ancient settlements on adjacent islands—on Crete and in the
Cyclades.
Greece’s steep mountains and rugged high country cut off contact between many settlements.
These features in ancient Greece prevented people from growing as one nation. Rather, many
settlements developed as city-states (see pp. 158–9). This meant there was no single Greek ruler,
as a pharaoh was for the ancient Egyptians.

Black Sea
Corsica

X
Sardinia Macedonia
M e Aegean
d Sea
i
t
e Sicily
r Near
r Peloponnesian East
a Peninsula
n Crete
e a
Ancient Greece n S e a
Colonies of ancient Greece
Cyclades
X Plains of Thessaly N Egypt
Land relief 0 600 km

Source 4.4 Map showing location of ancient Greece and its colonies and areas
of influence

0 200 km
Black
Sea
THRACE
Pin
dus

Mt Olympus
Troy
THESSALY Ae ge an
Ran

Sea
ge

Lesbos
Delphi Eretria Sardis
Thebes Plataea
Elis Athens
Mycenae
Olympia Marathon
Argos
MESSENIA
Sparta Delos
N Pylos LACONIA
Thera

Elis City-state CRETE

Mountain
Ancient Greece
Land relief Mediterranean Sea

Source 4.3 Part of the mountainous interior of the Source 4.5 Ancient Greece and some of its city-states
Peloponnesian Peninsula

chapter four ancient greece 157

The Heliaea, the law courts

A typical Greek city-state

City-states were independent
urban centres that generally
shared a common language and
religious beliefs. At times, some The agora, packed with market stalls
banded together to fight a war or and men meeting and doing business.
It is criss-crossed with laneways.
for protection. Now and then, one
might dominate for a time.
The most powerful city-states Gymnasium
were Athens and Sparta. They were
also at times bitter rivals.
A city-state typically had one
city, where most political, religious
and cultural activities took place.
At its centre were public buildings,
built around a large open space
called the agora. The markets were
there; it was also where people did
business and were entertained.
Usually raised ground or a hill was
nearby, on which temples, palaces
and other key buildings were built
(this was called an acropolis,
which means ‘summit city’). Homes
for the people of a city-state were
typically built around the city
centre.
Beyond these homes was a wide
band of farming land. The farms
provided the city population
with food.

Villas of the wealthier

people (often on higher
ground) with atriums

Atrium—a central courtyard

without a roof that often
contained a pool

Transport within the city was by

foot—people walked everywhere

Source 4.6 Artist’s impression of the heart of a typical city-state

158
Narrow streets and
alleys were usual

Houses of ordinary
people

The place where slaves

were bought and sold

Tholos, where a city-

state’s council met

Bouleterion, where the city’s Council

of 500, the Boule, met

An audience gathered to hear Acropolis—the highest part of the city

the words of philosophers where important temples were built

Strategium or military
headquarters

Temple

Stoa—long building, like a hall, containing

shops and offices while providing shelter
and a shaded place to meet

chapter four ancient greece 159

Source 4.7 A model
of the Knossus palace,
the largest of many
palaces on the island.
It had more than
1000 rooms.

Impact of physical features on history The Minoans

As stated earlier, many historians agree that the roots of The Minoan civilisation began over 4500 years ago. It
the civilisation of ancient Greece lay in three Bronze Age centred on the island of Crete and lasted close to 1500 years.
cultures: those of the Cyclades groups, the Minoans and the Much of what we know about it is due to the efforts of
Mycenaeans (see pp. 162–3). British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. He named the
civilisation after King Minos, the legendary king of Crete.
The Cyclades Much of his work involved restoring the massive royal
The Cyclades are a group of islands in the Aegean Sea (see palace at Knossus (or Knossos).
Source 4.4). Some are just rocky outcrops. Almost all are The Knossus palace (see Source 4.7) was first built around
the exposed peaks of an underwater range. Two islands 1700 bce . Its first reconstruction (around 1500 bce) is thought
are volcanic; Santorini (formerly Thera) is one. In about to have followed the Thera explosion. When later destroyed
1500 bce , it exploded. Scientists estimate its force was more by fire, around 1150 bce , its ruins were left. Some think this
than 13 000 times that of the atomic bomb that destroyed damage followed an invasion by the Mycenaeans.
the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945. Historians have learned much about the Minoans from
The Cycladic people lived about 4000–4500 years ago, the frescoes on palace walls. These paintings provide
trading with other Mediterranean peoples. Food was not evidence that the people were regular sea traders. Some
easy to grow on the rocky islands. So, in exchange for food, Minoan goods have been found in Egypt.
they traded copper, white marble, and obsidian (a dark Artefacts such as the Phaistos Disc provide evidence
volcanic glass). that the Minoans had a language: Linear A. So far, it has
The Cyclades culture began to decline after about not been decoded. (Linear B tablets have also been found
1700 bce . Some historians think it was absorbed by the which have been decoded.) Evidence suggests that bulls and
Minoan civilisation. Only the island of Delos kept its double-headed axes were significant religious symbols for
separate cultural identity for close to the next 2000 years. the Minoans.

160
freshideas
Using Venn diagrams

A Venn diagram is a simple diagrammatic tool to help you organise your

thinking. It helps to quickly identify and document what two things have in
common and how they differ. These ‘things’ can be anything: artefacts, cities,
political systems, warfare strategies and so on. They can be a quick (and
helpful) way to think about examples of change and continuity in history.
Here is an example of a Venn diagram:

A both A and B B

Source 4.9 Part of the ruins of an excavated storehouse in

the Palace of Minos

Source 4.8 A Venn diagram

The two photographs opposite are of items made by the ancient Minoans.
Source 4.9 is a photograph of part of the storehouse of the Palace of Minos.
Source 4.10 is a piece of pottery from another Minoan palace, the Palace at
Phaestus.
Study these two images carefully, noting the features of each. (Think about size,
shape, colour, design, layout, purpose, benefits and limitations, risks and so on.)
Prepare two Venn diagrams, one for each of these images, to compare and
contrast the following (you may need to do some research):
• Minoan storage arrangements for, say, a large restaurant or hotel kitchen
• the Minoan ceramic container with a vase or container you have at home.
Think about each completed Venn diagram. Use the points you have noted to
write a short paragraph about how each ancient Minoan artefact or practice
compares with modern equivalents. Decide to what extent each scenario is an
example of change and continuity.

chapter four ancient greece 161

examiningevidence
The Mycenaeans

The Mycenaean culture began to

strengthen on Greece’s southern mainland
from about 1600 bce. Like the Minoans, the
people took advantage of their proximity to
the Mediterranean Sea to be busy
sea traders. Mycenaeans lived in
a number of ‘cities’,
Evidence provided by Linear B translations
usually built on a hill or
and Mycenaean artefacts suggests
cliff top. There are still
the people were more warlike than the
remains of the ancient
Minoans. Large quantities of weapons and
walls and gates that
armour have been found in their tombs.
enclosed some of these
Like the Minoans, it appears that they
settlements. Around and below were
believed in an afterlife. Goddesses seem
the houses of the people. Adjacent land Source 4.12 Artist’s reconstruction of the former
to have played a significant role in their
was farmed to provide food for the city kingdom of Mycenaea. Like with later Greek city-
religious beliefs (as they did on Crete). states, palaces and temples of Mycenaean cities
occupants.
were enclosed within solid city walls.

Unlike the Linear A script of

the Minoans, Linear B has
been decoded by scholars.
Thousands of tablets like that
shown in Source 4.11 have
been found. Much of what
was written was job tasks
and lists of items. Of more
significance is the evidence
these tablets provide on
exports and imports. They
also refer to gods who were
later to be among ancient
Greece’s main deities Source 4.13
Mycenaean helmet
and reveal that priests and
made from the tusks
priestesses owned property. of boars (wild pigs)

As well as helmets like these, suits of armour

made of overlapping bronze plates have been
found, and bronze swords, daggers and leg
guards. Some swords were richly decorated:
one was inlaid on both sides with gold and silver
Source 4.11 A stone tablet bearing carvings of warriors fighting lions.
the Mycenaean script, Linear B

162
Death masks (five of which were found at Mycenaea) were
made from either beaten gold or electrum (a mix of gold and
silver). They fitted over the face of the dead person. The most
famous of these—more finely crafted than this one—is the
death mask, some say, of King Agamemnon. Other historians
contest this, saying it was made a few centuries before this king
was said to have lived (if he lived at all!).
Source 4.14
A Mycenaean death mask

The Mycenaean kingdom of Tiryns lay on the north-east coast of the Source 4.15 This artist’s impression of some aspects of
Peloponnesian Peninsula. In 1999, the ruins of it and Mycenaea were added lifestyle in the Mycenaean kingdom of Tiryns
to the list of World Heritage sites in Greece. This source provides one artist’s
impression of what life was like in Tiryns.

1 a Is Source 4.14 a primary or secondary source 5 Imagine you were walking around the city shown as
for a study of the ancient Mycenaeans? Source 4.12.
b What does it suggest about the possible a Describe what might catch your eye and why.
appearance of the head of its owner? b Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast what you see
2 What are some of the things historians have on this walk with a walk around the centre of the city or town
discovered with the decoding of the Linear B script? you live in (or live closest to).
3 What evidence is there to suggest that the 6 Use the evidence provided here to make either a Mycenaean
Mycenaeans were probably warlike? death mask (perhaps you could use aluminium foil and an
4 a What types of primary evidence do you think the obliging friend’s face!) or a Mycenaean helmet (perhaps using
artist of Source 4.15 might have consulted? cardboard or plastic shapes and rope sewn or stapled to an old
b Explain how this source adds to your beanie or similar).
understanding of Mycenaean life.

chapter four ancient greece 163

bigideas
4.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?
Remember 8 Many scholars think that a massive tidal wave (and possible
earthquakes), caused by the explosion of the super-volcano
1 a Name three Bronze Age cultures that many historians on Thera, caused extensive damage and loss of life for the
agree were a foundation for the civilisation of ancient ancient Minoans. Source 4.18 is a more recent example.
Greece. Use this information, and Source 4.17, to write a short
b Describe the location of each in terms of their report of what might have happened on Crete when Thera
geography. erupted. Your perspective will be that of an ancient writer,
2 Prepare a facts sheet on the geography of mainland Greece. living on Crete at the time.
Include a small location map and photographs downloaded
from websites. (Search Google for photographic libraries Analyse
such as Corbis and Getty.) 9 Prepare a Venn diagram to compare and contrast what you
have learned about the societies of the ancient Minoans and
Understand Mycenaeans. As you do so, think about how any similarities
3 Explain how physical features of mainland Greece made its and differences were influenced by the physical features of
ancient society a people who depended on the sea to meet their location.
their needs (such as transport or trade).
4 Look at Source 4.5 and note, in particular, where the city- Evaluate
states shown on the map are located with respect to the 10 Draw a SWOT chart for a city-state (such as many of the
rest of the Greek land mass and the coastline. human settlements in ancient Greece were). Copy an
a What do you observe? enlarged version of Source 4.16 on an A3 sheet of paper or
b Can you suggest reasons for this settlement pattern? card.
a Working in small groups, with every member contributing
5 Study the city-state illustration (Source 4.6) closely.
in turn, complete the four segments of this SWOT chart
a Write down the three things that most caught your eye,
with as many brainstormed ideas as you can. One entry
either because they puzzled or intrigued you.
has been provided in each to get you started.
b For each item, frame two questions that would help to
b Discuss as a group what your overall conclusions are
guide your further research about these items.
about living in a city-state.
6 Use the zoom-in tool for Google Earth, or switch to Earth
view of Google Maps, to study the topography of mainland
Greece. Approximately what percentage of the terrain do STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
you think is mountainous? Compare your estimate with • settlement produces • city centre
that of another student and discuss (and resolve) any its own food may become
overcrowded as
differences. population grows

Apply
7 Select one of the physical features that influenced the world
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
of the ancient Greeks. Conduct sufficient research about
• allows for the • may be vulnerable
this feature that will allow you to present a ‘Who am I?’ oral development of a against attack, with
presentation of 1 or 2 minutes for the class. Begin your stable culture no allies
talk in general terms and progressively give away enough
specific detail for class members to identify the feature.
Present your talk creatively, though based on fact.
Source 4.16 SWOT chart

164 big ideas history

Source 4.17 Artist’s impression of the possible effects of the eruption of
Thera on the ancient Minoans.

Create
11 Through the wonders of space travel, you have arrived on
a planet with physical features just like those on Earth—
except no-one yet lives there! With a partner, put together
a proposal for the construction of a city-state whose layout
and operation is based on ancient principles.
a First select a location (based on what you know about
the geography of Earth). Justify your choice. Draw a
simple map of this imaginary location, identifying relevant
geographical features.
b Illustrate which parts of the city-state you think should
go where by doing one of the following: sketch a
labelled plan; make a simple model; paint a picture,
with supporting arrowed labels; create a multimedia
presentation, using ICT tools.
c Explain how your city-state will be sustainable (that is,
will be able to function just on its own resources well into
the future).

Source 4.18 Part of what remained of the Thai village of

Khao Lak after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The tsunami
was caused by a sea bed earthquake.

chapter four ancient greece 165

Source 4.19 Artist’s impression of the Greek leader Pericles during a democratic debate with the men
of Athens

4.2 What shaped the roles of key

groups in ancient societies?
A number of factors work together to structure a society. One factor is
a political system. This determines, for example, those individuals or
groups who will probably have more power and social influence than
others. A society governed by a ruthless dictator, for example, is likely
to have a strong secret police. Religious groups may be banned and the
press may have a limited role.
Another factor is a combination of those issues that define people’s social
roles and responsibilities. These may be wealth, ownership of land, skills, gender,
citizenship, beliefs and so on. Military issues also have an impact on the shape
of a society. For example, the roles of people in a society at war will be somewhat
different from those of a society living peacefully.

166
Political systems of Athens and Sparta
As in other Greek city-states, the king at first had total Every 10 days or so, the Ekklesia (see Source 4.22) met
power in Athens. Over time, he became more of a on the side of a hill called Pnyx, in Athens. It decided on
figurehead. Real power was passed to a small group of matters the Council of 500, or Boule (also see Source 4.22),
wealthy, privileged landowners called aristocrats. They asked it to consider. This might include whether or not to
ruled Athens as an oligarchy (rule by a select few). go to war. It is known that some decisions required at least
A new way of governing developed in Athens during the 6000 citizens be present to vote. Slaves carrying ropes
6th century bce . It was known as democracy (see p. 39). soaked in red dye were sent out to round up attendees. It
Under leaders such as Solon (c. 638–558 bce), Cleisthenes was a shame to be seen with red dye on one’s clothing, so
(c. 570–507 bce) and Ephialtes (who died c. 461 bce), male this helped to hurry citizens along.
Athenians who were ordinary citizens became a stronger In theory, every Athenian citizen could speak at the
political force. Historians give most of the credit for this Ekklesia, and vote. But the ancient Greek philosopher Plato
to Cleisthenes. He reformed the constitution in around wrote that those who talked too long about things they
508 bce . This created equal rights for all citizens and knew little about were laughed at, shouted down or carried
removed much of the power of the aristocrats. The most off. It did not matter who they were.
notable democratic leader of Athens was Pericles (495–
Source 4.20
429 bce). He ruled during the Golden Age of Athens.
The word ‘democracy’ comes from two Greek words: [But] the man who rises to advise them [a meeting of the Ekklesia]
demos (‘people’) and kratos (‘rule’). Under democracy, every on [non-technical matters to do with the government of the city-
state] … may equally well be a smith, a shoemaker, a merchant, a
Athenian citizen could be involved in the political process.
sea-captain, a rich man, a poor man, of good family or none.
More than that, participating in politics was seen as their
From a translated extract of Protagoras (319d) by Plato
civic duty. (The English word ‘idiot’ comes from the Greek
word idios meaning ‘own’ or ‘private’—in other words, Most city-states eventually adopted the democratic
someone who did not contribute to civic affairs.) However, structures of Athens. Powerful Sparta, however, became
the actual role that one had in politics depended on one’s a military state (see pp. 192–3). It retained the roles of its
position in society. That position was determined by one’s kings (see Source 4.22).
wealth and land ownership.

change and continuity: citizenship

focus on …

Only Athenian citizens could vote and take part in

democratic processes. That principle continues in Australia
today, as does the Athenian practice of being eligible to
vote at 18 years of age. Athenian citizens were men over
18 whose parents had both been born in Athens (or Attica)
and were married. Their fathers had to be citizens (and,
later, their mothers’ fathers had to be as well). Women,
slaves, children and foreigners, however, were not citizens.
In that respect, things have changed. Everyone born in
Australia, whether male or female, is a citizen. Those who
immigrate here or are welcomed as refugees can choose to
become citizens if they wish. Certain conditions have to be
met first, though, to qualify. Those applying for Australian
citizenship also have to pass certain tests. They also have to
participate in a citizenship ceremony.
Source 4.21 Democracy in action in Australia

chapter four ancient greece 167

ANCIENT SPARTA
Two kings (one later responsible only for the army)

Ephorate Council of Elders (Gerousia) Assembly of Spartiates (Apella)

Made up of 5 men (ephors) Made up of 2 kings and 28 respected men over

Made up of all citizens 30 years or older
elected each year by the Apella 60 years old elected for life by the Apella

Met every day Met once per month Met once per month

Role: Say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to laws; could not debate Role: Develop laws and policies; try court cases for Role: Say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to laws; could not debate
matters referred to it; elect ephors and the treason (could also try the king); provide business matters referred to it; elect ephors and the
28 members of the Gerousia (e.g., laws) for the Apella to consider 28 members of the Gerousia

ANCIENT ATHENS (5TH CENTURY bce)

Committees made up of 10 citizens elected for
each by the Ekklesia to assist the Boule

Council of 500 (Boule)

Archons Popular court
Council of ex-archons (Areopagus) (no-one could be a member more
(senior magistrates) (Dikasteria)
than twice)

Made up of citizens elected Made up of 50 men selected by Juries made up of several

Made up of former
from top two property classes lot from each of the 10 tribes hundred men (citizens) chosen by
archons elected for life
in Athens of Athens lot from the 10 tribes of Athens
elected
elected

Role: Exercise governing Met as required Role: Judge legal matters and
power in constitutional decisions of the archons
and legal matters
Role: Prepare matters
for discussion by Ekklesia;
put into practice laws
War generals (strategoi)— passed by Ekklesia
Assembly (Ekklesia)
10 from each tribe
elected
elected
Role: Command the army and Made up of all men
recruit soldiers (citizens over 18)

Met 40 times per year

Check your learning
1 Describe the role of the Ekklesia, the Dikasteria and the Gerousia.
Role: Discuss and vote 2 What aspects have changed and what has continued in respect
on matters affecting
to citizenship in ancient Athens and in Australia today?
Athens; elect members
of the Boule (and its 3 Complete one of the following activities to explain your idea of
committees), Dikasteria, ‘democracy in action’:
war generals and archons • individually, write a poem or draw a picture
• in a group, create an abstract model or dance.
4 For each of the following groups, write a sentence to explain why
Source 4.22 Political structures in the
governments of Athens in 5th centuary you think it was powerful in Greek society: the Gerousia in ancient
bce and of Sparta Sparta, and the Ekklesia in Athens.

168
Source 4.23 Artist’s impression of slaves being sold in a Greek marketplace

Key social groups in ancient Greece

The city-states of ancient Greece each had their own unique features. However, some of the roles and
responsibilities of their main social groups were similar. These are described below.

Citizens and non-citizens

In Athens, by law only citizens could vote and contribute to the running of the city-state (polis). They
could also own land. They were expected to provide as much money as they could to support the polis.
Women, slaves and metics (foreigners) were non-citizens. (A metic could become a citizen only by a
special vote of the Ekklesia.) Metics could own slaves, but not own land.

Slaves
Slaves made up most of the population of Sparta; by the 5th century bce , they made up about
30 per cent of the population of Athens. Slaves in ancient Greece might be prisoners-of-war, ‘trade
goods’, people sold by very poor families or abandoned babies. Slaves were regarded as property.
Male slaves typically worked on farms, mines and ships. They also made up a large part of Athens’
police force. If they were highly educated, they might teach the male children of a wealthy household.
Female slaves mostly worked around the home.
A few slaves were treated well. Some were even granted their freedom. But many, especially those
working on ships or in the mines, had brutal, short lives.

chapter four ancient greece 169

Children and teenagers
Girls were married at around 13, often to men twice their age. The father of a girl chose the girl’s
husband. The first time a girl met the man she would marry was often on her wedding day. Girls were
generally not educated, as the purpose of education in Athens was to produce good male citizens.
Boys learned how to read and write and to appreciate dancing, music and poetry. Physical
development was also important. Boys therefore attended a gymnasium from an early age. A boy from
a wealthy family might also have a skilled tutor (perhaps a highly educated slave) in his teenage years.

Women
With very few exceptions, women in ancient Greece were
expected to stay at home. (Even the way homes were
designed and were run reflected the clear distinction
between the roles of men and women; see Source 4.27.)
This distinction applied whether women were wealthy
or poor. The women ran the day-to-day matters of the
household, had children and cared for their families. They
were expected to obey their menfolk.
Wealthy married women led more pleasant lives
than did poor women. However, they were still mostly
confined to the home. An outing might mean attending a
religious festival, a wedding, a funeral or visiting another
woman in the home. Some religious festivals such as the
Thesmophoria (an ancient fertility festival for women) were
attended by married women only. There is some evidence to
suggest women may have attended some plays.
Life for a poor woman, beyond her family Source 4.24 Greek painting from the 5th century bce. Wealthy women in
responsibilities, consisted of little more than fetching water, ancient Greece had plenty of time to ‘treat themselves’. They usually bathed
every day and used perfumed oil. Powdered lead or chalk was applied to
cooking food, spinning and weaving cloth.
create a pale complexion.

Had to put a newborn baby out to die

if the man of the house said so
Were not educated

Could not, by law, inherit

property
Could not attend the
gymnasium
Were not involved in feasts
and men’s discussions
(called symposia; see p. 172)
Could not participate in
held in their home Some restrictions
public life or institutions

Could not attend the

Olympic games Could not visit the agora (except to
fetch water, or sell some items in the
case of poorer women)
Could legally have her
children and dowry taken Had virtually no legal or
from her if her husband political rights Source 4.25 Restrictions on women’s roles in
divorced her ancient Greece

170
a

b c

Source 4.26
This series of images
are a modern artist’s
copy of paintings
d e on ancient Greek
vases: (a) wedding
procession,
(b) sacrificial
procession,
(c) women airing
clothes, (d) temple
scene, (e) the mythical
Penelope at her
weaving loom

Exceptions to the rule

Compared with women in some other ancient societies, women in
ancient Athens (and in many other Greek city-states) led very restricted Check your learning
public lives. As mentioned earlier, most of their time was spent in the 1 What sorts of people were typically slaves
home, under the control and direction of their menfolk. There were, in ancient Greece, and what sort of jobs did
however, some exceptions to the rule. they do?
2 Refer to the text and sources in this section
Women of Sparta
to creatively describe a typical day in the life
Spartan women could not be citizens or hold government positions. But of a wealthy Greek woman.
they were educated and physically fit. They could also own property 3 Use your creative thinking to explain why
and represent themselves legally. They were older than their Athenian the son of a very wealthy family in ancient
‘sisters’ when they married. Their chief role was to bear strong sons Greece was like a horse that wins the
to fight for Sparta. Unlike the long, draping garments of most Greek Melbourne Cup.
women, their tunics were short and plain. Spartan women did not wear 4 Who would you have been if you had the
make-up or jewellery. choice: a Spartan woman, a hetairai or an
educated male slave working as a tutor?
Hetairai (usually foreign women) Disregard your gender in answering this
Hetairai were the only women allowed to mix with men (such as at a question, and give reasons for your choice.
symposium). Their purpose was to entertain: they chatted, played musical 5 Look carefully at Source 4.26. Take note of
instruments and danced. Hetairai were often well educated. the characters in each image and of what
they are doing. If you knew nothing else
Priestesses about the role of women in ancient Greece,
Women who became priestesses led sheltered but more privileged lives what might you conclude (or at least suspect)
than many other Greek women. The famous priestess Pythia, the oracle from the evidence this source provides about
at Delphi, gave advice believed to come from the gods. their social role? Why?

chapter four ancient greece 171

Social divisions at home
Social divisions were evident in the way people lived at home. There was, for example, a clear
separation between the living areas of men and women. The women’s area was at the back, often
upstairs. Men did not go there. Similarly, only men could relax in the large room downstairs set aside
for entertainment and discussion.

o A link to an interactive about how the wealthy lived in ancient Greece is available on the obook.

Women chatted with their friends,

perhaps while spinning or weaving, in
an upstairs room called the gynaeceum.
Children were allowed in the room.
Simple furnishings

The symposium followed a dinner party

where men discussed politics and the
arts. Unless it was a family occasion,
household women were not allowed to join
them (although hetairai might be invited).

Mud-brick construction; roofs

were often built with tiles made
of clay.

Bigger houses (especially if two

Men entertained their friends storeys) usually had a central
(males) in a grand downstairs courtyard where the household
room called the andron. As Mosaic tiled floors, and shrine was kept. Wealthy homes
boys grew older, they might sometimes walls (in wealthy might also have their own well.
be permitted to join in their homes). This art form began in
activities, but never girls. ancient Greece. Olive oil lamps

Source 4.27 Artist’s impression: typical house of a wealthy family in ancient Greece

172
significance: Sappho
focus on …

One woman not typical of most women of ancient Greece was

Sappho (c. 610–570 bce). Records about her are scanty and
scholars have differing views about her life. Yet bits and pieces
of her poetry have survived.
Sappho was born on Lesbos, one of the larger Aegean islands. It
was a thriving centre of trade, business and culture. Possibly for
that reason, restrictions on women were less rigid than in other
parts of Greece. Historians believe she was born into a wealthy
family. This would have also given her greater freedoms. Some
accounts say she married a rich merchant named Cercylas and
had a daughter. Some say she jumped to her death over a cliff
after a love affair with a man named Phaon went wrong. Others
suggest she preferred the company of women.
It is thought Sappho was at the hub of a closely-knit group of
women who loved the arts. This included singing, dancing,
poetry and the playing of the lyre. Some of the poems she wrote
were written for women in this group, to be sung or read aloud
at their weddings.
What is not in doubt about Sappho is that she wrote poetry.
Some scholars regard her as being among the great poets
of ancient Greece. This is one reason for her significance. On
hearing one of her songs, the Greek lawmaker and poet Solon
(c. 638 – 558 bce) is recorded as saying that he wanted to ‘learn
it and die’.
Sappho sometimes wrote in the first person (then very unusual
for poets). Also then unusual was her viewpoint: she wrote
from the perspective of a human being, not a god. She did
write poems for goddesses. But she also wrote about ordinary
women and their human feelings of loss, love and longing. Many
feminists today regard her as ‘a hero’.
Unfortunately, much of Sappho’s work has been lost. We have
four complete poems and bits of others. Scholars have carefully
put together the fragments that have been found, some on
ancient rubbish dumps. Other writings were on papyrus that had
been stuffed into mummified animals in ancient Egypt.

Source 4.28

Like a sweet-apple
turning red
high
on the tip
of the topmost branch.
Forgotten by pickers.

Not forgotten—
they couldn’t reach it. Source 4.29 A sculpture of Sappho at Mytilene on Lesbos
A translated extract of Sappho’s writing, translated
by Julia Dubnoff

chapter four ancient greece 173

Thinkers, artisans and writers Artisans
People of ancient Greece did, of course, have roles in society Artisans carved sculptures and fine marble reliefs to adorn
besides those so far mentioned. There were, for example, temples and public buildings. They also crafted pots.
merchants and soldiers.
There were also the groups of artisans, as well as Writers
philosophers and writers on various subjects: science, the The oldest known Greek writer, Homer, is thought to have
arts and politics. These social groups and roles were more lived in the 8th century bce . Some scholars contest that his
evident in Athens, particularly during its Golden Age. This works—the epic tales of the Odyssey and the Iliad—may
was a time when the Athenian society generally had a ‘love have been, in fact, written by a number of people who
affair’ with the arts. It was a time when many beautiful documented legends passed down over time.
things were made and significant documents were written.
Writer When he lived What he wrote

Philosophers, scholars and inventors Aesop born c. 620 bce fables

Ancient Greece gave rise to a group of philosophers and Aristophanes c. 450–385 bce comedies
scholars (such as historians, mathematicians, astronomers Aeschylus c. 524–456 bce serious plays; the founder
and scientists) who pushed to find out more about their of Greek tragedies
world. Many, such as the mathematician Archimedes Thucydides c. 430–399 bce the history of the
(287–212 bce), came up not only with amazing inventions, Peloponnesian wars
but also with mathematical formulas still used today. (between Athens and
Sparta)
The works of ancient Greek philosophers are also still
studied today, particularly in universities. In time, schools Thespis 6th century bce poetry; said to be the first
to act in a Greek play
of thought emerged among groups of philosophers. Each
school of thought supported a particular view of the world Source 4.31 Some key writers of ancient Greece
and of human life and behaviour. Significant
Greek philosophers included Socrates (469–399 bce),
Plato (429–347 bce) and Aristotle (384–322 bce).

Source 4.30 Artist’s impression of the Source 4.32 This Roman statue is a copy of one
Archimedes screw, a water pumping device carved by the Greek sculptor Myron around 450 bce.

174
bigideas
4.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?
Remember
1 Write your own definition of democracy, as a system of
government.
2 Explain why Sappho, Pericles and Cleisthenes were
significant people of ancient Greece.
3 What were some of the rights people could enjoy in ancient
Athens if they were citizens?

Understand
4 a Explain the meaning of these terms in your own words:
metic, hetairai, gynaeceum, symposium.
b Write a sentence for each word, explaining its relevance
to life in ancient Athens and to some of its social roles.
5 o A link to information about living in a Greek house is
available on the obook. Explore how the different roles of
men and women, and of slaves and freeborn people, were
reflected in house design.
6 Explain how the roles of men and women in ancient Greece
were shaped by the way they were educated.
Source 4.33 Artist’s impression of a feast in an ancient Greek home
Apply
7 Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) was a highly educated British
Evaluate
writer. She endured strong discrimination because she
was female. In her book A Room of One’s Own she wrote, 9 Modern democracy was described by US President
‘Women have served all these centuries as looking-glasses Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865 ce) as ‘government of the
possessing the magic and delicious power of reflecting the people, by the people, and for the people’. How does this
figure of a man at twice its natural size’. As a class, discuss: definition sit with what you understand about democracy in
ancient Athens?
a what this quotation means, and what it reveals about the
way women such as Woolf were regarded in Western
Create
society as recently as the 20th century
10 Look at Source 4.33.
b how this situation compares with the social role of
women in ancient Greece. a With a partner, see if you can identify representatives
of the following social groups in this painting, giving
Analyse reasons for your choice: hetairai, slaves. Who do you
think owns the home? Why?
8 Look closely at Source 4.22.
b With a partner write a short script about what might have
a Write two paragraphs to compare and contrast Athens’
been said (or done) between some of the characters
style of government with Sparta’s.
you observe here. Your conversation (words and
b Explain what owning land had to do with some of the
tone) should reflect the social differences between the
more powerful political roles (especially in Athens).
characters you select.

chapter four ancient greece 175

Source 4.34 Artist’s impression of the key deities of Mount Olympus

4.3 How do beliefs, values and

practices influence lifestyle?
The ancient Greeks believed in a great many deities. Each was seen to
be in charge of certain things. For example, Poseidon was god of the
sea, and Artemis goddess of the hunt. What the people believed was
reinforced by their myths and legends, such as the legend of the Trojan
Wars (see pp. 190–1). Chief among the deities were the Olympians,
whose ‘family home’ was on Mount Olympus. It was believed they
sometimes visited Earth to dwell in the temples made for them, even to
have children with humans!
Every morning, a Greek family would pray at the household shrine. The deity
they prayed to depended on what was happening. A man going off to fight might
pray to Ares, god of war. A woman tending a garden might pray to Hegemone,
goddess of plants. Offerings, often wine or food, would be left on the shrine.

176 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

How one prayed was also important. For example, to pray
to Hades, god of the Underworld, people extended their arms
forward with palms parallel to the ground. Prayers and offerings
(such as sacrifices of slaughtered animals) might also be made
at temples.
Religious belief was the main reason festivals were held in
ancient Greece. These events were held to honour gods. One
of the biggest of these was the Olympic Games (see pp. 178–9),
which honoured the god Zeus, the king of the gods. Another
festival was the annual Panathenaea (see p. 184).

Other religious practices and rituals

Temples
Temples in ancient Greece were built as ‘homes’ for the deities
whenever they were on Earth. Their design reflected this
function: they were impressive, spacious structures. Usually, they
were built on a hill called an acropolis (from the Greek akron,
which means summit, and polis, which means city). They were
decorated, inside and out. A statue of the deity for whom the
temple was made was erected inside.

Oracles and seers

Sometimes, people felt a need to contact a deity more directly
than was possible through rituals such as sacrifices and festivals.
(For example, a ruler might wish to ask a god about whether he Source 4.35 Artist’s impression of the Parthenon when built.
should go to war). To make such contact, one had to consult an The temple, built on the Acropolis in Athens, was dedicated to
the city’s patron, Athene, the goddess of war and wisdom. The
oracle or a seer. pediment and frieze depicted scenes from ‘her life’, as well as
An oracle was believed to be able to talk to the deities. If the other gods, battles and feasts.
oracle’s message was confusing, it was interpreted by priests.
Any inconsistencies between the ‘advice’ given and what later
happened were explained away. The oracle was always right.
Seers interpreted a deity’s wishes by analysing dreams and
interpreting signs. For example, seers might interpret what they
saw in the guts of sacrificed animals, or in the pattern of leaves.

Options
Check your learning How beliefs, values and practices
1 Why did ancient Greeks regard Mt Olympus with a degree of awe? influenced the lifestyle of the ancient
Greeks is discussed in respect to the
2 Give one example of how religious beliefs might affect how a family in ancient Greece
three topic areas listed below.
started their day.
Choose one of these:
3 Explain how the ancient Olympic Games were linked to the religious beliefs of the
• everyday life (pp. 180–187)
people.
• warfare (pp. 181–193)
4 a Why might an ancient Greek leader visit each of the following: an oracle, a seer?
• death and funerary customs
b Describe two things a seer might do to provide the answer required.
(pp. 194–195).
c Can you suggest whom people today might consult to get answers about what
Related activities are on pages 196–7.
might happen in their lives, or actions they should take?

chapter four ancient greece 177

Olympic Games
The first ancient Olympic Games were held
in 776 bce in the city-state of Olympia (see
Source 4.5). The Games began with the
sacrifice of an animal. Its bloodied remains
were placed on the altar to Zeus and set on fire
by a top athlete. Athletes trained hard, initially
competing for no more than a wreath of olive
leaves.
The five-day Games were held every four Temple of Hera, Zeus’s wife,
years until 394 bce, when they were stopped where the sacred flame used to
by the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I, light the altar sacrifice was kept
who saw them as a pagan event.
When the Spartans began competing,
events such as spear and discus throwing,
wrestling and jumping were included. Later
came boxing, the marathon, the pentathlon,
the pankration and chariot racing.
Such was the sense of duty to participate in
the Games, that even involvement in wars was
halted. The Persian King Xerxes I is reported
to have said on noting the small Greek force
Training areas
at Thermopylae (see p. 201), ‘Good heavens
… what kind of men are these against whom
you have brought us to fight? Men who do not
compete for money, but for honour.’

Source 4.36

Zeus is the first, Zeus is the last, the god with the
dazzling lightning. Zeus is the head, Zeus is in the
middle, of Zeus all things have their end. Zeus is
the foundation of the earth and of the starry sky.
Zeus is male, Zeus is an immortal woman. Zeus is
the breath of all things.
Translated version of an ancient Greek hymn to Zeus

Check your learning

1 Use Source 4.37 to describe five things that
are happening in this imaginary ‘snapshot’ of
a day at the ancient Olympics.
2 Prepare a large Venn diagram in your
workbook to compare and contrast as many
aspects of the ancient and modern Olympics
as you can think of.

Practice pool
Source 4.37 Artist’s impression of the ancient Olympics

178
Altar to Zeus, where the sacrifice Stadium, where athletic events
was made such as running were held

Storehouses for
valuables
Contestants (all men) competed
in the nude and were sometimes Hippodrome, where both horse and
badly injured or killed chariot races were held

Spectators

Statue of Zeus, one of the Seven

Wonders of the ancient world

Temple of Zeus

Where Olympic officials met

Where animals used for events

and sacrifices were kept

Workshop

chapter four ancient greece 179

Everyday life
It was very important in ancient Greece to be a good
citizen. In Athens, this meant (among other things)
attending meetings of the Ekklesia (see p. 168). In Sparta,
it meant devoting one’s life to the protection of the
Spartan city-state. A good citizen in ancient Greece was
also concerned about the next generation of citizens. This
meant marriage and families, children and their education.

perspectives: marriage and divorce

focus on …

Men had a privileged role when it came to marriage and

divorce. For a man, marriage was something he or his father
might arrange with his bride’s father. His intended bride might
Source 4.38 Cleanliness was valued by both marriage partners. This
be a young teenager, and 20 or more years younger than him. marble relief shows a bride having a final foot wash. On her big day, she also
His new bride would live in his family home after the wedding washed in water from a ‘sacred’ spring.
and accept all his family’s rules and beliefs. He would expect
her to obey him and be loyal, and to have children soon. He
could divorce her easily if that was not so, or if she could not
have children. He might keep the dowry given to him by her
father when they married. Marriage changed his public life and
social freedoms little, if at all.
Women had a different experience of marriage. For a teenage
girl, marriage meant giving away her toys as an offering to the
goddess Artemis (protector of young girls). She may not love,
or barely know, her intended husband. Her life after marriage
would be controlled by her husband, as it had been by her
father until then. She would enjoy few public freedoms. There
were even some areas within their home that were forbidden.
She knew she might be denied access to her children if
her husband chose to divorce her. She had no defence or
protection under the law. Her perspective on marriage was
quite different from that of her husband.

Education
Whatever education beyond household matters girls
received (if any) was in the home. Traditional practice
required girls only to be good wives, mothers and keepers of
the home. For boys, education started at age seven. The sons
of wealthy families might be educated until their late teens.
Besides learning to read and write, boys studied
mathematics, poetry, music and dance, athletics and
gymnastics, and, perhaps, philosophy and public speaking.
In essence, they learned the skills seen then to be needed by
Source 4.39 Detail from a pot from ancient Greece showing a Greek youth
a well-rounded good citizen.
learning to dance

180
Fashion and beauty
Evidence for the clothing and footwear worn by men and women includes that from sculptures, stone
reliefs and the paintings on pottery. Garments were loose fitting and simple, and shoes (if worn) were
typically sandals. Jewellery was popular, even for men for a time.

Clothing
Garments were mostly made from linen or wool. Sometimes cloth was dyed (green, grey and mauve
were popular colours) or decorated if the owners were wealthy. Rarely were garments sewn (except
perhaps to stitch up a chiton). Women always covered their head with a veil when they left the home.

Basic wardrobes in ancient Greece

Item Description How worn
chiton Lightweight and very long Either draped around the body and
piece of fabric, often linen secured with a belt and brooches so the
cloth fell in a fold over the waist; or sewn
at the sides and pinned along the top
to create sleeves. Chitons were knee-
length for young men and floor-length
for women and older men.
himation Long rectangular piece Worn like a cloak, draped over one or
of heavier fabric, such as both shoulders
wool
chlamys Short rectangular piece Worn like a cloak, pinned at the
of heavier fabric, such as right shoulder and falling to about
wool the knees.

Source 4.40 Basic wardrobe items for men and women

Beauty treatments
Rich women had the time and wealth to pamper themselves.
They would admire their faces in mirrors of polished bronze
(see Source 4.24 on p. 170). Powdered lead and chalk was used to
acquire the pale skin that marked an upper-class woman. Eyebrows
were darkened (and sometimes joined in the middle, over the nose).
Cheeks and lips were rouged.

Check your learning

1 List three ways in which a man in ancient Greece could demonstrate that he
was a good citizen.
2 a Describe the different ways in which boys and girls were educated.
b How were these differences reflected in perspectives men and women had
on the institution of marriage?
3 What might you find in the make-up kit of a wealthy Greek woman?
4 Why do you think women covered their head when leaving the house?
Source 4.41 Statue of a Greek woman
wearing a chiton

chapter four ancient greece 181

change and continuity:
focus on …

fashion
One of the features of fashion is
that it is constantly changing. But
often that change will be to revive
and continue a trend that was
popular in the past. Many male
pop stars today, for example, have
shaved heads (or nearly so) or neat,
clipped hair. In the past, it was the
practice for the hairstyles of such
popular idols to be longer and more
unkempt.
So it was in ancient Greece. At first,
men’s beards and hair were long,
with hair sometimes tied off the face
with a band. By the 4th century bce,
shortish back and sides and a
clean-shaven face were becoming
the fashion. This trend continues
today for many Greek men. Women
in ancient Greece wore their hair
long (except slaves). Fashions
changed from wearing hair in braids,
held together with gold bands and
ribbons, to curling it and fixing it in a
bun. Such elaborate styles have not
continued for Greek women today. Source 4.42 The short, neat hair styles of Jon Bon Jovi and his band today little resemble their
fashionable styles of the late 1980s, shown here.

Check your learning

1 a What are your views about the role women had in ancient Greece, particularly in respect to marriage
and divorce?
b Use historical empathy to construct a response a woman in ancient Greece might have made if she
heard your views.
2 a Name some of the subjects many boys in ancient Greece would have studied.
b What was the primary purpose of boys’ education?
3 How would the appearance of a woman in ancient Greece indicate that she was from a wealthy family?
4 Conduct some research to identify as many items as you can that are examples of continuity and change
in current and recent fashion trends. Prepare an A3 chart with labelled sketches and copied images of
your findings.
5 Explain the difference between a himation and a chlamys.
6 a Study Source 4.41 carefully. Adapt the design of the chiton in 3 ways way so it would have appeal for
a typical Australian woman today (perhaps casual wear, evening wear and formal wear).
b Design an advertisement (poster, video, voice recording, website) to promote your new fashions as an
example of change and continuity.

182
Food and feasting
The ancient Greeks ate a simple diet. This reflected the
generally infertile land they lived on: mountainous for the
most part, rocky in others, with limestone plains. Their
sparse diet came to be valued. In fact, the Greeks regarded
other peoples—the ancient Persians, for instance—who ate
a richer, more indulgent diet as foolish gluttons.
Grain (wheat and barley), wine and olive oil were most
commonly consumed. Grain was ground to make bread
or soaked to form a herb-flavoured porridge called kykeon.
There were also vegetables and fruit (often dried for the
poor), goat’s cheese, eggs, nuts, and sometimes honey and
sesame cakes.
Fish (fresh or dried) was the main source of protein.
Meat was less seldom eaten. (Though in Sparta, pork was the
Source 4.43 Some of the foods eaten by the ancient Greeks, as we
main fare for soldiers.) Usually the only meat eaten by the would recognise them today.
poor followed an animal’s sacrifice. The beast’s bones, skin
and blood were burned to ash as an offering to a god. Its
meat was cooked and shared among the people.
The main drinks were wine (for the wealthy) and
water for the poor. The wine was a potent brew, so was
always diluted with water. Drinking it straight was seen as
uncouth, as was drinking milk. Except in Sparta, women
Source 4.44 A scene of a
were not supposed to drink wine. dinner party in ancient Greece,
Food was cut up with a knife and eaten with the fingers. baked onto a piece of pottery

Bread served many purposes. It was used as a plate, to mop

up soup, to dunk in wine, as a serviette and (when scraps
were tossed aside) dog food.

Feasts
Dinner parties (see Source 4.33 on p. 175) were a
common entertainment. But they were men-only
affairs (except for the hetairai). Food was served
by slaves to guests who lay around on couches
while they ate and drank. After the meal, the
interesting part of the evening began: the
symposium. This was where men discussed
the important issues of the day. As they
did so, they might play board
games or be entertained by
the hetairai or by dancers,
singers and acrobats. The
men also drank lots of wine,
after first having made a wine
offering to the gods.

chapter four ancient greece 183

Source 4.45 What remains of the Parthenon. Rebuilt during the Golden Age of Athens, it housed an ivory and gold statue of the goddess Athene, the
goddess of wisdom, warfare and Athens.

The Panathenaea When someone died, the body was carefully washed and
then wiped with sweet-smelling oil. It was then wrapped in
The Panathenaea was another religious festival. It honoured
white garments. The soul of the dead person would need to
the goddess of Athens, Athene, and was celebrated every
pay the ferryman to cross the River Styx, so a coin was placed
year. There were feasts, horse races and games. It started
in his or her mouth (see p. 194).
with a race that carried a burning stick up the Acropolis
The funeral was a noisy affair. As in ancient Egypt, the
to light Athena’s altar. Everybody in Athens, except slaves,
person was typically buried with possessions, food and drink.
could take part (including women).
There might also be professional mourners, who would
Part of the festivity included a huge procession up the
wear black. Family members were expected to make regular
Acropolis. Scores of cows were sacrificed, offerings were
offerings to those who had died.
made to Athena, and the statue of Athena in the temple was
dressed in new clothes. Architecture
Funerals During the Golden Age of Greece (c. 500 to 300 bce), peace was
finally made with Greece’s long-time enemy Persia. This truce
Religious beliefs and traditions also influenced what people
allowed Athens to rebuild its war-damaged buildings such as
did when someone died. Death was thought to be the start
the Parthenon. This, in turn, allowed Athenians to become
of a long spiritual journey through the Underworld. The
more involved in cultural activities.
River Styx separated it from the world of the living. The
Temples were the most important buildings in ancient
souls of ‘good people’ would eventually reach the Elysian
Greece. This reflected the important role that religion played
Fields; the souls of ‘bad people’ would be tossed into a place
in people’s lives. But such magnificent structures served a
of torment called Tartarus, even deeper into the Underworld
political purpose, too. They were obvious displays of a city-
than Hades (see Source 4.57).
state’s wealth, skill and artistic ability.

184
Doric style: plain design at the Ionic style: scroll-like top (like the Corinthian style: very ornate top,
top; sturdy, chunky column curl of a shell) and thinner, finer decorated with rows of leaves
column

Source 4.46 The three styles of Greek columns

Public buildings (including temples) typically had marble Check your learning
or limestone columns and a tiled roof. Columns bulged out
slightly in the middle. This was to offset the optical illusion 1 Explain how religious rituals were linked to the diet of many
that they were thin in the middle. of ancient Greece’s poor people.

They were also built according to mathematical 2 a What happened at a symposium?

formulas. The Golden Mean ratio (that is, 1:1.6) was thought b Find out how this word is used today. What do you
to produce the most visually pleasing design. For example, conclude?
a temple might be 10 metres wide and 16 metres long or it 3 Give a short oral presentation to reflect what a participant in
might be 20 metres high and 32 metres wide. Science now the Panathenaea might say about his or her participation in
this festival the previous day.
confirms how insightful their thinking was in this regard;
this ratio is reflected in many things in nature, such as 4 According to the beliefs of the ancient Greeks, where did
the whorls in a pinecone or seashells and in some of the the souls of good people and bad people eventually go
once they reached the underworld?
proportions of the human body.
The architects of ancient Greece used three different 5 Conduct some research to identify 5 reasons why the
period in ancient Greece’s history from about 500 to
column designs: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (see
300 bce was called the Golden Age.
Source 4.46).
6 Design, or make a model of, a Greek temple.
The Parthenon was built in the Doric style. It had
Use information presented in this text, and from other
136 columns when restored. The carved panel around
sources you have found through research, to help you
the top (the frieze) and the triangular pediment at the
decide on your design features. Use ICT drawing tools for
front were once painted with bright colours (see Source 4.35 your sketch if they are available. Label elements of your
on p. 177). finished design appropriately.

chapter four ancient greece 185

At first, the chorus (a group of men) sang and danced while two or
three actors behind them on the stage said a few words. Over time,
Drama the actors (and what they said) became more important. Then the
Ancient Greece gave us the basis role of the chorus became more to watch and comment every now
and then on what the actors were doing.
of Western drama—our theatre.
Performances began as song-
and-dance festivals to honour
the god of wine and pleasure
Dionysus. Over time, these
Access ways
became more structured. Writers
began to compete to have their
‘performance’ chosen. The first
‘plays’ in Athens were held in
the agora. As they became more
popular, more space was needed.
So a large open-air auditorium was
built into the side of the Acropolis.
This design was soon copied
throughout Greece. Tiered seats
Judges of plays sat at the front

Device like a crane, used to make

actors appear to fly (when playing
the role of gods)

A painted scene might be hung

or constructed at the back of the
skene. The word ‘scene’ comes
from this use.

Orchestra, sometimes packed

earth and sometimes tiled

The wooden skene (a

Greek word meaning Actors wore masks of stiffened cloth with a large funnelled opening
something like ‘shed’), for a mouth to help them project their voice. The masks were very
with side doors through big so people at the back could see them.
which actors appeared

Only men performed as actors; they often played several parts

(including the roles of women), using different masks and costumes.

Source 4.47 Artist’s impression of a Greek auditorium

186
Amphora: This was a
storage vessel for liquids.

Kylix: This plate-like cup was used to

drink water and wine.
Hydria: This was a large pot used to carry
water. It had two lipped handles on its sides,
which were grasped to carry the pot. Another
handle on the neck was held when emptying
Oinochoe: This large jug with a curved handle the vessel.
and a rounded belly was used to pour drinks
(e.g. diluted wine). Common uses

Krater: This large pot was used to

dilute wine by mixing it with water.

Kantharos: This was

another type of cup.
Pyxis: This small, rounded container was used
to keep medicines. It was covered with a flat lid
on which was a tiny rounded handle.

Source 4.48 Some of the everyday uses of pottery in ancient Greece

Pottery, art and sculpture

Much of the ancient Greek art that change and continuity: the Riace bronzes
focus on …

remains is on pottery jars. The first The Riace bronzes were made during Athens’ Golden Age.
pots were decorated with geometric These bronze statues of naked men have silver teeth and
patterns. Later, the art on them eyelashes and copper mouths. The works are evidence of
became more representative, featuring great technical and artistic skill on the part of their creators.
images of lotus flowers and the like. Bronze statues were then made by first spreading a layer of
This may have reflected the influence wax over a clay statue. The hardened wax layer was covered
of ancient Egypt. During the Golden by a thin layer of clay. The statue was then heated. The
Age, the art on pots became even more melting wax would drip out of a ‘plug hole’. The hole was
highly detailed: either black drawings then sealed, and molten bronze was poured into the gap left
on red backgrounds, or vice versa. by the melted wax. Once the metal was cool, the outer layer
The ancient Greeks also made many of clay was chipped away.This principle continues to be used
today by some modern sculptors, and by manufacturers
lifelike sculptures of figures, shown
who use casting techniques to make metal parts. However,
typically in the nude. (Men did not
some processes have been changed to make them safer and
to wear clothes when working out or
more streamlined.
competing at the Olympic Games.)

chapter four ancient greece 187

Source 4.49 An
artist’s impression of
a typical sea battle
during the times of the
ancient Greeks. Ships
were sunk by ramming
them.

Warfare Source 4.50

… Huge poles thrust out from the walls [of Greek cities] over the
The foot soldiers in ancient Greece’s first armies were the ships sunk some by the great weights which they let down from
poor, who fought with perhaps no more than stones and on high upon them; other [boats] they lifted up into the air by an
spears. Only the wealthy could afford horses and better iron hand or beak like a crane’s beak and, when they had drawn
weapons. But things changed. Warfare moved on from them up by the prow and set them on end ... they plunged them to
conflicts fought in open areas to assaults on walled cities. the bottom of the sea … A ship was frequently lifted up to a great
height on the air (a dreadful thing to behold) and was rolled to
This required different sorts of strategies and weapons—and
and fro … until all the sailors were thrown out, when at length it
a different sort of soldier.
was dashed against the rocks or let fall.
Extract from the biography of Roman consul Marcellus (c. 268–208 bce)
The hoplite by the Greek historian Plutarch (c. 46–120 bce)
By the 7th century bce , the hoplite had emerged. He was
a better trained, better armoured foot soldier. Greek city- Gods and heroes
states each had their own army of hoplites. When wars
As discussed earlier, oracles might be consulted before a
ended, hoplites went back to their civic duties—all except
battle. Prayers and sacrifices were made to the gods, both to
for the Spartans. Sparta was the only Greek city-state with a
plead for victory and to thank them in the event that this
standing army.
happened.
The navy Heroes were valued, too, and stories about them became
part of the mythology of ancient Greece. They include
The strength of the city-states of Athens and Corinth,
Heracles (Hercules to the ancient Romans), Jason and his
by contrast, was their navy: fleets of triremes that could
band of Argonauts, and the key warriors of the Trojan wars
be sailed or rowed. A trireme had three tiers of oarsmen
such as Achilles, Odysseus, Hector and Paris.
on each side of the hull, sitting one above the other. The
One of the works said to have been written by Homer,
trireme had a shallow draught. This meant it could sail close
the Odyssey, tells the story of Odysseus’ long journey home
to the shore. It also meant there was little resistance when
from Troy. It has been the inspiration for countless stories,
it sailed through water. A heavy battering ram protruded
novels and films.
from the bow. The idea was to ram this into the hull of an
enemy vessel to sink it.

188
Helmet; some curved out at the
bottom to deflect slipping blades
away from the body. It covered
everything but the eyes.
Long hair typically
combed and decorated by
Spartans before a battle

A chest plate called a cuirass, made

Spear, over 2 metres long, with from bronze or leather. Sometimes
an iron blade at one end and it was moulded to look like a bare
bronze spike at the other chest (abs and all!).

Armour was heavy (about 30 kilograms)

and hot to wear in summer

Double-edged sword,
with a curved blade

Concave round shield,

Red cloak; some researchers typically decorated
suggest that was not worn in battle

Metal greaves, which

guarded the shins

Source 4.51 Artist’s impression of a Spartan hoplite

contestability: ancient Troy

focus on …

Until Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations in Çanakkale, Turkey 2 The remains identified as the sixth oldest settlement
in the 1870s, most scholars were not sure that Troy existed. suggest a city such as Homer described. However, this
The site he uncovered was found to have nine cities built one city was destroyed by an earthquake, not by a war with the
on top of the other over time. One, Schliemann claimed, was Mycenaean Greeks.
Homer’s Troy. But was it? Several contesting views have been 3 A city like Troy may have been destroyed by pirates or by
put forward. These include: the mysterious Sea Peoples known to have been in the
1 The war was not one long battle, but the sum of many areas around this time (c. 1200 BCE). Very little is known
conflicts in the area over time. These may have been over about these sea peoples.
control of territory that overlooked the critical trade route
What does seem very unlikely, though not impossible, is that
(the Dardenelles) linking the Black and Agean seas. Others
the war was fought over a woman (see pp. 190–1). However,
think they may have been part of ongoing conflict between
without firm evidence, historians continue to contest the case
rival powers in the region, such as between the Hittites and
over the existence of Troy.
a Trojan–Mycenaean alliance.

chapter four ancient greece 189

The wooden horse
Myths and legends are a key part
of the culture of any society. Some
may begin as a story about events
that really happened or a person
who really existed. Over time,
as the story is passed on, details
change: some parts are exaggerated
and others forgotten. Nonetheless,
myths and legends reveal a lot
about a people’s beliefs and values,
and provide insights into how these
influenced their life.
The legend of the wooden horse
comes from the ancient poem the
Iliad, claimed to have been written
by Homer about 2800 years ago.
The battle is said to have taken
place about 3200 years ago.
The man Peleus was to marry the goddess
Thetis. Many deities were invited to the wedding,
but not Eris, the goddess of strife. Angry at being
snubbed, she gate-crashed the reception.

Eris tossed a golden apple among the guests.

On it were the words: To the most beautiful. The
goddesses Hera, Athene and Aphrodite each
assumed this meant them. Paris, son of the King
of Troy, was asked to choose.

He chose Aphrodite. His reward was the most

beautiful woman in the world. But that woman,
Helen, was then married to King Menelaus
of Sparta. He was the brother of the king of
Mycenaea, Agamemnon.

Aphrodite used her magic to allow Paris to

whisk Helen off to the city of Troy. Menelaus and
Agamemnon set out with a massive fleet of ships
to get her back.

For nearly 10 years, the Greeks laid siege to

the walled city of Troy. Then Odysseus, a Greek
warrior, suggested they build a huge wooden
horse. He proposed that it be dragged outside
Troy’s walls and left, and that the Greek navy
would then sail away.

It was hoped the Trojans would see the horse as

a parting gift and assume the war was over. It
worked. The Trojans dragged the horse into the
city and partied into the night.

The Trojans did not know that there were Greek

warriors in the horse. Later, these men crept
out of the horse and opened the gates to the
returning Greek army.

The Greeks burned and trashed the city of Troy.

Paris was killed, as was the Greek hero Achilles.
The Greek army, under Odysseus, took 10 years
to return home.

Source 4.52 Still from the film Troy

(2004) showing the wooden horse
entering the city

chapter four ancient greece 191

Technologies and Catapults (like big slings that
strategies were designed to throw heavy
rocks great distances)
Technology in warfare was first used
to great effect in ancient Greece. Rome
built on and extended this expertise Battering rams, used to slam into Flame throwing devices
when it conquered Greece. Rome then weaker spots in a city’s fortifications,
such as wooden gates
went on to create the strongest, best
organised army until then seen in the
ancient world. Some attacking and
defensive devices
As well as battle strategies such
as the phalanx (see p. 197), the
ancient Greeks used and developed
A collection of large empty pots buried Multi-storeyed wooden towers on
many devices capable of attacking near the approaches to a Greek city and wheels (later called belfreys). The
and scaling fortifications. Many camouflaged by grass and a thin layer device shielded attackers as it was
were developed into even more of soil. They held the weight of enemy pushed towards a city wall. Once
sophisticated weapons of war by the troops marching overhead, but not of the in place, the attackers it contained
massive siege engines. were able to scale the wall.
Macedonians.

Source 4.53 Some of the siege engines and other battle devices used by the ancient Greeks

Check your learning

1 Refer to Source 4.51. How would you describe a Spartan hoplite to someone not able to
see this labelled image?
2 Describe three different ways by which Greek fighters might destroy an enemy ship.
3 Conduct some research on the following warriors of the legendary Trojan war: Achilles
and Hector. What was the main role of each man? How did each man die?
4 a What do you think would have happened when an enemy siege engine, such as a
catapult, rolled across a trench of pots the Greeks had buried?
b Compare and contrast this defensive method with the modern planting of mines.

Sparta’s military structure

empathy: t hreats to Spartan control
focus on …

The city-state of Sparta developed

When Sparta became a military state, its society changed. Doing everything
in Laconia in the Peloponnesian
possible to defend Sparta’s territory became a prime goal for all. Life was harsh
Penisula (see Source 4.4). By the early
and people were trained from birth to be tough. Spartan slaves (called helots) were
8th century bce , it had a thriving trade. treated brutally, often very cruelly.
Neighbouring Messenia was under
Reading this, one might be tempted to think less of the Spartans. But let’s look
Sparta’s control.
at the reasons for this change, and what motivated them to act this way. Let’s
Yet, in the 7th century bce , there exercise some historical empathy!
were dramatic changes. Sparta became
During the 7th century bce, Sparta lost a war against the city-state of Argos. It was
a military state with a professional
also nearly overthrown by a revolt of the Messenians. To survive, the Spartans
army. The prime role of Spartan men
realised they had to be better prepared to fight. The helots were the conquered
was now to be soldiers. The woman’s
Messenians. But, as they greatly outnumbered the Spartans (Herodotus wrote
role was to bear sons who would that they made up about 80 per cent of the population), they had to be strictly
become strong warriors. All saw it as controlled. This is what motivated Spartans to act as they did.
an honour to die for Sparta.

192
The spartan life of a Spartan
Military life became everything in Sparta after the 7th century bce . All citizens (only men could be
citizens) had to be soldiers. Social roles such as farmers, merchants, potters and sculptors were not
options for Spartan men. Such roles were left to the perioeci.

The perioeci
These people lived mostly along the coastline and highlands
of Laconia (in other words, around Sparta). They had their
own leaders and customs and could work and travel as they
chose. They were Spartan citizens, but they had fewer rights
and could be ordered to fight in Sparta’s army.

Taught to be strong
In Sparta, weak or sick babies were killed or left out in the
open to die. Hence, Spartan children were healthy and
tough. But Spartan families did not have the luxuries and
leisure time enjoyed by families in Athens during, say, its
Golden Age. Spartans were driven by military obligations
and duties.

Source 4.54

[Apart from reading and writing] … their whole education was aimed
at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress and victory
in battle … From the age of twelve, they never wore a tunic, and were
given only one cloak a year. Their bodies were rough and knew nothing
of baths or oiling.
Observations of the Greek philosopher Plutarch about Spartan boys

Boys left home at the age of seven to live in army barracks and start
their military training.

For the next 23 years, their training was hard: physical exercise,
beatings, mind training and war games.
To encourage self-reliance and mental toughness, they were fed little,
so they had to steal food. They were not punished for stealing, but for
being caught stealing.

A man became a citizen at age 30. Until then, he could not live with his
wife and family. He had to live
in the barracks with his fellow soldiers.

Source 4.56 Artist’s impression of a translated account by Plutarch

A man retired from army service at 60. He might then be elected a (c. 46–120 ce): ‘So seriously did Spartan children go about their stealing, that
member of the Gerousia (see p. 168) a boy, having stolen a young fox and hidden it under his cloak, let it tear out
his guts with its teeth and claws and died right there, rather than let it be seen’.

Source 4.55 The life of a male Spartan—from boy to man

chapter four ancient greece 193

Death and funerary
customs
Religious beliefs and traditions
influenced what the ancient Greeks
did when someone died. Death was
thought to be the start of a long
spiritual journey through Hades,
the Underworld. This was the world
of dead souls (called shades). It was
believed to be ruled by Hades, the
god of the dead (the Romans called
him Pluto). A mythical river, the River
Styx, separated it from the world of
the living. Gaps and openings in the
earth, such as cave tunnels and deep
caverns, were seen as gateways to this
gloomy realm.

Beliefs about death

The ancient Greeks believed that
when a person died, his or her
destination after death was the
decision of Atropos, one of the three
Fates (who were goddesses) believed
to control life on Earth. Dead souls
were led into the underworld by the
messenger god, Hermes. A man called
Charon (the ferryman) rowed those
able to pay for the ride across the river
to the underworld. The fare was paid
with a coin held in their mouths.
Once they reached the other side,
dead souls were judged by deities Source 4.57 Artist’s impression of the Greek Underworld
according to the life they had led on
earth. They ended up in one of three
places (see Source 4.57). A three- Destination Description
headed dog named Cerberus guarded Elysian Fields • for the souls of heroes who had the favour of the god Zeus
the entrance to Hades to stop the • a sunny, fragrant, peaceful and happy place
dead from leaving or the living from
entering. Tartarus • for the souls of wicked people
• a place of everlasting torment and misery, surrounded by a layer
of night three times thick

Asphodel Fields • for the majority of human souls,

who were not heroes, nor all good or all wicked
• a misty, grey boring place where nothing much happened—ever!

Source 4.58 The destinations, for eternity, of dead Greek souls

194
Wash body with seawater (if possible) and clean any wounds.
Put a coin in the mouth and close mouth and eyes.
Rub sweet-smelling oils into the skin and wrap the body in clean white (or grey) cloth.
Display the body for at least a day in the main courtyard of the house, facing the door.

Notify friends and relatives of the death so they can pay their respects.
Make lots of noise, with loud displays of grief as people move around the corpse. Hire professional
mourners if necessary.

Leave the house before daybreak for the burial plot or place where the body will be cremated (both
outside the city walls).
Transport the dead body in a horse and cart if this is affordable; otherwise organise some strong
men of the family to carry the body on a stretcher.
Men walk at the head of the funeral procession, women behind.
Continue the loud wailing and crying, and have musicians add to the din if available.
Source 4.60 A stele from ancient Greece. The
If the body is cremated, stand around until the body is burned away and then put out the flames with wine. stone relief on a stele would typically depict a
likeness of the dead person.
Place burned bones in a funeral pot for burial.

Men stay at the site to bury the body or burned remains, while women return to the house to
organise a feast.
Funeral customs
If corpse is not buried in a tomb, pile earth over the grave and cover it with a stele.
When someone died in ancient Greece,
it was very important that others
observe the correct rituals (see Source
Family members return to the grave often to remember the loved one. 4.59). Otherwise, it was believed, the
Offerings of oil, food and wine are left and the stele might be adorned with ribbons and flowers. A dead person’s soul would never find
tube may be pushed into the dirt to allow the dead person to ‘drink’ the wine offered. rest in the afterlife.

Source 4.59 Steps to be followed when a person in ancient Greece died

chapter four ancient greece 195

bigideas
4.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?
Everyday life: Complete questions 1-5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 20
Warfare: Complete questions 1-5, 7, 11, 15, 17, 18, 21
Death and funerary customs: Complete questions 1–5, 8, 10, 14, 22.

Remember 11 A phalanx was a pack of hoplites about eight rows deep.

A man’s right arm was protected by the shield of the man
1 Name the deity who the ancient Greeks believed was to his right. Men pushed together so closely that the spike
responsible for each of the following: the sea, war, wine. on the end of a spear might accidentally pierce the man
2 Who was the king of the gods? Which famous religious behind. From the perspective of a Spartan hoplite, give a
festival in ancient Greece was held in his honour? 2-minute oral presentation about your feelings about being
3 a Describe one event you might see at the Panathenaea part of the phalanx shown in Source 4.61.
festival. 12 To make their skin pale, wealthy Greek women dusted their
b Which Greek deity did this festival honour? skin with powdered lead, which was toxic. Do people still
4 It was a common practice in Greece for a seer to study the risk their health today to look ‘beautiful’? Discuss in small
intestines of a slaughtered animal. Why was that? groups.

Understand Analyse
5 a Explain why someone in ancient Greece might visit an 13 Analyse the information presented in Source 4.48. Then
oracle. copy the table below in your workbook and fill in all the
b Who do some people today consult (or what do they blanks.
read) to try to find out about the future? Name of pot Description Function
6 Explain how practices for marriage and divorce in ancient
Oinochoe A jug, with a
Greece were evidence of how the roles of men and women rounded belly,
were valued. short neck and
7 o Draw a labelled sketch of a trireme, detailing its key curved handle
features. Refer to relevant sources in this textbook. A link Krater Used to dilute wine
to a short documentary about triremes is available on the with water
obook. Pyxis Used to store
8 a Why was it common practice in ancient Greece for medicine
funeral processions to be so noisy? Kantharos A small goblet
b What beliefs influenced some other procedures that with tall extended
were undertaken when someone died? handles either side
9 Use plasticine or clay to show that you understand the
difference between an Ionic and a Doric Greek column. 14 Look carefully at Sources 4.57 and 4.58. Use these to
complete a Y chart (see p. 112 for an example) to detail
Apply what you think the underworld of the ancient Greeks might
10 In groups, create a game based on ancient Greek beliefs have looked like, sounded like and felt like.
about the underworld. Share the tasks involved in creating 15 Explain why ancient Sparta’s development as a military state
the game concepts and rules, and making the board and was an example of cause and effect. List the factors that
pieces. If you have the skills, your group might like to create caused the change and the ways in which the change had
aspects of the game using ICT media. an impact on different groups of people.

196 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Source 4.61 Artist’s impression of a phalanx, a military formation thought to have been developed by the Spartans. It moved as a solid pack.

Evaluate 20 a With a partner, build a model of an ancient Greek

auditorium using balsa wood, plasticine, clay or other
16 Find out (through research) how to tie a chiton. Try it materials.
yourself using an old sheet. What was the most complicated
b Present your model for display, together with an
aspect of this dress-up for you?
attractively presented statement that explains how it
17 Of the ways described in this chapter by which the ancient worked and how the development of drama was linked
Greeks fought war, which method do you think best to religious belief and practice.
demonstrated their creativity?
21 In groups, present the story of the legend of the Trojan
18 Find out about the legend of Jason and the Argonauts. horse in another way. Choose from the following options: a
Decide whether you would rate Jason as a Greek hero or puppet show, a role play (with selected musical scores and
not, and give reasons. special effects), a comic series, or a childen’s storybook
(using ICT media).
Create
22 Your task is to sell an idea. Write an article, create a poster,
19 Create a new deity for ancient Greece. Sketch his or her give an oral presentation or construct a PowerPoint display
appearance (use labels and stick figures if you cannot draw). to persuade ancient Greeks that the Asphodel Fields is not
Describe this deity’s role. List the different ways in which a bad place after all. You will need to conduct some
your deity will affect the lives of the ancient Greeks. research to add to your creative and persuasive skills.

chapter four ancient greece 197

Source 4.62 Artist’s impression of Greek trading ships (triremes) at the Greek island of Delos (an island
in the Cyclades)

4.4 How do contacts and conflicts

change societies?
Ancient Greece had much contact with other regions of the
Mediterranean world. For example, from the journeys of the Greek
historian Herodotus, we know so much about ancient Egypt and the
Persians. The Greek scholar Archimedes invented the Archimedes screw
(see p. 174) while he was visiting Egypt. The cultures and goods of
Greece’s many colonies (in Italy, Spain, Egypt, France, etc.) and markets
all had an influence on the society of ancient Greece. So, too, did the wars
that were fought, the effects of which shaped Greece’s history.

Impact of location on trade

Greece’s soil was good enough to grow olives and grapes but not grain crops in
the quantities required. Timber was plentiful in some parts, and was quickly
used up to build boats. There were deposits of silver, at Laurium for example. In
fact, silver was one of the resources that boosted Athens’s wealth and growth in
its Golden Age (5th century bce). But some other metals were in limited supply.

198
By the start of the 6th century bce , Greek city-states
(particularly Athens) were looking for new sources of many
of the goods they needed. To this end, they set up colonies
(Greek settlements in other lands) (see Source 4.4). These
colonies provided much of the grain they needed. Trade
links were also set up around the Mediterranean, including
with ancient Egypt and Rome. These contacts exposed
Greece to a diversity of cultures. They also gave it an Source 4.63 An example of
a pot from Greece’s Oriental
opportunity, through trade, to advance and acquire great
period (7th century bce)
wealth.
In short, sea trade became very important to ancient
Greece. Ports sprang up along the coastline and many Greek
merchants became very rich. Evidence of the increase in
Mediterranean sea traffic at this time is provided, in part,
by shipwrecks. Of the old shipwrecks found, radiocarbon
dating confirms that 46 sank during the 4th century bce .
Only two sank during the 8th century bce . That’s over a
2000 per cent increase over this time.
Through sea trade, the Greeks improved their navigation
and ship-building skills. They also acquired new ideas and
skills from those they traded with. These included:
• ideas about astronomy, building methods and
mathematics from ancient Egypt. Egyptian design also
influenced pottery art during Greece’s so-called Oriental
period. Until then, symbols used for pot decoration in
Greece were geometric.
• ways to cook with spices from parts of Asia
• metal technologies from the ancient Syrians.

Imports
Exports
gold papyrus
glass spices
perfumes metals wine marble
ivory wood pottery wool
rugs linen
GREECE olives silver coins
pork pitch (like tar) olive oil figs
cheese grain
timber

Source 4.64 Goods that ancient Greece exported and imported

chapter four ancient greece 199

How conflict changed ancient Greece
Besides their wars with Persia, the ancient Greeks also fought among themselves.
Wars often meant that city-states had to change other states to whom they were
loyal, and adapt their military strategies and structures. Ultimately, conflict so
weakened ancient Greece that foreign powers such as the Macedonians, and later
the ancient Romans, were able to take it over.

The battle of Marathon and beyond

In 499 bce , Greeks states in Ionia revolted against Persian control. Their stand was
supported by the Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria. Together, they destroyed
Sardis, a Persian capital (see Source 4.5).
In 490 bce , the Persian king, King Darius I, took his revenge. He laid siege to
Eretria until it fell. He then ordered a huge Persian fleet to sail to Marathon (see
Source 4.5) in Greece. His demands of Athens and Sparta that they surrender
were met with defiance.
Athenian hoplites, supported by those from the city-state of Plataea, marched
to Marathon. They hung back at the sight of such a huge Persian force. But the
Source 4.65 This artist’s impression shows Greek general Miltiades persuaded his fellow officers to string the hoplites out
Miltiades urging the Greek force to attack at the into a long line (to make their forces look bigger) and charge at the enemy full
Battle of Marathon.
pelt. Greece won and the Persians fled back to their ships.

Source 4.66

They were the first of the Greeks, so far as I know, to introduce the custom of charging the
enemy at a run, and they were likewise the first who dared to look upon the Persian garb …
Until this time, the very name of the Persians had been a terror to the Greeks to hear.
Translated extract by Herodotus

The first ‘marathon’ runner

Miltiades knew that the retreating Persian fleet would head for Athens. He
ordered a young man (possibly Phaedippas) to run ahead to warn the city. The
distance was about 42 kilometres. The young man is said to have dropped dead
after delivering his warning. When the Persian navy reached Athens, they found
its walls defended by civilians. Thinking the city was defended by soldiers, the
Persians chose not to attack, and left.

The Persians try again

Ten years later, Darius’ son, King Xerxes I, was ready to strike again. To
reach Greece, though, he had to get his army across the Hellespont (now the
Dardenelles, where Gallipoli battles were fought).
He ordered a ‘bridge’ to be made by tying boats together. However, this broke
up in heavy seas. Xerxes was furious; he ordered that the sea be whipped and the
engineers beheaded. A second such bridge proved more successful. From there,
Xerxes marched on towards Greece. He was met, at the Pass of Thermopylae, by
the army of a Spartan king called Leonidas.

200
cause and effect: the battle of Thermopylae
focus on …

The battle of Thermopylae of 480 bce was caused by the mountain route that would allow them to attack the Greeks
aggression of the ancient Persians and their push for greater from the front and rear.
control of Greek territory When he discovered he had been betrayed, King Leonidas
By the 6th century bce, the Persian empire was growing rapidly. ordered most of the Greek army to flee. He hand-picked
Its ‘Great King’, Xerxes, had his sights set on conquering even 300 Spartans to help him delay the Persian advance for as
more Greek territory. He demanded that the Greeks surrender long as possible. This band was supported by 900 helots, who
their weapons. The defiant reply of King Leonidas of Sparta were ordered to stay and fight, and 700 volunteers from the
was to the point: Come and get them! Greek city-state of Thespiae.
So that is what Xerxes set out to do. Heading for Athens, his The Greeks battled to the last man, inflicting a huge loss on the
huge army had no choice but to push though the rocky pass at Persians; Xerxes flew into a rage at the news. He ordered that
Thermopylae (on Greece’s eastern coast). He found it guarded Leonidas’ head be chopped off and his body crucified.
by a determined Greek army. When the Persians finally reached Athens, they looted the city
The odds against the Greeks were overwhelming. Yet their and burnt the Acropolis. But the ‘last stand’ of Leonidas and
morale was high. Told that the Persians would fire so many his men gave the Greeks enough time to regroup as a force
arrows that the Sun’s light would be blocked, Herodotus in the Peloponnesian Peninsula. A sea battle later that year
records one Spartan saying: ‘So much the better; we shall fight (the Battle of Salamis) saw them almost wipe out the massive
in the shade’. Persian navy. A land battle at Plataea in 479 bce gave them
For three days the Greek army held the Persians back. Then another great victory. The effect of these conflicts was that
a Greek traitor, Ephialtes, showed the Persians a secret Greece took the lead in its battles with Persia.

Source 4.67 Artist’s impression of the battle of Thermopylae

chapter four ancient greece 201

Peloponnesian war
The Spartans had long distrusted Athens’ growing wealth and strength. Tensions between Athens
and Sparta increased in the decade before 431 bce. Suspicion grew when the Spartans heard of a
walled tunnel being built to connect Athens with its port of Piraeus.
In 431 bce , Sparta used an excuse to declare war. Its army marched into Attica, laying siege to
the walled city of Athens and burning and destroying its farms. The 10-year siege wore out both
sides. The tunnel meant that Athenians could still get food from their ships. It also meant they
could slip out in their triremes and attack Sparta’s defences on the Peloponnesian coast. (Sparta
did not have a navy.)

evidence: plague in Athens

focus on …

Athens was badly weakened by a plague that struck in 430 bce. It killed one in three of its swollen
population. (Many people living in Attica had fled to the city for protection. Living conditions were
often unhygienic.) Athens’ leader Pericles (see Source 4.19) was one of those who died. In 421 bce,
the new Athenian leader, Nicias, signed a truce with Sparta.
The ancient historian Thucydides, who survived the plague, provides evidence of the dire effects this
epidemic had on the population of Athens.

Source 4.68

For the disorder first settled in the head, ran its course from thence [there] through the whole of the body
… it settled in the privy parts [genitals], the fingers and the toes, and many escaped with the loss of these,
some too with that of their eyes. Others again were seized with an entire loss of memory on their first
recovery, and did not know either themselves or their friends.
Description of the plague that struck Athens in the 420s bce, from The History of the Peloponnesian War
by Thucydides, 431 bce, translated by Richard Crawley

Despite the truce, fighting soon resumed between Athens and Sparta. Check your learning
In 415 bce , Alcibiades, a political figure in Athens, convinced his city to
attack Syracuse (in today’s Sicily and then an ally of Sparta). But he had 1 Conduct some research to find out more
‘political enemies’ in Athens. When they threatened to act against him, about Delos. Prepare a facts chart on this
island, explaining why it was a vital part of
Alcibiades ran away to Sparta.
ancient Greece’s trade network.
Traitorously, he revealed the planned attack to the Spartans. Being
2 Briefly describe the origins of the Olympic
forewarned, the Spartans were ready to defend Syracuse when Athens
event known as the marathon.
attacked. The Athenian navy was soundly defeated.
3 What contribution did King Leonidas and
A decade later, Sparta did a political deal with Persia to get more
his men make to Greece’s stand against
ships. A huge sea battle was fought in 405 bce at Aegospotami. Led by
attempts by the Persian empire to take it
Lysander, Sparta had another stunning victory over the Athenian force. over?
Athens was now greatly weakened. The following year, Sparta
4 What was the trigger for the Peloponnesian
laid siege again to the city. With its fleet largely gone and its morale wars?
shattered, Athens surrendered quickly. The Spartans then set up their
5 Based on the evidence provided by
own style of government in Athens: an oligarchy. For a time, Sparta was Thucydides and what you have learned about
the supreme power in ancient Greece. the Peloponnesian wars, brainstorm how you
think it affected daily life in Athens (such as
diet, education, home life, entertainment).

202
Source 4.69 Still from the 2004 movie Alexander showing Alexander on his beloved horse Bucephalus

Effects of the wars some 8000 kilometres east (to today’s Pakistan). He turned
back when he realised his men were battle weary and
The Peloponnesian Wars began a long period of bickering
becoming resentful. He made it back as far as Babylon where
between city-states of ancient Greece. The consequences
he became very ill and died. He was only 33.
of the wars and this conflict were that much of Greece’s
farming land was ruined and social upheaval was
Effects of Alexander’s conquest
widespread. While Greece was starting to crumble, a new
power was gaining strength in the north: Macedonia. Alexander greatly admired Greek culture and had been
educated in its traditions. In lands he conquered, he set up
Conflict with Macedonia Greek rulers. He also introduced many Greek customs, belief
systems and practices. This widespread Greek influence
In 359 bce , Philip II became king of Macedonia. By 338 bce ,
survived for centuries. It is often referred to as the region’s
his military efforts had brought the weakened city-states of
Hellenistic period. (‘Hellene’ is the Greek word for ‘Greek’.)
Greece under his control. He was left with Persia to conquer.
Alexander’s unexpected death led to an outbreak of
But, in 336 bce , he was assassinated. His son, Alexander,
fighting among parts of his empire. Eventually, three
then aged 20, became king. After ruthlessly bringing rebel
kingdoms were set up, each ruled by generals in his army.
Greek city-states back under Macedonian control, he was
These kingdoms were known as:
ready to fulfil his father’s dream. He would become known
• the Antigonids (Greece)
as Alexander the Great.
• the Seleucids (central Asia and Near East)
Thirteen years later, he had achieved his goal, and much
more. He finally wiped out the Persian army at Gaugamela • the Ptolemies (Egypt).
in 331 bce , ending the Persian empire. He conquered Egypt All were later absorbed into the empire of ancient Rome.
(then under Persian control) before marching his army

chapter four ancient greece 203

bigideas
4.4 How do contacts and conflict change societies?
Remember Apply
1 Name some of the goods that ancient Greece exported 11 With a partner, brainstorm the sounds likely to have been
and some that they imported. heard at the Battle of Marathon. Think about the way
2 Why did Greece need to import grain? soldiers were dressed, the weapons used and the location.
(Conduct some extra research if you need to.) Use a copy of
3 Explain why ancient Greek city-states set up so many
the following table to compare and contrast these with the
colonies and spheres of influence.
sounds you might expect to hear in a modern battle. What
4 What evidence do scholars draw on to support a view that has changed?
there was a rapid increase in sea trade in the Mediterranean
between the 8th and 4th centuries bce?
Likely sounds at the Likely sounds of a
5 What prompted the ancient Greeks to have so much sea Battle of Marathon modern battle
contact with peoples of other cultures?
6 Copy and complete the following table in your workbook,
based on information provided in this textbook.
12 Think about the following questions, and then write down as
Area/people with Result of that contact for many responses for each as you can:
whom the ancient Greece
Greeks had a How have you been changed by the contact you have
contact had with different students and teachers at your school?
b How do you think that you may have changed some of
Ancient Egypt them?

Parts of Asia
c What would you change, if you could, as a result of
these contacts?
Ancient Syria 13 In small groups, discuss how you think trade and war have
affected Australia during your lifetime. (Base your opinions
7 What Olympic event was possibly inspired by the Greek on what you know in general terms, as well as from the
man Pheidippides? Explain. media and general discussions.) Brainstorm ideas and write
down the points that members of your group agree upon.
Understand Groups should then share their ideas with the class.
8 Write a letter home that a Greek hoplite might have written 14 Participants came from far and wide to take part in the
after the Battle of Marathon. Convey in what is said how this ancient Olympic Games. Suggest how this contact might
battle might have affected the morale of the Greek army, have influenced participating societies.
and why.
9 Draw a concept map that explores, in general terms, how Analyse
you think the Peloponnesian Wars would have impacted 15 Look at Source 4.70. Alexander the Great spread the
on various aspects of the society and economy of ancient culture of ancient Greece throughout the empire he created.
Greece. In which modern countries would you expect archaeologists
10 What effect do you think what King Leonidas and his small and anthropologists to look for sources of evidence of
band did at the Pass of Thermopylae would have had on Greek culture?
Greek morale?

204 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Source 4.70 Route followed
by Alexander the Great and the
empire he created

Evaluate Create
16 Think about what you have learned about ancient Greece. 18 Think laterally about how contacts and conflicts changed
Particularly consider those traditions that have been passed ancient Greece by discussing two of the following
down to our Western civilisation through ongoing contact possibilities in groups.
of societies over the centuries. What do you consider to be • How might history have been changed if Greece was a
ancient Greece’s most outstanding legacy? Give reasons to land with no mountains and wide navigable rivers?
support your view. • What might have happened if the Persian force at
17 With a partner, think about all you have learned about Thermopylae had at the front of its army a large band of
ancient Greece. Recall its significant individuals, its elephant troops?
developments and achievements, and how it was changed • What might have been the outcome for Greece and
over time by these factors and other influences. the rest of the world if the ancient Greeks had never
a Now create a ‘top 10 list’. Order from 1 (most impact) built a navy?
to 10 (least impact) those events, individuals, or trends • How might the history of ancient Greece have changed if
that you think most changed ancient Greece over time. there had been no Peloponnesian Wars?
b Compare your list with that of another class pair and
discuss any differences.

chapter four ancient greece 205

connectingideas
Ancient Greece
The quest
You read on pages 190–1 about the legend of the wooden horse.
This came from a work called the Iliad said to have been written
by a man called Homer. He also wrote the Odyssey. The Odyssey
tells of the 10-year quest of the Greek leader Odysseus (called
Ulysses buy the Romans) to find his way back from the battle
of Troy to his home of Ithaca. Along the way, he and his men
encounter many problems—most of them supernatural. These
problems include wild storms started by gods, giant one-eyed
cannibals, a sorcerer who turns men into pigs, and the monsters Many books have been written
Scylla and Charybdis. Odysseus alone survives. about quests. Plays and poems have
been written, too, and songs recorded.
A quest is a hero’s (or heroine’s) journey. It is about surviving There are, of course, many adventure
against the odds and never giving up, no matter what the computer games as well, some of
obstacles or how long the search. which you probably play.
1 o A link to an online quest game
is available on the obook. Study
the rules before you begin and then
attempt to fulfil the quest.
a What sorts of activities make this
quest game similar to the quests of
Greek heroes? How is this quest
game unlike the quests of Greek
heroes?
b What was the most difficult task
your character had to overcome?
Why?
c Would you consider the main
character in this game a hero,
in the sense it is used in Greek
myths? Why or why not?

Source 4.71 A painting by 16th century artist Pellegrino Tibaldi.

The story of the quest of Odysseus has inspired countless artists and illustrators of comics and computer games.
Source 4.71 features one of the fierce monsters Odysseus faced.
1 Conduct some Internet research of the story of the Odyssey. Represent its key stages in a flow chart.
2 Explain where in the story you think the scene above occurs, and what role Odysseus plays.

206
Source 4.72 Artist’s
In 1990, NASA launched a space probe called Odysseus (later Ulysses). Its mission was to
impression of the space
probe Ulysses as it fly over the Sun’s poles and collect data on aspects of the Sun. This was the first time such a
draws closer to the Sun mission had been attempted. The craft was meant to last for five years; it lasted nearly four
times that long, making not one but three full orbits of the Sun. It relayed a huge amount of
data back to Earth. Its transmission systems were finally shut down in 2008. By then, its age
and the freezing cold of deep space were starting to take their toll.
1 Why do you think NASA decided to call this probe Odysseus?
2 Conduct some Internet research to find out why they changed its name to Ulysses.
3 What was the purpose of this space quest?
4 Would you say that Ulysses was a ‘hero’ among space craft? Give a reason for your response.

Many movies have been made about quests: 2001 A Space Odyssey
(1968), Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), Star Quest: The Odyssey
(2009), and the Lord of the Rings and Star Wars series to name some.
The quest in The Lord of the Rings sees a group of hobbits, led by
Frodo Baggins, set out for the Mount of Doom to dispose of a ring.
The ring gives supernatural power to its owner. Along the way, the
hobbits are supported by many others. Their main opponent is the
evil Lord Sauron who made the ring and wants it back. The quest
covers a range of landscapes (above and below ground). Along the
way there are strange and terrifying creatures. There are massive,
frightening battles. Frodo eventually succeeds (though he nearly
becomes a victim of the ring) and the group returns home.
1 a What is the goal of Frodo’s quest?
b In broad terms, how does it compare with the quest of Odysseus?
Source 4.73 Scene from
2 Would you class Frodo as a hero? The Lord of the Rings: The
Two Towers. The movie
3 Both Frodo and Odysseus have weak moments during their quest,
is one of three made from
yet they both ultimately succeed. What for you are the qualities of an epic book written by
someone you regard as ‘a hero’ (or heroine). Why? J.R.R. Tolkien.

If you had the power (supernatural or otherwise) and resources to undertake any mission you chose—either on Earth
(or under its seas or its surface crust) or anywhere in the Universe—what quest would you choose to undertake, and
why? What qualities do you have (even if nobody else yet knows this) that would make you a hero or heroine for this
undertaking?

chapter four ancient greece 207

depth study:

Ancient Rome
The civilisation of ancient Rome lasted some 1300 years. At its heart was
the city of Rome, one of the cities built by the ancient Etruscans. These
advanced people are thought to have moved into what we call Italy about
2800 years ago.
A people known as Latins then lived in a fertile As it grew, ancient Rome was influenced by
region on the west coast of what is now Italy. the societies it conquered. One of these was
It became known as Latium (see Source 5.75). ancient Greece. Later, in turn, many of Rome’s
The Latins built simple farming settlements traditions, and cultural and technical legacies,
and, later, towns. One of these towns was Roma were to influence our own Western civilisation.
(Rome). The Etruscans turned Rome into a city. These included Christianity, Rome’s road-
In 509 bce, the inhabitants of Rome revolted building methods, architecture, its body of law
and expelled the Etruscan kings. They then and its urban planning.
set up a republic. Through trade, alliances and By the 5th century ce, discipline and order
the victories of its army, the republic of Rome were in decline. Rome’s huge empire was split
continued to grow. By 201 bce, it included in two to make things more manageable, but
today’s mainland Italy and the islands of Sicily, it was not enough. The western Roman empire
Sardinia and Corsica. was eventually overrun by barbarians —
Within another 300 years, the Roman army people from outside the Roman empire and
(including the Praetorian Guard, shown on its civilisation. The last emperor, a boy called
this page) had conquered lands as far north as Romulus Augustus, was removed from power
today’s England and as far east as Azerbaijan. By in 476 ce. The eastern empire continued until
this stage, ancient Rome was an empire. 1453 ce, when it was absorbed into the Ottoman
(Turkish) empire.

Key inquiry questions

5.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?

5.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?

5.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?

5.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?

Stone relief of officers and soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, Rome, 2nd century ce
5
bigpicture
Ancient Rome
The farming settlements that became the city of Rome
were located about 25 kilometres upstream from the
mouth of the Tiber River. At this spot were seven hills,
marshy land and a natural ford (river crossing).
Recent archaeological evidence confirms that a
settlement began on one of these hills (Palatine Hill)
close to the legendary date for the start of the city of
Rome: 753 bce. Rome was said to have been founded
then by a man named Romulus.
During its history, ancient Rome was ruled as
a monarchy (under Etruscan kings), a republic
and finally an empire. It proved to be a powerful
264
civilisation with a highly advanced culture and very Start of First
Punic War
strong army. between Rome
and Carthage

509
Rome becomes a republic
BCE

753
Legendary founding of Rome

202
Hannibal’s defeat
c. 450 by Rome at Zama
(Second Punic War)
First law code,
Law of the Twelve
Tables, published

Legend has it that Romulus and his brother, Remus, were raised by a wolf; Source 5.1 Timeline of some key events and developments
Romulus is said to have killed Remus before founding Rome. in the history of ancient Rome
An ancient mosaic of fighting gladiators; many staged
fights were held in the Colosseum

395
Empire permanently divided
into East and West

451
8 0 Last strong military
Colosseum opened in Rome,
330 campaign of
where gladiators fought Work starts Roman army
on St Peter’s
Basilica in
Rome
122
Hadrian’s Wall built in
44 Britain by Emperor Hadrian
The consul Julius Caesar assassinated

146 360
Huns start 476
End of Third Punic War; 192
Rome destroys Carthage CE invading Odovacer, King of
Emperor Commodus Europe the Ostrogoths,
and conquers Corinth
murdered forces last
Western emperor
to give up power
79
64 Eruption of
Great Fire Mount Vesuvius
of Rome which destroys
27 the cities of 410
Start of the rule of Pompeii and Visigoths attack Rome
Augustus; Rome Herculaneum
moves towards
becoming an empire

109
The aqueduct Aqua Traiana built by Emperor Trajan

One of many aqueducts that supplied water to Roman settlements Artist’s impression of the sacking of a Roman city by invading barbarians

211
Source 5.2 The River Tiber, with St Peter’s Basilica in the background

5.1 How do geographical features

influence human settlements?
Ancient Rome’s position within the Mediterranean Sea gave it sea access
to a range of markets. It also allowed it to develop a strong navy for
a time. At its peak, it grew to absorb all the cultures then around the
sea. These included those of ancient Greece and ancient Egypt. Rome’s
expanded territory comprised a range of landscapes.
The Italian peninsula was the centre of the ancient Roman empire. It is
shaped like a leg wearing a high-heeled boot. It is about 960 kilometres long and
150 kilometres wide. Its coastline is about 7600 kilometres in length.
Only about one-third of its area is suitable for farming. A rugged mountain
range, the Apennines, runs down its centre. To the north, the Alps largely
separate it from the rest of Europe. The landscape is mostly mountainous to
the central east, while there are fertile plains to the central west. It was in this
western plains region (Latium) that the civilisation of ancient Rome began.

212
The Mediterranean Sea
Some scholars think that the Mediterranean Sea was once a low-lying desert, with a number of deep
depressions. It flooded when high ridges to the west, separating it from the Atlantic Ocean, broke
down some 5–6 million years ago.

Geographical features
The sea is around 2.5 million square kilometres in area Trade made sea ports busy centres, where peoples of
(including the Sea of Marmara). It has little tidal movement different cultures exchanged goods, ideas, technologies
and mostly stable wind patterns, so it has very few bad and processes. The ancient Romans called the
storms. Its waters wash about 46 000 kilometres of coastline, Mediterranean Sea Mare Nostrum—our sea.
much of which twists around sheltered bays and natural The sea also provided an easy passage for the navies of
harbours. The climate of the region sees mild, wet winters conquerors. It was a factor, for example, in Rome’s conquest
and hot, dry summers. These factors all helped to make of the empire of Carthage (see pp. 258–9).
the Mediterranean an important physical feature in the
development of many early societies. Earthquakes and volcanoes
The moving tectonic plates underlying the Mediterranean
Sea transport route region make it prone to earthquakes. One fault line runs
The sea connected a diversity of coastal settlements. It more or less down the length of the Apennines. Another
also allowed access to inland centres that lay on rivers runs across the Italian peninsula north of Naples. The
discharging into the sea. Its waters were criss-crossed by the eruptions over time of Mount Etna and other nearby
ships of many ancient peoples before coming under Roman volcanoes (such as Vesuvius) have had major impacts on the
control. These included the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, settlements of people living nearby.
Egyptians, Minoans, Mycenaeans and Greeks.

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Source 5.3 Physical map of the Mediterranean Sea and surrounds

213
examiningevidence
Pompeii

Pompeii was an ancient port. It

Possible route of Pliny the Elder
lay about 350 kilometres south of Land relief
Rome. (Its remains lie inland today,
due to lava build-up.) It was (and Neapolis (Naples)
Mount
still is) close to Italy’s horizontal fault Vesuvius
line. By the 3rd century BCE, it was Misenum Herculaneum
loosely controlled by Rome as an Pompeii
ally (friend). That changed in 89 bce,
G u l f o f N a p le s
when the Roman consul Sulla put Stabiae
down a revolt by Pompeii (and other
ally cities). He then sent some 5000
Roman army families to settle in
Pompeii. N
Ten years later it was buried under Area of
a thick layer of ash and debris when main map
0 20 km
nearby Mount Vesuvius erupted.
Recent estimates suggest its Source 5.4 Part of the excavated city of Source 5.5 Location of Pompeii and
Pompeii, with Mt Vesuvius in the background nearby towns
population may then have been that
of a medium-sized Australian town. The excavated ruins (see Source 5.4) On the day Vesuvius erupted (24 August
Today, Pompeii is a protected World provide evidence that Pompeii had 79 CE), a Roman fleet was moored at
Heritage Site and one of Italy’s most a forum (with temples and markets) Misenum, commanded by Pliny the Elder
popular tourist destinations. This and paved streets. It also had a (23–79 ce). He ordered it to sail closer
is because its ruins, when found, stone amphitheatre (where drama to Pompeii but he then lost his life. His
were more or less as the city had performances were held). The largest of nephew, Pliny the Younger, was also at
been in 79 ce. The excavations its public baths, the Stabian baths, would Misenum. Some years later, he reported
have provided a wealth of evidence have covered a quarter of the Melbourne what happened in a letter to the Roman
for historians about ancient Roman Cricket Ground. As well, there were historian Tacitus (56–117 ce).
lifestyles. many luxurious villas, such as shown in (See Source 5.9)
Source 5.6.

Source 5.6 Artist’s impression of a

Roman villa, based on evidence provided
by ruins uncovered in Pompeii

214
Source 5.7 Artist’s impression: eruption of Mt Vesuvius Source 5.8 These plaster shapes are of Pompeiians at the moment of
their death

Sixteen years ealier, in 62 ce, Roman records report that an

earthquake damaged a number of buildings in Pompeii. On the Check your learning
morning of the eruption (see Source 5.7), tsunamis (tidal waves) 1 a Which of these sources are primary sources for a
smashed into the coastline, and smoke and ash blackened the study of Pompeii?
sky. A rush of boiling mud wiped out farms and villas almost
b Write down a question for each source that would
instantly. Suffocating gases filled the air.
help you discover more about it than you currently
Source 5.9
know.
2 Study Source 5.4.
We [Pliny and his mother] had hardly sat down when darkness
a Estimate the approximate distance between Mount
fell, not like the dark of a moonless night, but as if a lamp had
been put out in a closed room. You could hear the shrieks of
Vesuvius and the city.
women, the wailing of babies and the shouts of men … Some b Check your estimate against Source 5.5, using the
were so terrified they prayed for death. Many prayed to the map’s scale.
gods for help, but even more were of the view that there were no 3 Refer to Source 5.6. What evidence does it provide about
gods left, and that the universe had been plunged into eternal villa life in Pompeii? Is this source reliable? Explain.
darkness … The flames continued for a while, some distance
4 How useful was 5.7 in helping you to better appreciate
away. Then the darkness returned and ashes began to fall again,
Source 5.9? Explain.
this time in heavy showers. We stood up every now and then
to shake the ash off or we would have been crushed under its 5 Read Source 5.9 carefully.
weight. a What evidence does this source provide about the
Translated extract from a letter to Tacitus by Pliny the Younger reaction of the people of Pompeii to the eruption?
b Use the scale on Source 5.5 to estimate how far (in a
The excavation of Pompeii started in 1860. The archaeologist direct line) ash was being dispersed from Vesuvius if it
Giuseppe Fiorelli found many strange cavities. He soon realised was falling on Pliny the Younger and his mother.
they had contained human and animal remains. Over time, the
6 With a partner, use Google Earth to zoom in and out on
bodies had been reduced to dust and bits of bone. He poured
Pompeii. Look at some of the photographs and close-ups
a type of plaster into the cleaned-out cavities to reveal shapes
of street views, and take note of Mt Vesuvius. Jot down
such as those shown in Source 5.8.
notes about anything that particularly interests you.

chapter five ancient rome 215

Source 5.10 A stone relief showing men hauling cargo up a river, probably the Rhône in France, during the time of ancient Rome. This was also done
on the Tiber.

The River Tiber

The River Tiber begins as freshwater springs in the
Apennines. It then flows west some 400 kilometres across
the Italian peninsula to the Tyrrhenian Sea. (This is one of
many deep sea basins that make up the Mediterranean Sea.)
The city of Rome developed on the eastern bank of this
river.
At first, the river did little more than to mark off
the territory of tribes in the region. As the city of Rome
developed, the river became increasingly important as
a transport route. Upstream from its mouth, it could be
navigated for about a quarter of its length. Vessels that
sailed its waters included boats propelled by oarsmen and
barges dragged along by men walking the banks (see Source
5.10).
The river also served as an outlet for a huge sewer, the
Cloaca Maxima, built around 600 bce . The sewer’s remains
are still there today.
A port, Ostia, was built at the river mouth. (Later, Ostia
became an important naval base.) Through Ostia and other
ports such as Pozzuoli and Portus (see Source 5.12), trade
goods poured into and out of Rome. These were mostly
from colonies that Rome had set up.
Source 5.11 A section of the Tiber River The Tiber River also caused some problems for Rome.
Each year, it flooded with snow melt from the Apennines,
sometimes seriously. This prompted successive Roman rulers
to erect structures to strengthen river banks to protect areas
of the city from flood. Wharves were also built.

216
bigideas
5.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?
Remember
1 List three physical features of the Italian peninsula.
2 Make an A3-sized facts chart on the Mediterranean Sea.
Refer to Source 5.3 for some of your information.
3 What physical feature caused the devastation of Pompeii in
79 ce? Explain in a few sentences what happened and why
the geography of the region made such an event likely.

Understand
4 Suggest what it would have been like to have been one of
the boat haulers shown in Source 5.10. Think about the
difficulties and challenges of doing such a job.
5 In small groups, write and present one of the following to
convey the essence or spirit of the Mediterranean Sea:
Source 5.12 Artist’s impression of the ancient Roman port of Portus,
a a rap north of Ostia, showing its artificial harbour and the canal that linked it to
b a collage of images and assorted texture items the River Tiber
(e.g. seaweed, shells, sprinkles of sand)
8 Present a one-minute ‘What am I?’ oral presentation for the
c a mime, accompanied by selected commercial music
class on a selected physical feature of the Mediterranean
d a climograph (see p. 112 for an example), based on
region. You will need to do some research. Leave it until the
researched climate data for a selected location
last minute to reveal what you are.
6 In your workbook, construct an acrostic poem using the
word TIBER. Your poem should reflect the impact of the Analyse
river on ancient Rome. An example is shown below to give 9 o A link to a virtual site tour of Ostia is available on the
you an idea of what is required: obook. Take notes on what you observe as you ‘walk’
Tumbling from the mighty mountains around. Highlight any observations you regard as especially
Into the Mediterranean Sea, useful.
Barges on its waters,
10 Look carefully at Source 5.12. Decide how each of the built
Enters the mighty Tiber—
structures you identify would have benefited Rome’s trade.
Rome’s lifeblood.

Apply Evaluate
11 Prepare a list of criteria (standards) that would help you
7 a With a partner, decide on the benefits and shortcomings
decide which physical feature most influenced the way
your school has because of its geographical location.
ancient Rome developed as a civilisation.
You will need to identify all the physical features of the
surrounding area. Create
b Brainstorm inventive, but workable, solutions to allow
12 Conduct photo research to create a 4-page paper or
your school to take advantage of any benefits and
digital album of one of the following: The Alps, Rhine River,
to overcome any disadvantages. Be creative in your
Apennines, Nile River, Adriatic Sea. Add suitable captions
thinking.
that help to explain how you think this feature may have
influenced the growth of ancient Rome, and why.

chapter five ancient rome 217

Source 5.13 This 19th-century fresco is the artist’s impression of a Senate meeting in Rome.

5.2 What shaped the roles of key

groups in ancient societies?
The political and social divisions that shaped the roles of key groups in
Roman society were similar to those of ancient Greece. For example,
only certain people could be citizens. There was also a clear distinction
between rulers and those who were ruled, between slaves and free-
born people, between the wealthy and the poor, and between men and
women.

The role of citizens

Under Roman law, a boy was born a citizen if his father was a citizen and his
parents were legally married. (From time to time, these requirements changed
slightly.) Foreigners (free men born outside ancient Rome, such as in Roman
colonies) had some rights. But these foreigners could not be full citizens until
212 ce . That was when the emperor Caracalla changed the law to allow this.
Slaves were not citizens and had no rights at all. However, if slaves were freed,
they were given a limited form of Roman citizenship and their sons could become
citizens. Freed slaves were called freedmen, or liberti. Some liberti become very
wealthy and often influential. Women were not citizens, although they had
limited rights and a degree of personal freedom.

218
Could vote in citizen
assemblies at age 25

Could not be tortured, Could nominate for

whipped or crucified for positions of public office
an offence (e.g., magistrate)

Rights
Had the right to a legal
Could own property and
trial at which they could
draw up legal contracts
defend themselves

Did not have to pay Could serve in army

certain taxes legions

Source 5.14 Some of the rights of a full Roman citizen

Classes of citizen
Roman citizens were divided into classes based on birth (lines of descent) and
property (how much land they owned). This determined their role in society and
thus their lifestyle. Broadly, the society was made up of patricians, plebeians and
slaves.

Patricians
Patricians were people who could typically trace their line of descent back to the
heads of those influential families who made up the original Senate in Rome. (This
was an advisory body first set up to advise the Etruscan kings.)
Patrician families were wealthy and typically owned huge estates. For a long time,
they held all the positions of political importance, such as offices listed in Source
5.15. Only they could interpret the laws (unwritten until 450 bce). It was considered
beneath them to be involved in commerce.

Source 5.15 Key government officials of ancient Rome

Official Number appointed Role and responsibilities

Consuls 2 (for 1 year) Top ruling officials who shared power; called and
oversaw meetings of the Senate and assemblies
Praetores Up to 8 Managed the legal system, appointed (or were) judges;
could be appointed as governors of the provinces
Aediles 2 Looked after food supply, games, public buildings, city
maintenance, markets
Quaestores Up to 40 Looked after financial matters within cities and the army
Source 5.16 This statue of a patrician shows
Censores 2 (every 5 years) Reviewed Senate membership; enrolled new citizens; him wearing a toga and holding busts of his
conducted census; oversaw tax collection and public ancestors. Such busts were regarded with
works contracts great respect.

219
BCE Plebeians
494
The role of tribune Plebeians were the ordinary people of ancient Rome. They made up the bulk of
created following the population and thus the army. They also included those who were involved in
threatened strike action
by plebeians commerce. They had some say in how they were ruled though their membership
of the Citizens’ Assembly. However, this body was still dominated by patricians.
471 The poorest of the plebeians owned no property at all. Wealthier plebeians
Special assembly of (called equites) included artisans and moderately rich landowners. These
plebeians set up together
with existing governing landowners were often those whose forebears had been wealthy enough to join
bodies the cavalry of Rome’s first armies.
449 450 During the years of the republic, the plebeians began to challenge the
Number of Law of the 12 Tablets long-held authority over them of the patricians. Unrest grew. As Source 5.17
tribunes drawn up, with written shows, they made their first threat in 494 bce: they refused orders to attack an
increased to 10 laws recorded for the first
time enemy force. Instead, they retreated to another hill near Rome. The patricians
were very concerned for the plebeians greatly outnumbered them; they also
needed plebeian support and services to survive. And so began the first of many
421 concessions made to the plebeians over the next 200 or so years. These included
First plebeian changes to the law.
quaester elected

367
From this date,
one of Rome’s
two consuls had
to be a plebeian

337
First plebeian
praetor elected

287
New law passed to
allow votes of plebeian
assembly to become law

BCE
Source 5.17 Timeline of gradual increase in Source 5.18 Tomb of the plebeian Gaius Cestius, who died during the 1st century bce. He was a
political power of the plebeians tribune in ancient Rome.

220
empathy: t he role of slaves
focus on …

Today most would be offended by the idea of owning slaves who had few
or no human rights. It would thus be easy to judge Roman slave owners
by our standards. It is true that many slaves were treated badly. But let’s
look at this from the perspective of an ancient Roman. Let’s exercise some
historical empathy. In ancient Rome, owning a slave was a bit like us owning
a lawnmower! This does not make what some of them did moral. But we do
need to view slave ownership through their eyes, not ours.
Most slaves were prisoners of war, though some were bought as ‘goods’.
A few were abandoned children or people who could not pay their debts.
Clever, well-educated slaves might become tutors in wealthy households.
A few even worked in powerful positions for emperors, as the former slave
Marcus Antonius Pallus (c. 1–63 ce) did for the emperors Claudius and Nero.
Some slaves were given their freedom, or earned enough money to buy it.
Slaves had no choice in what they did. Ancient records report some having
to wear metal collars engraved with their owner’s name. The less fortunate
might be forced to fight to the death as gladiators, or to work in Rome’s
mines and quarries. Punishments could be cruel. Text sources record one Source 5.20 Domestic female slaves in ancient Rome
man’s attempt to feed his slave boy to lampreys (blood-sucking eel-like fish) could be asked to attend to every need of their mistress.
for breaking a glass.
As in most ancient societies, including Rome, slaves provided a vital source
of labour, especially on farms and in mines and quarries. Their efforts, though
often costing them their lives, helped to increase the prosperity of Rome.

Source 5.19 Advice on managing slaves on an estate

Clothing for the slaves. A tunic weighing three and one half pounds and
a cloak in alternate years. Whenever you give a tunic or a cloak to any
of them, first get the old one back to make patchwork cloaks of. Good
wooden shoes should be given to them every second year.
From On agriculture by Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE)

Check your learning

1 Create a mind map about citizenship in ancient Rome.
2 Why were the patricians such a powerful social group?
3 Find out more about the Law of the 12 Tables. How was this law code
recorded, why was it set down, and whom did it benefit?
4 The setting is ancient Rome; the time is the day before harvest. Many
slaves will have to work hard to bring in the wheat crop that the
landowner hopes will bring him much wealth. Record the thoughts about
tomorrow from two different perspectives: that of the landowner and that
of a slave.
5 a Why would the patricians have feared the strike action of the
plebeians in 494 bce? Source 5.21 Strong and/or beautiful people, such as
the slave depicted in this ancient mosaic, were typically
b How did changes to the law and governing arrangements change the
sought out to work in the households or on the estates of
role of the plebeians over time? the wealthy.

221
Source 5.22 Fresco from
Pompeii of a young mother
and her baby

The role of women

What we know about Roman women was written by men. There are also very few sources
about the lives of poor women. But we do know that the paterfamilias, the oldest male in
the family, had all the power. (A family in ancient Rome typically included parents, married
and unmarried children and slaves.) The paterfamilias decided whom his daughter married
and whether a newborn lived or died.

Source 5.23 Roles of women in ancient Rome

Constraints (legal and social) Opportunities

Could not vote or own property Had more personal freedoms than, say, the women of
Athens

Had no legal control over their children Many were taught how to read and write

Had to have a male guardian in public Many became highly respected figures

Most had a less formal education than A number were able to work or run their own
boys (e.g., learned spinning and weaving businesses, or helped their husbands with their
rather than, say, maths, history and business, unlike Athenian women who were largely
philosophy) shut away in their homes

Had no active role in civic or political life Could play an active role in preparing sons for civic life

Changing women’s roles

The main role of women, especially those of the higher class, was to raise children and
run the household. The Punic Wars (see pp. 258–61) did much to change this. With their
men away fighting, many Roman women had to manage on their own (with their slaves).
After the war, widows often received large sums of money. This further boosted their self-
reliance.
Much later in the republic, a new type of marriage evolved that gave women a little
more freedom. They were now less under the direct control of their husbands. With
their husbands, many women attended dinner parties, gladiator fights, chariot races and
religious festivals, and regularly went to the public baths. Not all men were happy about
this though.

Source 5.24

If you give women equal freedom with men, do you think this will make them easier to live with? Far
from it! If women have equality, they will become men’s masters.
Translated extract from the writing of Livy, a Roman historian (59 bce to 17 CE)

By the early days of the empire, many upper-class women had a new prosperity and
social standing. This encouraged many to further ‘push the rules’ in the way they behaved.
This development worried Rome’s ruler Augustus (63 bce to 14 ce). He believed Rome
would be strong only if its people were moral. As part of his reforms, he introduced strict
laws to restrict women’s behaviour. For example, woman had to sit in the top tiers of the
Colosseum. There were also harsh penalties for adultery. The laws he created saw even
Augustus’ own daughter, Julie, exiled.

222
significance: Cornelia Source 5.25

focus on …
Gracchus Sculpture of Cornelia
and her two sons
Cornelia Gracchus (190–100 bce)
was a remarkable trailblazer
for women’s independence at
this time in history. She was the
daughter of the Roman general
Scipio (see p. 258). She and her
husband, Tiberius Gracchus Major, had Check your learning
12 children, only three of whom (two
boys and a girl) survived. 1 How did the paterfamilias influence the
role of women in ancient Rome?
When her husband died, Cornelia refused
to marry again, despite offers. Instead 2 a In your own words, explain why
she took total control of her sons’ Cornelia Gracchus is a significant
education and made her own decisions. figure in history.
It is said that she replied when asked why b What do you think Livy might have
she dressed so simply, ‘My sons are my thought of her? Why?
jewels.’ She even set up a club where 3 How did the Punic Wars help to
prominent literary and political figures change the role of women in ancient
could gather to share ideas. Rome?
She is significant because she was a 4 What evidence does Source 5.23
woman ahead of her time. She was well provide about the limits on the role of
regarded as a virtuous, ideal mother most women in ancient Rome?
figure by ancient Romans. Yet she was 5 The magistrate and his wife shown
also strong-minded and independent. in Source 5.26 both hold writing
materials. What do you conclude from
this evidence?
6 a Word-process a short letter that a
modern women’s rights supporter
might send to Cornelia Gracchus
(if that were possible!) explaining
why she is regarded today as such
a ‘trailblazer’.
b Using the editing tools in your
word-processing program, check
your writing for spelling and
grammatical accuracy. How does
the grammar and spelling check
compare with formal grammar and
spelling you have learned in other
classes, such as English? Assess
the accuracy and suitability of the
word-processing program you use.
Would you recommend it to other
Source 5.26 Painting of Roman magistrate Terentius
students? Why?
Nero and his wife from Pompeii (1st century ce)

223
The role of emperors
Dividing line between the empires
Historians often talk about Rome Western Roman empire
being ruled by emperors after
Trier Eastern Roman empire
Octavian assumed almost total
Centre of western
power in 27 bce (see p. 225). This is emperor’s rule
because it is the easiest way to refer
to the role they had. However, the
ancient Romans never used the word Black Sea

‘emperor’. Rome
Byzantium
In theory, the republic continued
Centre of
after 27 bce . But this was a pretence. eastern emperor’s rule
In practice, ruling power became
more and more concentrated in one
person. The Senate, which had been Mediterranean Sea
the supreme body during the republic
years, lost much of its influence.
These rulers (hereafter called 0 400 800
emperors) became so powerful kilometres

because they took on (or were given Source 5.28 Western and Eastern empires of ancient Rome
by the Senate) so many rights, titles
and official roles.
Many emperors ruled well and worked well with the
Senate. Others were corrupt and brutally abused their
power. Some, such as Augustus, were declared to be gods Princeps senatus—
after their death. Others, such as Nero, declared themselves leader of the Senate
to be gods! Having a god–emperor as a central ruling figure
helped to unify a territory that consisted of a diversity of
peoples, languages and beliefs. Imperator—supreme
Pontifex maximus—
commander of the
high priest
Source 5.27 The power of emperor Constantine (272–337 CE), the first Roman army
Christian emperor

[He] controlled foreign policy, making peace and war at will: he

could raise what taxes he willed and spend the money at his
pleasure: he personally appointed to all offices, civil and military:
he had the power of life and death over all his subjects. He was Some titles, roles
and responsibilities
moreover the sole fount [source] of law and could make new rules
or abrogate [discard] old at pleasure …
From The Later Roman Empire 284–602 by A.H.M Jones, Oxford, Basil
Blackwell, 1964, p. 321

Between 27 bce and 395 ce (when the Roman empire was Princeps civitatis — Augustus—meaning
first citizen, or first ‘exalted one’, with
finally divided in two), there were 147 emperors. Another among equals religious overtones
23 emperors ruled in the Western empire before its collapse
in 476 ce . In the Eastern empire, another 94 emperors ruled
until 1453 ce , after which it became part of the Ottoman Source 5.29 Some of the titles, roles and responsibilities of Roman
(Turkish) empire. emperors

224
Four emperors

Source 5.30
I am Augustus, Rome’s first Source 5.32
emperor (though I never called I am Nero. I became emperor in
myself that). After my great-uncle 54 CE when I was only 17. The
Julius Caesar was murdered first few years went smoothly. I
in 44 BCE, I changed my birth was very interested in the arts,
name to Gaius Julius Caesar but I was also a good chariot
Octavianus. Caesar was like a racer. So good, I might kill anyone
father to me and I was very upset who was better than me. I had my
that he was killed. Historians say mother killed when I was 21. Then
I was clever the way I became there were the military campaigns
so powerful, as I was a ‘nobody’ in Britain and Judea. But it was
in Rome when Uncle Julius was the fire in Rome in 64 CE that
murdered. My rule began in caused the most fuss. Some
27 BCE. The Senate renamed me Augustus. It means ‘exalted one’. people said I started it.
You might be wondering why I ended up fighting Antony. After But I blamed the Christians — they made an excellent scapegoat.
all, he had been my comrade in battle. Well, he left my sister for We fed some to the lions and painted others with tar before setting
that Egyptian queen Cleopatra for a start. But when he gave away them alight. I built a new palace for myself on Rome’s burned ruins.
Roman provinces to their children … that was enough for me! As The Senate plotted to get rid of me, but did not succeed. But,
Rome’s leader, I made it a better place to live. For a while, there was the army revolts in 68 CE were the final straw. I lost the throne to
peace (after a century of civil war). I increased its territory to include Galba—and a man from the province of Spain at that! So I took my
countries you know as France, Egypt and Spain. I built heaps of own life that year.
roads, bridges and aqueducts, and encouraged trade (including
with the country you know as India). Art and literature flourished, too.
After my death in 14 ce, the people worshipped me as a god.
No wonder, I say!
Source 5.33
I am Marcus Aurelius. I was
40 years old when I became
emperor of Rome, ruling between
Source 5.31 161 ce until my death in 180 CE.
I am Caligula (Gaius Julius Historians say I ruled well—the
Caesar Augustus Germanicus last of five good rulers they say.
to be precise). I was Rome’s I increased the size of the army
third emperor, ruling from 37 to and introduced many social
my death in 41 CE. Historians reforms, such as giving more
say I started well. I abolished rights to women and slaves.
sales tax, worked well with the I was a thinker and philosopher,
Senate and put on lots of games. even if I was a bit cruel to the
Did you know I fought a whale Christians from time to time.
once during sea games in the Fair enough; their beliefs were
Colosseum? Then I became very undermining ours. For most of my reign, I and my co-emperor
ill. Some say that’s when I went (my stepbrother Verus) for a while fought the barbarians—he in
mad. I suppose I did try to get my Parthia (towards Asia) and I in Germanica. Unfortunately, his troops
horse elected as consul. There’s talk, too, that I was in love with my brought the plague back to Rome and thousands of people died.
favourite sister, Drusilla. I loved putting those senators down. And In 2000 CE they made a film called Gladiator, meant to depict one
money! I made it law that wealthy men leave me their fortunes in their of my battles (when I was an old man). My son Commodus ruled
will. Why not? I was a god. The Roman writer Suetonius said I was after me. Historians say he was unbalanced and that people feared
depraved. If enjoying watching gladiators die and the odd bit of slow him. His rule marked the end of Pax Romana.
torture is ‘depraved’, he might have been right. I was 29 when the
Praetorian Guards murdered me. They were meant to protect me!

225
significantindividuals
Julius Caesar

On 15 March in 44 BCE the consul

Julius Caesar was murdered. A large
group of senators, including his
friends, stabbed him 23 times when
he entered the Senate House.
Can you imagine that happening to
our Prime Minister? It would be a
terrible crime. But let’s look at this
murder from the perspective of
those who killed him. In other words,
let’s try to empathise with them.
What were their motives for ending
Caesar’s life? Were these justified?

The early years

Julius Caesar was born into a
patrician family in 100 bce. In 68 bce,
he was elected as a quaestor. Some
four years later, he was made a
Source 5.34 A bust of Julius Caesar. He is Source 5.35 This statue of Caesar shows him
praetor and governor of the province
often shown wearing a laurel wreath on his head as a confident military commander—a role he
of Spain. as he was reportedly sensitive about his balding carried out very well.
On his return to Rome, Caesar made hairline.
a pact (formed a triumvirate) with
two other leading political figures, Caesar’s rising popularity Showdown
Pompey and Crassus. Pompey and Caesar was considered a brilliant military In 49 bce, the Senate ordered Caesar to
Crassus agreed to help get Caesar commander who was popular with the give up his military command after his
elected as consul (one of two top people and his troops. As governor of the conquests in Gaul. But Caesar refused. He
governing positions in republican Roman province of Gaul (roughly today’s returned to Rome with his troops, crossing
Rome). They succeeded in 59 bce. France), he fought the barbarian Celts. His the Rubicon River. This was a clear sign
Caesar was elected consul a further victories there and elsewhere saw large of his refusal to obey.
three times. amounts of new territory added to the Civil war was declared. Pompey (now
In short, Caesar was rising fast— Roman republic. directly opposed to Caesar) fled to Egypt
becoming a ‘tall poppy’. By 53 bce one member of the triumvirate in 48 bce. Caesar and his troops followed,
was gone: Crassus. He died fighting the to be presented with Pompey’s head.
Parthians in the east. (The bloody deed was the work of the
By 49 bce, many senators had begun to vizier Ponthius and the younger brother of
worry about Caesar’s rising popularity and Cleopatra, then the rightful ruler of Egypt.
his military successes. He was starting These two men, ambitious for power, had
to take on roles without the Senate’s forced her to flee.) Caesar was revolted,
approval. This was something republican not impressed as the men had hoped.
senators had feared since the time of the Caesar had Ponthius killed and Cleopatra
Etruscan kings. reinstated as ruler of Egypt.

226 oxfo g id o
Caesar and Cleopatra Approximate extent of republican Rome
Atlantic
While in Egypt, Caesar fell for Cleopatra’s charms. They had a after Caesar’s military victories
Ocean
child, a boy named Caesarion, born in 47 bce. The three of them Land relief
returned that year to Rome to live. There Caesar threw himself
into reforms. He introduced a new currency and reformed the Black Sea
Corsica
calendar (called the Julian calendar). He declared that new
Roman colonies had been set up in Africa, Gaul and Greece d i t e Sardinia
and started building what would become Rome’s chief law M e r
r Sicily
courts: the Basilica Julia. a
n
N e Crete
a n
Too much ambition S e a

In 44 bce, Caesar adopted the role of dictator for life. This was
0 800 km
too much for the republican senators so they killed him.
Source 5.37 The extent of republican Rome after Caesar’s military
Source 5.36 conquests

But those who had come prepared for the murder bared each of
them his dagger and closed in on Caesar in a circle. Whichever
way he turned he encountered blows and weapons levelled at his
face and eyes, and driven here and there like a wild beast he was
entangled in the hands of all; for it had been agreed that they
should all strike him and taste of the slaughter … For they say
he received twenty-three wounds, and many of the conspirators
were wounded by one another as they directed so many blows
against one body.
From the Life of Caesar by the historian Plutarch (c. 45–125 ce)

And afterwards …
Caesar’s murder was followed by about 15 years of civil war.
His death saw the rise to power of a man whom the Senate
allowed to have a great deal of power. This man was Octavian,
Caesar’s great-nephew and declared heir (see Source 5.30).
Source 5.38 Artist’s impression of the assassination of Caesar

1 Why do you think historians regard Julius Caesar as a

significant person in history? 4 Based on what you have learned about Caesar, would
you say he was a strong leader? Justify your answer by
2 o A link to a timeline tool is available on the obook. Draw a
first listing a series of points by which you judge leadership,
timeline online to list key events in the life of Julius Caesar.
and then deciding how he measured up against these.
3 Show your empathy for the perspective of one of those who
assassinated Julius Caesar. Try to understand his motives.
Prepare and deliver a short oral for the class, describing why
you participated in such a gruesome deed.

chapter five ancient rome 227

bigideas
5.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?
Remember
1 Decide whether the following statements are true or
false. Correct any false statements and write them in your
workbook.
a The patricians made up most of ancient Rome’s
population.
b Sons born to slaves who had been freed could become
Roman citizens.
c A tribune was first elected as consul in Rome in 450 bce.
d The Senate was abolished once Octavian came to
power in 27 bce.
2 A man named Marcus Antonius Pallas was the equivalent
to the treasurer of Rome during the rule of the emperors
Claudius and Nero. What was significant about Pallas?
3 What role did religion play in the way some emperors’ roles
were viewed?

Understand
4 a Look at Source 5.24 on page 222. What evidence
does this provide about what Livy really thought about
women?
b What do you think Cornelia Gracchus’ perspective might
have been on the issue Livy discusses?
c What evidence is there that Augustus was prepared Source 5.39 The story of Spartacus has been told in films, plays, books,
to ‘put his money where his mouth was’ with respect etc. This is a scene from the ballet Spartacus.
to his concern about the growing change in women’s
behaviour?
5 The rations listed in Source 5.40 were documented by 6 Find out who Spartacus was and why he is regarded as
the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 bce) in significant by historians.
On Agriculture. What evidence does this provide about the
7 Frame two questions that would guide your research in
restricted rights and entitlements of slaves in Rome?
finding out more about Cornelia Gracchus.
Source 5.40

Item for issue to slaves Quantity and quality

Bread Four pounds a day in winter for those working in chains

Relish Only olives that have dropped off the tree and then only those with least oil; when all eaten, pickled
fish to be supplied
Wine Set quantities of whatever wine can be made after the harvest for a vintage is completed

228 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

8 Write a news article suitable for the fictional newspaper
Ancient Rome Daily, based on an interview you conducted
with Julius Caesar at the height of his power. Include
quotations you create (based on facts).
9 Create a timeline of Rome’s emperors, plotting as many
dates as you can identify from the information provided on
page 225.

Apply
10 Work in small groups. Identify a modern person all members
know of. Bring to the discussion some information about
this person that you have found through research. Agree on
factors that shaped this person’s life and current role.
11 a What was a toga, and who wore them in ancient Rome?
b o A link to a website showing how to tie a toga (using
an old bed sheet) is available on the obook. Bring
digital or print photos of your efforts to share with your
classmates.
12 Use an online program to create a crossword based on key
words (bolded text) used in this section. You will need also
to prepare the clues. Swap your completed crossword with
a partner to solve.

Analyse
13 Turn to page 225 and compare and contrast the profiles of
either the emperors Augustus and Marcus Aurelius or Nero
and Caligula. What do you conclude about them as rulers?
14 a What does Source 5.41 reveal about how the emperor Source 5.41 The head, carved from marble, of a statue of Constantine.
The statue was about 10 metres high.
Constantine wanted his people to view him?
b How is this supported by Source 5.27?

Evaluate Create
15 Aelia Pulcheria (399–453 ce) was one of the few women 16 With a partner, hypothesise about what might have
ever to have real political power in ancient Rome. She was happened in ancient Rome if:
the de facto ruler (she acted as a ruler, though unofficially) a the plebeians had withdrawn their services totally and
of the Eastern empire for a time. permanently from Rome in 494 bce
Conduct some research to find out more about her. b Julius Caesar had not been assassinated
Rate her significance on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = not significant, c women had been given the right to play a full and active
5 = extremely significant). Justify your rating. role in political life in Rome.
Consider, in particular, how these outcomes might have
influenced social roles.

chapter five ancient rome 229

Source 5.42 Nero and his courtiers watch as Christians (at right) are set alight. (Leading Light of
Christianity—Nero’s torches, by Henry K. Siemiradzki)

5.3 How do beliefs, values and

practices influence lifestyle?
Our lifestyles are influenced by the traditions and beliefs we inherit from our
families and the communities in which we grow up. Some of these influences
have a very long history. They may go back generations, even centuries.
Others may reflect the recent influence of friends of a different culture.
It was no different in ancient Rome. People’s customs and beliefs were
often a mix of those they had inherited from their forebears and from the
cultures of societies they conquered. Together, they had an impact on
how the ancient Romans lived.

Religious beliefs and practices

The rulers of ancient Rome did not believe in one god, as Jews, Christians and
Muslims do. Most of their deities were the equivalents of ancient Greek gods and
goddesses (see Source 5.43). They also included deities of other conquered peoples,
such as the Persian god Mithras and the Egyptian god Isis.

230
Roman deities were worshipped in temples and in the home. Sacrifices
and offerings were made and festivals were held in their honour. Rituals and
ceremonies were the most important part of Roman religious practice. For
example, certain parts of sacrificed animals were burned as an offering to
the gods. The Romans believed such practices would keep the gods happy. To
discontinue them risked having bad things happen to Rome.
This was why Roman rulers such as Nero feared Christianity with its worship
of one God. This fear motivated Roman leaders to try to stamp the religion out.
In fact, for about 300 years, ancient Romans who became Christians were often
tortured or killed. They might be crucified, burnt alive or fed to the lions, often
in front of jeering crowds.
Despite these efforts, Christianity continued to spread. By 394 ce , Emperor
Constantine (see p. 229) had made it ancient Rome’s official religion. Today, the
traditions of Rome’s early Christian church have gone on to influence the beliefs
and practices of many people in the modern world.

Source 5.43 Some Roman deities, and their Greek equivalents

Ancient Roman deity Role Ancient Greek deity

Jupiter king of the gods Zeus

Juno wife of the king, goddess of women Hera

and childbirth
Neptune god of the sea Poseidon

Mars god of war Ares

Venus goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite

Bacchus god of wine and pleasure Dionysus Source 5.45 Statue of the Roman ruler
Augustus (see p. 225). When acting as chief
Vesta goddess of the hearth Hestia priest, he covered his head with part of his toga
to signify this role.

Fides—honesty,
Industria—willingness to trustworthiness,
work hard, diligence believability,
dependability

Options
Clementia—willingness Gravitas—self-control,
Values dignity, seriousness,
to let go of one’s rights How beliefs, values and practices
cool-headedness,
influenced the lifestyle of the ancient
responsibility
Romans is discussed in respect to the
three topic areas listed below. Choose
Virtus—courage,
honour, toughness, Pietas—respect, one of these.
desire to excel dutifulness, good living, • everyday life
reverence
• warfare
• death and funerary customs.
Source 5.44 Some key values of the ancient Romans. These made up part of an unwritten code Related activities are on pages 252-3.
on which ancient Romans based their behaviours and attitudes.

231
Warfare
Military service was a part of life for Roman citizens. It was needed at first to help to increase Rome’s territory and then to
defend it. In fact, for a time the main Roman god was Mars, the god of war.
Through intense and disciplined training, Rome’s army became very strong. It was fuelled by a belief in Rome and
particularly by the value virtus (see Source 5.44 on p 231). The breakdown in order and self-discipline in the army was one
of the reasons Rome’s western empire eventually crumbled.

Early days
In the early days of the republic, the
army was made up of landowners
(large estates and small farms). Some
were wealthy enough to own horses
and buy armour and weapons. These
men formed the cavalry.
By 260 bce , the army had control
of the country that we call Italy. As
its territory grew, Rome needed a
larger and more permanent army.
Lengthy wars fought a long way
from home made it hard for men to
maintain their farms, even those that
were quite small.
Around 100 bce , a Roman consul,
Marius, declared that anyone who
joined the army no longer had to
own land. Consequently, thousands
of men (including the very poor)
joined up.
Source 5.46 A still from the 2000 movie Gladiator showing Roman troops readying themselves for battle

evidence: a tough life

focus on …

Evidence provided by ancient writers suggests that army life Soldiers were often whipped. If a leader thought his men might
was hard. A soldier swore an oath of allegiance when he joined be plotting against him, he might order every tenth soldier in
up. He had to do everything he was ordered to do, without the unit to be stoned to death by his comrades. This practice
fear or backchat. was called decimatio. The writings of the historian Polybius
Training was rigorous and conditions were often difficult. There provide evidence of the harshness of the punishment known
were no anaesthetics or pain killers if a soldier had to have his as bastinado. This was reserved for those soldiers caught
leg cut off or have a bleeding wound cauterised. There were stealing, lying or breaking the rules.
constant drills, practice fights and trials to test their nerve. The
Source 5.47
soldiers learned to be tough and flexible.
[The bastinado] is inflicted as follows: the tribune [an
On long marches to distant frontiers, the men carried their official] takes a cudgel [club] and just touches the
food, equipment and everything needed to set up camp. condemned man with it, after which all in the camp beat or
Commanders often shared the hardships of the men, living as stone him, in most cases dispatching [killing] him ...
they lived and eating what they ate.
Translated extract from Histories VI by Greek historian Polybius

232
Source 5.48 A suit of armour typically worn by legionaries Source 5.49 The testudo (from the Latin word for a tortoise shell) provided shell-like
after about the 1st century ce. The iron plates it contained protection against enemy attack, such as when soldiers were approaching the walls of an
protected the body. It was lighter than the chain mail coat enemy fort. The shields were sometimes held above the head.
worn by some auxiliaries.

Army organisation Check your learning

The army comprised many legions. Each legion, led by a legatus, was
1 Which god was at first the main god of
made up of both heavy and light infantry and a cavalry. In each legion
Rome? What does this suggest?
were 10 groups, each made up of centuries. There were 100 (later 80)
2 How did the decision of the consul Marius in
soldiers in a century.
100 bce change the make-up of the Roman
Soldiers were called legionaries. At first only Roman citizens could
army?
be legionaries. Later, auxiliaries were used (soldiers from, say, a Roman
3 Find out what a maniple was and how it
colony) who might have the special skills needed. They might, for
worked as a strategy on the battlefield. Draw
example, be very good archers.
a sketch to illustrate your findings.
Roman soldiers in the 2nd century bce were organised for battle
4 List some of the things that you think might
according to age. At the front were the young men, the spearmen.
have motivated those who were part of the
Behind them were the principes; these were soldiers in the prime of their Roman army.
life. At the rear were the older soldiers. While keeping this age order,
5 What evidence does Polybius provide about
men were also arranged into blocks on the battlefield—into maniples, the brutality of punishment in the Roman
for example. These battle tactics proved to be very successful, such as in army?
defeating the armies of Hannibal (see pp. 258–9).
6 Write down (from hardest to least hard), four
Source 5.50 The armour and weapons of the principes
things that, in your opinion, a Roman soldier
might have found tough about army life.
Besides [their] shield, they carry a sword which hangs down the right thigh ... As 7 How would values such as virtus and
well, they have two heavy javelins, a bronze helmet and greaves [bronze strips, industria have helped a soldier to stay
worn on the front of the shin] ... They wear [on their helmet] ... a circle of feathers focused on his job?
with three upright purple or black feathers about a cubit [46 cm long] ... which
makes every man look twice his real height.
Translated extract from Histories VI by Greek historian Polybius

233
Source 5.51 Artist’s impression of Roman soldiers building a double wall in readiness to lay siege to a city

Siege warfare
Another factor that gave the disciplined Roman army an
edge as a fighting force was its siege warfare. This involved
starving a city into submission (and sometimes slaughtering
them after they surrendered). A common approach was to
build two parallel walls around the city. The inner wall was
a barrier to stop food being brought into the city. The outer
wall provided protection for the Romans in attacking any
city warriors or supporters who might be outside the city.
Siege engines such as catapults were used. These
launched large stones, even rotting carcasses of animals (to
spread disease) over city walls. The historian Josephus, a
first-century Jewish historian, writes that catapults used in
Rome’s attack on Jerusalem in 70 ce fired rocks equivalent to
about 25 kg.
The battering ram, with its heavy ram-shaped head
on the end of a long log, was another device. It was useful Source 5.52 Medieval artist’s impression of a carroballista, a horse-drawn
in breaking down the wooden gate of, say, an enemy fort. weapon used by the ancient Romans in warfare
Another tactic was to dig tunnels under a weak section of
a wall (often a corner) to undermine it. The tunnel was
propped up with wooden supports which were then set on
fire. When they collapsed, so did the tunnel.

234
Standards and standard-
bearers
Each legion carried a silver eagle, an
aquila, into battle. It was a symbol of their
strength. It was a matter of great shame if
the standard were lost or captured. This
would be likely to destroy the morale and
discipline of a legion on the battlefield.
There were a number of standard-
bearers in Rome’s army. One was the
aquilifer, who carried the aquila (see Source
5.53). Standard-bearers were chosen for
their leadership qualities and the level of
virtus they displayed.

Source 5.53 A modern artist’s

impression of an aquilifer, leading his
men into battle

Check your learning

1 What was virtus, and why was it so important for a Roman 7 Draw up and complete a table with two columns headed
soldier? ‘Perspectives of the Roman army about a siege on a city’
2 Do you think methods such as decimatio and bastinado and ‘Perspective of city occupants about a siege by a
would have been effective in forcing army discipline? Explain. Roman army’.
3 a Who were the princeps? 8 a What did the aquilifer carry?
b Suggest why they might have fought where they did b How might its capture by the enemy affect the outcome
when in battle formation. of a battle?
4 For what reason were auxiliaries sometimes called on to fight c How were the standards of Rome’s army like the flags
with the Roman army? carried by modern armies?

5 Study Source 5.52. Based on this representation, how do 9 Soldiers were often rewarded after a battle with booty. For
you think the carroballista worked? Suggest how it was successful army commanders, there was the prospect of a
loaded and fired, and what sort of damage it might have political career. Based on what else you know about ancient
caused. Rome, compose one of the following:
• a short dialogue between two soldiers the night before a
6 Sometimes battering rams were pushed on wheeled devices.
battle
These devices were often covered with a long ‘roof’ layered
with wet hides from freshly killed animals. What purpose do • a letter a commander writes to his wife at the start of the
you think such a roof served? siege of a city.

235
Praetorium, the home of the
fort’s commander and his family
The army’s role as
builders Back gate
Many soldiers were skilled
builders or stonemasons. Some Some forts were big
enough to accommodate a
had engineering skills. As the
whole legion (6000 men).
army pushed outwards, it built
roads, canals and bridges when
not fighting. Some of its camps
were temporary (mostly tents).
Some of the more permanent forts
grew into towns and, later, cities. Hospital
For example, the castle in Paris
where French monarchs lived until Principia, the main
1300 ce was once a Roman fort. administrative centre

Forts were built along the

frontiers (outposts) of Roman
territory to protect it from invaders.
The forts also provided a supply
base for further army expansion.
Sites were generally chosen to take
advantage of nearby resources or
natural features. These might be a
harbour or a river. Often, though,
fresh water had to be supplied by
an aqueduct.

Barrack blocks for

soldiers

Ditch

Bank formed by
digging a ditch

Guard tower

Battlements provided both a defence

for fort soldiers to shelter behind, and
openings for them to attack, such as
to fire arrows.

Source 5.54 All army forts were laid out the same way. This meant that soldiers could erect them rapidly, and easily find their way around a new fort.

236
Nearby river, source of fresh water. Often
water was supplied by an aqueduct, built
by the soldiers.

Civilian settlement springing

up alongside the fort

Forts also contained workers such as

builders, butchers and blacksmiths.

The Via Praetoria, the road

leading from the main gate to the
main administrative centre

The ratio of a fort’s length to

its width was usually 3:2.

Check your learning

Stone wall
Study Source 5.54 and its various
components. Working with a partner
or in small groups, make one of the
following:
• a model Roman fort (from
materials such as balsa,
matchsticks and clay).
• a digital plan of this fort (i.e.
the view if looking from directly
above).

237
Everyday life
Everyday life in ancient Rome varied according to whether people were male or female, rich or poor,
citizens or not, and freeborn or slave. Lifestyles also reflected people’s beliefs, values and traditions.

Men, women and the family

The basic social unit in ancient Rome was the extended family. As already mentioned, it was headed
and controlled by the paterfamilias (the ‘father’ of the family). Roman practice had long revered the
father figure. (The emperor and senators were also seen as ‘fathers’.)
The dominant role of men in Roman society—and of the paterfamilias in particular—was partially
shaped by the religious belief that women, children and slaves did not have souls. For this, they
needed to depend on a freeborn man.
Women in ancient Rome were expected to be good wives and mothers. They had no active role in
civic or political life. (More is said about their social role on pp. 222–3.)

Education
Education was a privilege of the wealthy, and then usually only for boys. Girls learned to spin and
weave. Teachers in the home were often educated slaves (and frequently Greek). Subjects studied
typically included history, geography, astronomy, mathematics, reading, writing, and Greek and Latin.
Once learned, Roman values (see p. 231) became part of how people behaved in public life.
‘Graduation from school’ happened for a boy around 17. It was marked by his putting on a new
toga and going out to register on the census as a full citizen. The occasion was a family celebration.

change and continuity: weddings

focus on …

Today there are religious weddings, civil weddings and

de facto relationships. It was much the same in ancient
Rome, where the type of ceremony depended on
people’s social status. Modern traditions continue the
practice of ancient Roman brides to marry in white,
and wear a veil and flowers. As today, ancient Romans
drew up a contract and sealed it with a kiss.
Some other traditions have changed though.
Generally, girls in ancient Rome were married at
around 14 years, sometimes younger. Marriages were
arranged by the father of the bride, or the paterfamilias.
(The bride had no say in the matter.) He handed
control over his daughter to her husband on marriage.
Echoes of this continue in the practice of some
ceremonies today when the priest or celebrant asks
‘Who gives this woman away?’ and the father of the
bride answers ‘I do’.

Source 5.55 Stone relief of a wedding ceremony in ancient Rome.

The groom holds the wedding contract.

238
Fashion, grooming and
cleanliness
Men and women wore tunics (with and without sleeves)
made from linen or wool. Women’s tunics (stole) were ankle
length; men’s were shorter. Only citizens (men) could wear
a toga over this; they did this when in public. Women wore
a palla. Women covered their head in public with a veil or
part of the palla. Marking their lower social status, slaves
wore only tunics.
Personal cleanliness, hygiene and grooming were very
important, especially for the rich. There were daily visits
to public baths (see pp. 242–3). Wealthy women spent time
caring for their hair and skin. Complexions were lightened
with chalk, and lips coloured with wine dregs or mulberry
juice. Wigs, made from the hair of slaves, were often worn
by men and women. Blond and red were popular hair
colours. The clean-shaven ‘short back and sides’ look for
men became the fashion after the 2nd century bce .

Source 5.56 Grooming accessories uncovered in a villa in Pompeii

Water outlet

Water inlet
Toilet seat openings

Water pot

Sponge for cleaning—

Roman ‘toilet paper’

Running drain under

seat, which emptied
into a sewer (such as
the Cloaca Maxima)

Source 5.57 Artist’s impression of a public latrine (toilet) in ancient Rome

239
Land owned and Storehouse
farmed by the family
Homes for the rich
and the poor
The poor in ancient Rome usually
lived very hard lives. In urban
areas, they typically crammed into Servants’ quarters
dark, tiny rooms in multi-storey
apartment buildings called insulae.
Sometimes even these rooms were
shared with other families. These
rooms were often smelly and badly
maintained. Some people kept
domestic animals indoors.
There were few home comforts
for the poor. Water had to be
collected in pots from wells that
might be some walking distance Kitchen
away (as might be the latrine!)
Rooms did have hearths, but
cooking indoors could be a fire
hazard. Most food, usually bread
and gruel (watery soup), was bought
from street stalls. Malnutrition
was common, especially among
children.
By contrast, the life of a wealthy
upper-class family was very
privileged. They typically lived on
spacious country estates, such as High, thick walls
illustrated here.

Small hypocaust
Animal pens (see p. 243)

Workshops

Check your learning

Use Source 5.58 to write a diary entry of a day spent on this
villa from the perspective of either a member of the wealthy
family who own it or a slave who works on the villa.

Source 5.58 Typical features of a Roman villa

Vegetable gardens

Carefully cultivated
Pottery kiln gardens
and workshop

Family’s bedrooms

Family shrine
Well

Mosaic floors

Couches, on which Roofed walkway (called

people often lay when a colonnade)
feasting or entertaining
Public baths
The public baths built in ancient
Rome were further evidence of the
advanced level of Roman technology.
These were often very large facilities
that combined stately architecture
Hair care—barbers, hair
with complex heating and plumbing Reading rooms and library
pluckers and hairdressers.
services. They were similar in some Scissors (invented in ancient
ways to our health spas or water-theme Rome), heated tongs and hair
combs kept hair and wigs
parks. They were places to get clean
neat. Pliny described one lotion
and, sometimes, beautiful. They were used to regrow lost hair: a mix
also places to relax, eat, meet friends of vinegar, spices and mouse
and conduct business. droppings.
By the end of the 3rd century bce ,
there were 11 public baths and about
1000 private baths in ancient Rome.
(Private baths were usually smaller and
simpler in construction.)

Source 5.59

I live over the public baths—you know

what that means. Ugh! It’s sickening.
First there are the ‘fitness fanatics’
doing exercises and swinging heavy
weights about with grunts and groans
and hissing breath. Next the lazy ones
having a cheap massage … I can hear
someone being slapped on the shoulder
… and the sound of a professional ball
player … Then there’s the man who
always likes the sound of his own voice
in the bath and of those who like to
leap into the water with a huge splash.
As well as all these voices … there is
the thin and strident voice of the hair
plucker, calling out for business, until
the yells of the customer having his
armpits plucked replace his … [as well
as the cries of] people selling sausages,
sweets, and other cooked items. Shops and hawkers selling Personal cleanliness and grooming were
Translated extract from Moral Epistles food and snacks important. Wealthy Romans went to the
by Seneca baths every day.

Exercise yard for team games

and activities such as wrestling

Source 5.60 Artist’s impression of a Roman public bath

242
The sauna, the laconicum

Tanks of hot water, heated

Cold pool, the
by the furnaces. Pipes from
frigidarium
aqueducts or reservoirs
supplied the water. Another
system of pipes fed hot and
Swimming pool for cold water up to the pools.
exercising

Masseurs The warm pool, Gardens where people could

the tepidarium stroll or chat, or play games
such as dice or knucklebones

Slaves oiled bodies and then

scraped it off (along with any dirt
and grease) with a strigil.

The steamy hot pool,

the caldarium

Drains carrying away

excess water to the Tiber
River

The hypocaust, a room with huge

wood-fired furnaces (see art above).
Hot air from these furnaces was
Cloakroom where people
forced up through tunnels to heat the
paid slaves to look after
floors and hollow walls of the warm
their clothes and goods
and hot rooms.

Entrance

Check your learning

1 Imagine that you are a guide leading visitors around
the ruins of a facility such as shown in Source 5.59.
Word-process (and record if you have the facilities) the
transcript of what you might say.
2 o An interactive activity on Roman baths is available on
the obook. Man using strigil to scrape off oil and dirt

243
Public entertainment
Many ordinary Romans lived hard contestability: gladiator games

focus on …
lives. As today, it would have been at It was an Etruscan practice to hold fights to the death at the funeral of a ruler.
times a source of envy and irritation Some historians think this is where the tradition of Roman gladiator games began.
for the poor to see how the rich lived, But other historians contest this claim as there is little evidence for it. Other
and the privileges enjoyed by the scholars claim that the games began in 264 bce when two brothers arranged for six
powerful. It thus became a common slaves to fight to the death. This was done as a religious ritual to honour their dead
practice for Roman rulers to provide father, Junius Brutus.
lots of free entertainment for the However they began, the tradition of entertaining people with free gladiator fights
people. This ensured that they did not was well laid down by the time of the Roman empire.
become restless and rebellious.
Fronto, an ancient Roman writer,
said the people were held together by
two things: grain supply and shows.
Another Roman writer, Juvenal, later
expressed this as ‘bread and circuses’.
By the end of the 1st century bce ,
entertainment was provided for the
people on 159 days of each year
in Rome. A day out at the Circus
Maximus, which could seat close to
a quarter of a million people, meant
watching horse-drawn chariots
thunder around the track. Death and
terrible injuries were common for both
horses and riders. But that was then
seen as part of the entertainment!

Check your learning

1 What happened when a boy in
Rome (typically from a wealthy family)
graduated from ‘high school’?
2 Name 3 wedding traditions today
that are an example of continuity of
wedding ceremonies in ancient Rome.
3 Suggest why blond and red-haired
wigs would have been so popular in
ancient Rome.
4 Look at Source 5.57. What has
changed in public toilet design since
the days of ancient Rome?
5 Study Source 5.60. Then complete a
Y-chart (see p. 112 for an example) on Source 5.61 The remains of the Colosseum. Gladiators, soldiers and animals were housed in
what it might be like to make use of the rooms and corridors under the arena.
that public bath.

244
Types of gladiator
Most gladiators fought on foot. Others, such as the equite, fought on horseback. Some were heavily
armoured, while others were almost naked. There were even ‘clown’ gladiators, known as the
andabatae. Their helmets had no eye holes. They would be pushed towards each other, hacking wildly
with their weapons, to the enjoyment of the crowd.

A retiarius was armed with a short

dagger, a trident and a weighted net.
The mesh was used to entangle the
opponent’s weapons, hands or feet. He
had no armour but an arm guard. If he
won the fight, he would kill his opponent
with the dagger or trident.

A secutor carried a short

sword or dagger and a
shield. His right arm and
left leg were covered. His
helmet had small eye holes,
a rounded top and protective
lips at the neck. A secutor
had to kill quickly before he
tired from the lack of oxygen
inside the helmet.

A thraex (thracian) carried a short, curved sword

and a small shield. His lower legs were protected
by greaves and his thighs with padding. The head
of a griffin topped his brimmed helmet. The
helmet’s grill protected his face and eyes, and a
deep collar protected his neck.
The murmillo was usually
pitted against the thraex.
His broad-brimmed helmet
was fish-shaped. His left
lower leg was protected
by padding and a metal
greave, and his right arm
by armour. He carried a
short, straight sword and a
large curved shield.

Source 5.62 Artist’s impression of typical gladiator duels. Pairs were typically matched to make the fight fair.
One gladiator’s advantage was the other’s disadvantage.

245
The Colosseum A high wall was built around
the arena’s perimeter to stop
The massive Colosseum, in the gladiators or animals from
heart of ancient Rome, was the escaping. Spectators entered through
tunnels and climbed steps, much
place to go for gladiator fights. This
as spectators do at major sports
stadium was completed in 80 bce . events today.
Its external dimensions are about
20 metres longer and wider than
the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
Gladiators often entered through
Ancient Romans flocked here, gates at the arena level.
often day after day, to watch
gladiators kill each other (or
animals) and see people being eaten
by animals. Gladiators fought to
the death. Sometimes there was an
appeal for mercy. It is said that the
emperor or official put a thumb up
(for mercy) or a thumb down (for
death). He might be influenced by
the mood of the crowd. Sometimes the sand was coloured to
Dead bodies were dragged make the spilt blood less obvious; vats of
perfumed incense were often placed at
out and stripped of armour and
key points to cover the smell.
weapons for later use by other
gladiators. A popular gladiator
who had won many fights might
be presented with a wooden sword
to mark his freedom. Some then
became trainers of other gladiators.

Source 5.63

In the morning, men are thrown

to the lions and the bears, and at
midday they are thrown to their
spectators. The spectators call for
the slayer to be thrown to those who
in turn will kill him. Then they hold
the winner of that fight for another
butchering. The outcome for the
combatants is death.
Translated extract from Moral Epistles
by the Roman writer Seneca

Animals were caged under the Colosseum

Source 5.64 Artist’s impression of a day at the Colosseum floor (called the arena). They entered via
ramps and trapdoors, after being raised in
246 pulley-drawn cages.
The Colosseum could hold a crowd of Check your learning
around 60 000. Important people sat near
o A link to a video about the Colosseum is available on the
the bottom; women (after a law passed by
Emperor Augustus), slaves and poor men obook. Use the information provided in the video and in
sat at the top. Source 5.64 to answer these questions:
1 What sorts of activities took place under the floor of the
arena?
2 In what ways was the arena adapted for different sorts of
entertainment?
3 What were some of the animals the gladiators fought?
4 Why was the Colosseum an engineering marvel?
5 Locate the wall enclosing the arena. Now look at the ruins
of the Colosseum shown in Source 5.61. Where among
these ruins do you think the wall once stood?
6 Explain why gladiator fights attracted such huge crowds.
The emperor had his own What does this suggest about ancient Roman values?
private entrance and private
box to watch the action.

Many gladiators were slaves or convicted

criminals. Some were volunteers, hoping
for fame and fortune. A few were women.
Even some emperors tried out their
combat skills in the arena.

Sometimes, the arena was converted

into a wooded or hilly landscape where
gladiators hunted animals, or animals
hunted each other. Other times, starving
animals were let loose on defenceless Wild animals slaughtered in the arena
victims, such as Christians. On some included tigers, lions, elephants, bears,
occasions, the arena was flooded and hippopotamuses, giraffes, ostriches,
mock sea battles were held. Crocodiles wolves and crocodiles. Hunters from all
might be waiting to grab anyone who fell over the empire supplied wild animals for
overboard. the shows. 247
Source 5.65 A 16th-century ce painting of the Underworld, showing Charon, the ferryman Source 5.66 Trajan’s column

Death and funerary customs (see p. 253), were not carried out. Wandering souls might be
a good, or bad, thing. Hence, the people showed a great deal
Romans had no set beliefs about what happened after of pietas (see Source 5.44) towards those who had died.
death. This at least was the case until Christian ideas
began to dominate. Myths and beliefs of conquered Influence of the law
people influenced some people’s lives. These included, One of the Laws of the Twelve Tables (a code of written
as mentioned earlier, the cults of Egypt’s goddess Isis laws drawn up in about 450 bce) stated that people, other
and Persia’s god Mithras. Ancient Romans also had great than small children, could not be buried or cremated
reverence for their ancestors. Often they kept wax death within the city. This was partly for reasons of health
masks (or stone busts) of them in their homes, which they and because burial space was limited. It also avoided air
might parade on special occasions (see Source 5.16). pollution from cremations. As towns and cities grew, and
their borders expanded, this pushed funeral activity further
Influence of Greek mythology and further away from the built-up area. Grave sites (and
A common influence on Roman beliefs about death was tombs) of the wealthy began to line access roads to towns
Greek mythology. Many Romans believed, as did the and cities, especially the Via Appia.
Greeks, that there was a gloomy Underworld: Hades. Dead The law also made it illegal to ‘carry on’ too much at a
souls reached it by paying the ferryman, Charon, to row funeral. For example, women were forbidden from gouging
them across the River Styx. Only the bravest of heroes made their cheeks with their fingernails. The punishment for
it to the Elysian Fields (see p. 194). vandalising a grave or mutilating or disrespecting a corpse
Despite having no certainty about life after death, was death.
the ancient Romans were uneasy about their dead. Many On special occasions this law was put aside, as happened
believed the spirits (or souls) of the dead would roam for the Emperor Trajan (53–117 ce). His ashes were buried
around, haunting them, if certain rituals, such as decursio within the tall column in Rome erected in his honour.

248
Source 5.67 Monuments marking ancient grave sites along the Via Appia Source 5.68 A bust of Cicero, who argued against the consul Antony for a
full restoration of the republic after Caesar’s assassination (see pp. 226–7)

Graves for the poor Influence of beliefs and traditions

Something had to be done for the dead among the poor and The ancient Romans regarded dead bodies as pollution, and
the homeless of ancient Rome. The historian Suetonius those who tended them as ‘polluted’. Polluted people could
(c. 71–135 ce) describes the risks of having their bodies left not carry out certain civic and religious duties until they
to lie in city streets. He tells of a horrifying incident where a had carried out purification rituals.
dog dropped a human hand it had been chewing at the feet This meant that funeral workers and executioners were
of Emperor Vespasian! constantly ‘unclean’. They thus became social outcasts, and
Those who could not afford a burial plot or tomb were had to live outside the city.
usually buried in a mass grave on the Esquiline Hill outside Given their law, and the way Romans felt about dead
Rome. Typically, the corpses of the poor were carried there bodies, it is puzzling that they were so keen to watch
at night, often by slaves. Each corpse might be wrapped people die. For example, they flocked to the arenas to watch
in cloth or covered with a sack. They were not placed in gladiators die. Those who were tortured to death in public
coffins. When the grave was starting to fill up with corpses, could always expect a large audience! The consul Mark
it was filled in with dirt. Antony, for instance, had the head and right hand of his
public critic Cicero cut off in 43 bce and displayed it on the
Graves for the brave … and the despised Rostra in Rome’s forum. His wife pierced Cicero’s tongue
Mass graves were also likely for Roman soldiers who died with her hairpins.
bravely in battle, and a long way from home. Some people, Perhaps these actions had something to do with
though, did not receive the respect of even a ‘bulk burial’. appeasing the souls of the dead (as opposed, say, to someone
Corpses of outcasts, such as prostitutes and people who dying naturally). The writer Tertullian (c. 200 ce) did suggest
took their own lives, were left out in the open for wild as much. He said that dead souls were pacified (calmed
animals to eat. down) by the shedding of human blood.

249
Cremations and burials Step 1: A close relative kissed the dying
Cremation (the burning of the corpses of people who had died) was the person and listened for any last words. On
death, the eyes were closed and a coin put in
preferred procedure for a dead body during Etruscan times and the republic. the mouth (as in ancient Greece). The dead
By the end of the 1st century ce —and certainly after Christianity became more person’s name was called repeatedly until the
popular—burial was more common. burial or cremation, to make sure that he or
she was dead!
The body of a person to be cremated was either placed into a trench filled
with wood or on an elevated pyre (pile of wood). Often belongings were burned
with the body. The ashes and remains of bone were then placed in an urn
Step 2: The corpse was washed and rubbed
which was then buried or placed in a tomb. with lotions and oils. The body was then laid
Sometimes many people were cremated at once. In such instances, funeral out for a time in the home, surrounded by
flowers and torches and burning incense.
workers would try to include a woman’s corpse with those of men as her extra
People would come to pay their respects.
body fat boosted the fire.
Before the wood was lit, the dead person’s eyes were opened again (as they
had been pushed shut on death). After their remains were burned, the embers Step 3: Friends were invited to join family
were put out with wine. in the funeral procession. For someone
Funerals (whether cremations or burials) were usually organised by important, this meant heading for the forum.
It was typically a carnival atmosphere, with
undertakers who often provided dancers, singers, mimes and mourners for singers, dancers, and musicians organised by
the event. the undertaker. Mourners might carry busts or
masks of their ancestors.

Step 4: On reaching the forum, a eulogy

might be delivered at the Rostra.

Step 5: A ceremony was held at the gravesite

or crematorium. Goods might be buried with
the dead person, especially if a non-Christian.
People who were well off were buried in
coffins. Graves were marked, even if only
by partly buried amphora (for the poor) and
simple epitaphs.

Step 6: The mourners returned home to

purify themselves. Rituals included sweeping
the house with a special broom and sprinkling
water from a laurel branch.

Step 7: Nine days after the funeral, family

members returned to the grave to hold a
‘party’. They shared food and drink with the
remains of the dead person, by means such
as pushing a tube down into the earth where
the body or ashes were buried. Such visits
continued over time.

Source 5.69 Burial urns in a Roman tomb in Naples Source 5.70 Typical funeral procedures
in ancient Rome for someone with at least
average wealth

250
Festivals
Two festivals of ancient Rome honoured
the dead. The Parentalia was a time in
February when people remembered their
ancestors, particularly dead parents. The
Lemuria was an occasion to remember all
those who had died.

Source 5.71 The rituals of the Lemuria, held at

midnight in May each year

No shoes with shoe laces constrict his [the

worshipper’s] feet, and with his thumb
between his fingers, he makes a sign in
case in the quiet he should meet a shadowy
ghost. With hands washed clean with water
from a spring, he turns around to receive
black beans; these he throws away, but does
not look at them. As he throws them away,
he says, ‘These I cast away. These beans I
use to save myself and mine.’ He says this
nine times but must not look behind him.
For the ghost is thought to gather up the
beans and follow him unseen. Again, he
touches water, bangs some bronze cymbals
… and asks the shade [ghost] to leave his
house. When he has said the following
nine times, ‘Ghosts of my fathers, go away’, Source 5.72 Mausoleum of Augustus (see p. 225). Such tombs were often built for people who
he looks behind him and believes he has were especially wealthy or influential. The tribune Caius Cestius, who died soon after Rome took
performed the sacred customs in the proper control of Egypt, had a mausoleum built like a pyramid (see p. 220).
way.
Ovid, Fasti, V, 421–44

Funeral clubs
Today we have gardening clubs, books
clubs and toy train clubs. In ancient
Check your learning
Rome, they had funeral clubs called
collegia. Members were mostly the poor. 1 Write a paragraph to explain how Roman beliefs about what happened after
death influenced their funeral practices.
Membership gave Rome’s poor some
comfort that they would have the 2 a What might be the lot of a poor person who died in Rome?
honour of a decent burial. While still b Why might a poor person fear such a fate, given their beliefs?
alive, members enjoyed social occasions, c What action was taken to try to give the poor some hope for the ‘journey’ at
perhaps getting together for a few glasses life’s end?
of wine while discussing their funeral 3 Where were the graveyards and crematoriums in ancient Rome? Why?
arrangements. The ashes of members, 4 Convert Source 5.70 into a comic-strip format. Use stick figures if you cannot
after being placed in an urn, were often draw. Each comic panel will need either speech bubbles or a small caption, or
stored in the one tomb. Each person had a a mixture of the two.
pre-arranged spot for his remains. 5 What was the purpose of the Parentalia festival?

251
bigideas
5.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?
Everyday life: Complete questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 14, 17, 20
Warfare: Complete questions 1, 2, 4, 8, 13, 15, 18, 21
Death and funerary customs: Complete questions 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 12, 16, 19, 22.

Remember rituals performed at funerals?

1 Explain how the ancient Romans initially treated Christians. Apply

What did this have to do with their beliefs?
11 In groups brainstorm ways in which beliefs, values and
2 Who was the Roman deity equivalent to the following Greek traditions influence how many of us live. Consider aspects
deities: Poseidon, Dionysius, Hestia, Zeus? such as the roles of women, homes, education, fashion,
3 Who was the paterfamilias and why was his role so marriage, entertainment and so on.
influential? 12 Make a papier mâché or clay model of a mausoleum or
4 Write definitions in your own words for each of the following monument you would have built in honour of an influential
terms: legion, principes, auxiliaries, testudo. person in society today whom you respect. Explain what
5 a When was the ceremony of Lemuria held, and what was influenced your design. Seek feedback from a partner and
its purpose? discuss any modifications you consider would have been
b Draw a flow chart to depict the steps of the Lemuria worthwhile.
ritual. 13 Think about the Roman army punishment of decimatio. Now
think about how you would feel if ordered by some higher
Understand authority to severely punish a friend. How might that make
6 Why was the practice of putting on a toga virilis significant you feel and behave? How effective do you think such a
for boys? method is for enforcing discipline?
7 Cleanliness was valued by the ancient Romans. Study the
illustration of Roman baths shown as Source 5.60. How did
Analyse
such facilities cater for this? 14 Look carefully at Source 5.58, noting its different areas.
Prepare a brochure on this villa for an open-house day in
8 Copy an extended version of this table in your workbook
ancient Roman times, which highlights its special features.
and complete it with as many items as you can think of.
Your tour group will include a number of ancient Rome’s
Factor Likely influence on behaviour poor.
of soldiers 15 o A link to a website giving information about Roman
Religious belief legionary soldiers is available on the obook. Explore any
aspects of this site you choose. Then write a review of the
Fear of punishment
website, commenting on what you see as its strengths and
Training weaknesses.
Long absence from 16 Use a Venn diagram (see p. 161) to compare and contrast
families the funeral procedure for an important ancient Roman with
what you know about funerals in Australia today.
9 When a Pope dies, his name is repeated three times.
Explain why this is an example of change and continuity.
Evaluate
10 What evidence does Source 5.71 provide of one of the
17 Which type of gladiator would you choose to be (if forced to)
and why? You may need to conduct some research. (Note

252 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Source 5.73 Carving on the Antonine Column in Rome, which was erected c. 180–196 CE to honour Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180).
It shows Roman soldiers performing the ritual known as decursio, which involved circling the funeral pyre (fire) of an important person.

that evidence has been found that indicates that there were Create
female gladiators.)
20 o Links to websites about mosaic design are available on
18 Make a digital booklet that explains the six things you think
the obook. Design a floor tile suitable for a Roman villa.
are most important for new recruits to the Roman army
(Hint: Draw any shapes that you want to be defined in the
(both to protect them and to encourage them to be good
same colour.)
soldiers). Ask a partner to give you an honest evaluation of
your work. 21 Using only materials and equipment available at the time,
design a new siege engine for the Roman army. (You could
19 Compare and contrast funeral proceedings in ancient Rome
illustrate it, design it digitally, or build a model.) Explain its
with those in ancient Greece (see p. 195). On a scale of
workings and benefit for the class.
1 (extremely similar) to 5 (not similar at all), rate how much
you think practices in ancient Rome owed to this earlier 22 Two ancient Roman epitaphs read: ‘May the passer-by who
civilisation. sees these flowers and reads this say to himself: This flower
is Flavia’s body’ and ‘I was not, I was, I am not, I care not’.
Devise an epitaph you might have liked had you been an
ancient Roman.

chapter five ancient rome 253

Source 5.74 Artist’s impression of a Roman sea battle. Devices such as the corvus (boarding ladder
that hooked into the deck of the enemy ship) and the battering ram (at the front of the hull) were used to
good effect in its victories.

5.4 How do contacts and conflicts

change societies?
Ancient Rome’s development from a small farming settlement to
a massive empire was due to a number of factors. Trade played a
significant role. Warfare, too, was vital to its growth. Battle victories or
negotiated peace treaties meant new territories to control. This meant, in
turn, new resources, potentially new skills and an increased labour force
for Rome.
Alongside this were the more subtle changes brought about by contact
with different peoples. These contacts introduced, for example, new
ideas about religion (such as the cult of Isis). They also introduced new
fashions (such as the silks from ancient China) and new ways of doing
things (such as temple designs from Greece).

254
Changes through P S
migration AL Early migration
patterns

E
T H
Mountains
The Etruscans were a migrating sea
people but historians still debate
Arno
where they originated. Some now River

Tibe Rive
ETRURIA
confidently say it was southern

A
r

P
Turkey (ancient Thrace). This view,

E
CORSICA

N
r
Rome
shared by the ancient Greek historian

N
LATIUM

I N
Herodotus, has more recently been Naples

E
S
supported by DNA studies.
SARDINIA
The Etruscans were settling in GREECE
the north of today’s Italy from about
800 bce . From there they drifted
south into Etruria (see Source 5.75). SICILY
Syracuse
By about the 7th century bce , they
were ruling Latium. 0 150 300
kilometres
The Etruscans were more
Source 5.75 The central region of ancient Rome, and the directions of early migration patterns
advanced, wealthy and civilised
than the local Latins. They had a
written language (we know this from
inscriptions that have been found);
however, so far, no-one has been able
to decode it. The Etruscans made
many contributions to the early
development of the society of ancient Constructed arches,
Built well-planned bridges and roads Built sewers and
Rome, such as architecture, music and cities drainage systems
some family institutions.
Etruscan rule ended in 509 bce
with a revolt by the Roman people,
who drove out the last Etruscan king. Introduced the fasces
Expanded trade networks
symbol
Rome then became a republic.

Some key contributions

Introduced advanced
Made decorated tombs metalworking skills
containing elaborate pots (iron, tin and copper)
and sculptures

Introduced the toga, a key Introduced a custom similar

item of clothing for men in Influenced some temple to the later role of the
ancient Rome construction (Etruscan gladiator (see p. 244): men
temples reflected Greek would fight to the death at
design) the funeral of a king.

Source 5.76 Some Etruscan contributions

255
1 Olive oil 12 Spices
cause and effect: contact 2
3
Precious metals
Ivory and wild animals
13
14
Silk
Grain
focus on …

through trade 8 2
2
15
4
5
Precious stones
Wine
15
16
Amber
Furs and hides
8 14 6 Honey 17 Papyrus
Ancient Rome’s key industry was Londinium 22 7 Marble 18 Slaves
9 8 Non-precious metals 19 Salt
21 18
agriculture. Its farmers, helped by vast 9 Lead 20 Cattle
14 5 8 10 Timber 21 Glass
numbers of slaves, grew barley, wheat 16
11 Cotton 22 Horses
and rye, olives and grapes. They also 18 19 18
8 18 20 Caspian
8
raised goats, sheep, cattle, pigs and 2
5 8 19 20 2 14 Sea
8 2 21 14 5
21 21
chickens. The key challenge for ancient 20
5 8
22 18 8 5 1 2
8 8
Rome as it expanded was to feed its 5
Black Sea 2
8
10 5
people. Particularly important was 14 1
Rome
20 22 Byzantium
8 2 10
feeding its growing army. 5
22
22 20 2
14 10
One way that farmers could pay tax was 1 19 Carthage 10 14
8
5 10 6 2
22 1
in grain. But the more grain a farmer 18 1
14 7 5
24
1
grew, the more tax he had to give Mediterranean Sea
18
5 14 21
10 from China 13
away. Therefore, few were motivated 1
14
14
to produce more crops than they had 18
1 2 1 Alexandria
17
fr om12 11
14 Ind
to. This was one of the causes of 22 ia
21
Rome’s takeover of grain-growing lands 3
2

elsewhere. It is why Rome, for instance, 3

was motivated to gain control of places 0 400 800 Ancient Roman Empire
such as Egypt and Sicily. kilometres 3

Rome also had other needs besides Source 5.77 Map showing some of the sources of Roman imports
food. There were temples to build, tools
and weapons to forge, and infrastructure
such as bridges and aqueducts to construct. Large numbers The effect of this booming trade was that Rome became
of slaves were needed to work the farms and local mines. This very prosperous and many individuals (especially merchants)
demand caused Rome to build a large trading empire, where became wealthy. This then caused a demand for imports such
huge volumes of goods were imported. as animal skins, gold, ivory and amber (fossilised tree sap used
for jewellery). Other less luxurious imports boosted Rome’s
manufacturing industries and workers: cloth weavers, tool
and weapon makers, potters, jewellers and glassmakers. The
products they made added to Rome’s exports.

Check your learning

1 How did the Etruscans change the early society of ancient
Rome?
2 What motivated Rome to acquire new grain-growing
territories?
3 Draw an exports–imports diagram to depict the flow of
some of the goods that made up ancient Rome’s trade
with its various markets.
4 How did Rome’s importing of a range of precious metals
(such as gold and silver) ultimately have an impact on the
trading practice known as bartering?
Source 5.78 Ancient Roman glassware, made in the 5 Do you think migration significantly changes societies in the
Roman port city of Pompeii world today? Discuss as a class, giving examples.

256
Trade networks
Ancient Rome was well located, and made contact with a large
number of markets around the Mediterranean Sea. Sea travel was
cheaper and faster than land travel, especially for large, bulky
loads such as timber, metals and grain.
Harbours, lighthouses and ports were built to service Rome’s
growing sea trade. The largest port was Ostia, at the mouth of
the Tiber River; others included Portus (see p. 217) and Pompeii.
Many Roman ports grew into thriving cities. A number of ancient
Roman shipwrecks and their cargoes of amphoras have been
found along key shipping routes in the Mediterranean Sea
(see Source 5.80).

Roads
The heart of ancient Rome was also connected by land to
mainland Europe—and beyond, by way of the Silk Road, to
distant lands such as China and India. When expanding Rome’s
territory (through conquest), Roman leaders had used the army to
build a vast network of well-built roads. These began to be used
by travellers and merchants. Goods were carried on the backs of
donkeys and camels and in carts pulled by oxen.
Source 5.79 Stone relief showing a woman selling her wares (fruit
Loaded donkeys and carts became a common sight in the and vegetables) in Ostia
streets of many Roman towns and cities. They became bustling
places, full of the noise of buying and selling. In fact, the streets
of the city of Rome became so busy that a law was passed that
meant people could only use carts at night. The ancient Roman
writer Martial (c. 40–100 bce) noted there was ‘nowhere a poor
man can get any quiet in Rome’.

evidence: smelly amphoras

focus on …

In 2000, divers off Spain’s south-eastern coast

found the wreck of a large Roman merchant
ship. The evidence revealed by dating analyses
confirms that the ship sank about 2000 years
ago.
The wreck was wedged in mud on the
sea floor. Its cargo (much of it still in good
condition) included over 1200 amphoras,
some still with their seal (a pine resin plug) in
place. Smell tests provide evidence that the
amphoras had contained garum, a costly
Roman delicacy. This stinking sauce was
made by fermenting the blood and intestines
of fish. Curious octopuses and salt water
corrosion are the chief suspects for those
seals that are missing! Source 5.80 Amphoras from the wreck of an ancient Roman merchant ship

257
Impact of conflict on ancient Rome
In time, the ancient Romans built up a very powerful army. In fact, most of the territory they
gained was through land battles. But, until the First Punic War of 264–241 bce , Rome did not
have war ships. This had to change if it was to have any chance of defeating Carthage, then a
large empire and a strong sea power in the Mediterranean.
The ancient Greek historian Polybius reports that the Romans learned how to build war
ships by being ‘copy cats’. They found a stranded Carthaginian vessel and used it as a model.
Very quickly, they built about 140 ships. Given their lack of experience in sea warfare, Rome’s
early defeats at sea are not surprising. This changed when the Romans invented the corvus.
When hooked in place, Roman sailors could quickly board an enemy ship and do what they
were very good at: fight as soldiers.
The society of the western empire of ancient Rome was also changed drastically by the
invasion of barbarians that began pushing into the empire during the 3rd century ce . In fact,
Source 5.81
Bust of Scipio this conflict ended the empire.

Punic Wars
The Punic Wars were fought between Rome and Carthage. This conflict eventually gave Rome
supreme control of the Mediterranean Sea.
The port city of Carthage was set up around 900 BCE as a colony of the Phoenicians (Punics).
It became the centre of a large trading empire. As such, it was a major threat to the emerging
power of ancient Rome.

First Punic War

The First Punic War (264–241 bce) involved battles on land and sea. This was the war that forced
Rome to build a navy (see above). There were heavy losses on both sides. Carthage’s ships were
better, and their sailors more experienced. But Rome won in the end. It took from Carthage the
territory we know as Sicily.

Second Punic War

The Second Punic War was fought between 219 and 202 bce . Carthage’s leader at that time,
Hannibal, was a very strong military commander. He was also good at developing battle
strategies. His stated motive for war was that he hated the Romans with a passion. His father
had fuelled this hate since Hannibal was a boy because of what Carthage had lost in the
First Punic War. Hannibal’s war planning began in southern Spain in 221 bce . From there he
marched his army nearly 2000 kilometres to battle.

Source 5.82

Hannibal’s army included some 38 000 foot soldiers, 8000 horsemen and 37 elephants. During its long
march, the army crossed many rivers and the Pyrenean Alps (in winter). Thousands of men and horses died,
along with 34 elephants. Yet Hannibal had stunning victories in battles at Trebia, Lake Trasimene and
Cannae. The loss of Roman soldiers was reported to be massive. Afterwards, the Romans referred to the battle
at Cannae…which was their greatest defeat…as clades Carnesis (the disaster at Cannae).

Source 5.83

The descending path was very narrow and steep, and as both men and beasts could not tell on what they
were treading owing to the snow, all that stepped wide of the path or stumbled were dashed down the
precipice … Hannibal … set the soldiers at work to build up a path along the cliff …  sufficiently wide for the
pack train and horses … with great difficulty in three days he managed to get the elephants across.
Translated extract from Histories III by Polybius

258
Source 5.84 Artist’s impression of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps.

The Roman general Publius Cornelius ALP S

Scipio was, however, a military match for ve
r HE
Ri T
Hannibal. Scipio won the battle fought Placentia
Rhone

Po A River
against Hannibal in 202 bce at Zama in PE
Arausie N
north Africa. It is thought Hannibal Narbo N
Eb IN
ro P Y R E N E
died about 20 years later, still fighting Ri E E S Emporiae S
ve Rome
the Romans. r CORSICA
S PA I N Tarraco Tarentum
Third Punic War Saguntum
SARDINIA Croton

By the middle of the 2nd century bce ,

Rome had defeated the kingdom of Mediterrane SICILY
Carthago Nova an
Macedon, to Greece’s north. In 146 bce , (Cartagena) Carthage
it looted Corinth, the last Greek city- Zama
Hadrumetum S e
state to hold out against Roman rule. a
That year, the Romans also decided to
N
destroy Carthage, their troublesome rival. Hannibal’s route
Carthaginian empire in 265 BCE
Its people were killed, taken captive or Carthaginian empire in 219 BCE
0 400 km
sold as slaves. The outcome of all these
conflicts was that Rome greatly increased
Source 5.85 The route followed by Hannibal
its territory.

259
freshideas
Strategic thinking

At the Battle of Zama, Scipio’s troops

faced a row of 80 elephants. Each
elephant carried a walled platform on its
back packed with armed soldiers. Behind
the elephants were the rest of Hannibal’s
troops. Yet this fearsome force was no
match for Rome’s Scipio. Scipio and
Hannibal were both clever military leaders.
But Scipio won at Zama because, this
time, he had the better strategy.
Strategic thinking is critical for military
leaders. It is often the difference between
life and death. It is also a skill you will use
often in life, no matter what you do. It
involves working out what you plan to do.
Often, it also involves working out what
your opponent might do in response—and
what you might then do in turn. It means
thinking ahead. It also means planning for
the unexpected. Source 5.86 Artist’s impression of Hannibal’s elephant troops at Zama.
This task is to be completed in small
groups. It gives you a chance to exercise
your strategic thinking skills. You may like
to work it out on paper. Some groups
might prefer to act it out. Hannibal’s
Study Source 5.87 carefully. Your task forces
is to come up with a battle strategy that
might have allowed Hannibal, instead
of Scipio, to win at the Battle of Zama.
Defend your strategy to members of
another group.

Scipio’s
forces

Experienced, heavily armed soldiers Cavalry

Lightly armed foot soldiers Elephants Direction of movement once battle started

Source 5.87 Scipio’s battle-winning strategy

260
bigideas
5.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?
Remember Evaluate
1 How did the arrival of the Etruscans change the settlement 8 Hold a class debate on one of these statements:
of Rome? • ‘Without conflict, societies anywhere in the world would
2 How did the Punic Wars change the territory of ancient never change’.
Rome and of ancient Carthage? • ‘Without trade, societies anywhere in the world would
never change’.
Understand
3 Think about the location of the Italian peninsula, which was Create
the heart of the empire of ancient Rome. Explain how its 9 Prepare and role-play a discussion between either an
location would have been a benefit for sea trade. ancient Roman merchant and a modern businessperson OR
4 Why was the Silk Road significant for Rome’s contact with an ancient Roman centurion and a modern army sergeant.
other societies? Your discussion will be about how significant you think your
roles are as ‘social changers’. You may need to conduct
Apply some research.
5 In small groups, brainstorm the various ways
(in broad terms) that Australia has been
changed (for good or bad) as a country
since the first arrival of Europeans in 1788.
Londinium
Analyse
6 Study Source 5.77.
a List three metals, three foods and three Caspian
Sea
clothing goods that Rome imported.
b Suggest some ways in which the three Black Sea

goods you have listed for 6a might have Rome

Byzantium
been used by the Romans. How might
these have changed people’s lifestyles?
Carthage
c Use an atlas to name a modern country
from where ancient Rome once Mediterranean Sea

imported each of the following: marble,

ivory, timber, horses. Alexandria

7 Look carefully at the map shown as Ancient Rome territory by 201 BCE

Source 5.88. Ancient Rome territory by 44 BCE

Territory of Roman empire by CE 96

a Between which time periods did
Territory of Roman empire by CE 117 0 400 800
ancient Rome grow the most? kilometres

b In pairs, come up with a strategy to

Source 5.88 The expansion of ancient Rome over time; most territory
measure the approximate area of the
was acquired as a result of conflict, motivated (in many cases) by a
ancient Roman empire at its greatest need for trading markets.
extent.

chapter five ancient rome 261

connectingideas
Ancient Rome
Bread and circuses
As you read earlier in this chapter, the ancient writer Juvenal said that two things
held the Romans together: bread and circuses. His view, like Fronto before him,
was that people who had a regular supply of food and entertainment were less
likely to complain about their government or ruler. Clever Roman rulers recognised
this and acted accordingly. Do you think this principle still applies today?

Today people around the word flock in their thousands to

watch high-speed cars and bikes, as well as horses and horse-drawn
buggies, race around circuits. For the winner, as in ancient Rome’s
chariot races, there is wealth and prestige. There is also the risk for
all participants of accidents, even death.
1 a List six words you would use to describe modern events such as
those mentioned.
b How many of these words would you say also apply to the chariot
races in Rome’s hippodrome?
c Explain why such events (both today and in ancient Rome) would
be likely to distract people—at least for the moment— from day-
to-day irritations.
2 In ancient Rome, accidents happened regularly in the hippodrome.
Maiming or death, for riders and horses, was common. For the crowd
such accidents were all part of ‘a day out at the races’. Do you think
this attitude is still true today? Discuss in groups, giving reasons for
your views.

Source 5.89 Cars line up for the start of the NASCAR Daytona 500

Source 5.90 Bullfighting in Spain

262 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Source 5.91 Two UFC fighters battle it out in 2010

The modern sport called Ultimate Fighting

Championship (UFC) is often fought
within a cage. It attracts wild, cheering
crowds. In 2006, it brought in earnings of
a quarter of a billion dollars. It is similar to
the pankration, a sport introduced to the
ancient Olympics in 648 BCE . (The Greek
Olympics were for a time a part of Rome’s
sporting culture.) The pankration involved
boxing and wrestling. UFC also has boxing
and wrestling as well as some martial
arts. At first, UFC was marketed, like the
pankration, as a ‘no rules’ sport, but this
has changed. Contestants now cannot bite
one another or gouge eyes, but they can
pull hair.
1 Pankration fighters and Roman gladiators frequently faced death. Things have
changed—but how much? Rate the following from 1 (very violent) to 5 (not violent at
all): boxing, UFC, computer games with physical aggression, horror movies, wrestling,
rugby brawls. Share your ratings as a class. What do you conclude?

Rome’s gladiators sometimes fought wild and hungry animals, such as tigers
and lions. Sometimes the animals were pitted against each other. Thousands
of animals were slaughtered in the name of public entertainment. Today, some
people still find activities such as cock fighting, dog fighting and bullfighting
entertaining.
1 If you don’t already know, find out what a bullfight involves.
2 Many tourists who visit places such as Spain regard a bullfight as a cultural ‘must
see’. What are your views? Is it entertainment? Give reasons for your response.
3 What do you think an ancient Roman might have thought about today’s bullfights?
Write their thoughts about this. Remember to write from their point of view.

Do you think Juvenal’s ‘bread and circuses’ observation applies to modern Australia as much as to ancient Rome?
To help you decide, predict how Australians might react if:
a food suddenly became very scarce
b all forms of sport and public entertainment in this country were forbidden.

chapter five ancient rome 263

The
Asian world
The continent of Asia makes up about 30 per cent of the world’s land area.
It spans some 8250 kilometres, from the edge of the Mediterranean Sea in the west
through to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has a range of climates and landscapes
and a rich diversity of peoples.
To the west of the Asian continent is an cultural mix. With each new dynasty,
area we know today as the Middle East. It or each change of empire, people absorbed
includes modern countries such as Iran, Iraq, the beliefs and traditions of
Syria, Israel and Lebanon. The ancient history the various regimes.
of this region covers a complex succession of One of the influences within ancient Asia
kingdoms and empires. Ancient Sumer, for was Buddhism. It began in northern India
instance, was later absorbed as part of the Old (now Nepal). Along routes such as the Silk
Babylonian empire. By about 730 BCE , it was Road and others, it soon became a major
part of the Assyrian empire. Some 200 years religion for many ancient civilisations of
later, it was part of the Persian empire. This, Asia.
in turn, was later made part of the Hellenistic Major civilisations in the eastern part of
empire of Alexander the Great in 331 BCE . Asia included those that emerged in today’s
Today it is part of Iraq. China, India and Pakistan. These highly
This ongoing shift in who had the power advanced civilisations of the so-called ‘East’
in the ancient kingdoms and states of Asia left an amazing legacy by way of artefacts,
made for a diverse buildings, monuments and tombs.

Source B1 The ancient

Asian world

264 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

the asian world 265
Key events
BCE

c. 11 000 c. 10 000 c. 2200

Hunters and prey Jamon culture in Start of the Xia dynasty
depicted in rock art in Japan producing pottery in China, which some
India scholars contest is
legendary
c. 10 000
Human (Homo sapiens) c. 2000
living on island of Water buffalo and
Hokkaido (Japan’s north) elephant being
domesticated in India;
bananas and tea being
grown

1766
Start of the Shang
dynasty in ancient China
Example of Jamon pottery
c. 1750
Collapse of the Indus
c. 7000 c. 2500 Valley civilisation
People growing barley in Harappa becomes a
India prominent Indus Valley
city and cotton is being
spun at Mohenjo-daro c. 1500
c. 5000 (city in Indus Valley) Aryan people from the north-west invade the
People growing wheat Indus Valley, bringing with them the seeds of the
around the delta of the Hindu religion
Yangtze River in China c. 2300
Ancient Chinese record Sculpture of Brahma, the first member of the Hindu
the sighting of a comet triad of gods
c. 3100
First settlements in the
Indus Valley

c. 2900
Chinese aware of how silk
thread obtained

Source B2 Timeline of some key events in the history of the

ancient Asian region

266 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

CE

c. 1400 c. 620 322 221 100 c. 320

Evidence of people Taoism spreading in Chandragupta Maurya China united under its first Buddhism beginning to be Chandra Gupta extends
worshipping ancestors in China sets up the beginnings emperor, Shi Huangdi; start established in China territory of Gupta dynasty
China of the Mauryan empire of the Qin dynasty to include plain of Ganges
(including much of today’s
India)
c. 1350 c. 350
c. 215
Evidence of war chariots Ruling Yamato clan
in China Shi Huangdi starts work to create what will become the
becomes very powerful
c. 563 Great Wall of China
in Japan and its chief
Possible birth date of Siddhartha Gautama, a Nepalese begins to assume the
prince, who became known as the ‘enlightened one’, role of emperor (claiming
or Buddha descent from the Sun)
c. 1300
Chinese begin writing
on bones (called ‘oracle 377
bones’) Kingdom of
Anuradhapura begins in
Sri Lanka

c. 550
Buddhism begins to
become established in
Japan

Part of the Great Wall of China c. 581

Sun dynasty begins rule
in China
206
End of the Qin dynasty 221
Han dynasty ends
202
Start of the Han dynasty

Sculpture of
A sculpture of Buddha 106 archer on
Beginnings of trade along horseback from
An oracle bone the Silk Road Han dynasty
c. 550 272
Sinhalese people move Asoka, then a Mauryan
into Sri Lanka from India ruler, extends Mauryan
1122 empire and spreads
Shang dynasty ends c. 495 Buddhism widely through
in China, replaced by Confucius begins teaching his realm and beyond
western Zhou dynasty in China
256
c. 1000 End of eastern Zhou
Nomadic peoples in dynasty in China
central Asia developing
skills in cavalry warfare c. 250
Crossbow developed in
771 China
End of western Zhou
dynasty and start of
eastern Zhou dynasty

the asian world 267

Society/culture Location within Comments
(period) Asia

Yangshao (c. 5000 BCE) Founding cultures of ancient China

Lower reaches of the
and later Longshan
Huang He River, China
cultures (c. 3000 BCE)
Indus Valley civilisation Indus River valley (part Key cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-dara; evidence of drainage
(c. 3200–1600 BCE) of today’s Pakistan) systems and wells, use of bronze and copper, and a system of
weights and measures; a writing system but not yet decoded
Akkadian empire Mesopotamia Developed from the city-state of Akkad in Mesopotamia. Under
(c. 2334–2200 BCE) the rule of Sargon (c. 2296–2240 BCE) became the world’s first true
empire

Xia dynasty Huang He River valley, Seen by some as China’s first dynasty, emerging from the Longshan
(c. 2200–1750 BCE) China culture

Old Babylonian empire Southern Began as a group of small kingdoms and tribes around city of
(c. 2000–1600 BCE) Mesopotamia (part of Babylon. Later made part of the Assyrian and then Persian empires
today’s Iraq)
Shang dynasty China Many agree is China’s first dynasty. Had a bronze culture and a form
(c. 1766–1100 BCE) of writing (carved on bones and tortoise shells)
Vedic society India Made up of small kingdoms; overall culture Influenced by a people
(c. 1500–500 BCE) called Aryans (from central Asia) who spoke an Indo-European
language
Zhou dynasty China A time when Chinese art and learning flourished; also a time of
(c. 1100–221 BCE) conflict. The ‘Warring States’ period, between c. 475 and 221 BCE,
was a time when largely independent states jostled for power
Assyrian empire Mesopotamia Began as a small group of Aramaic-speaking states and grew to an
(c. 750–612 BCE) empire that covered much of the Fertile Crescent (see p. 24). Had an
iron technology
New Babylonian empire Mesopotamia Joint force of Medes and Persians threw off the controls of Assyria
(612–539 BCE) and returned Babylonia to its former glory
Persian empire Wide expanse of Rulers (Achaemenid dynasty) conquer Egypt, India and Indus Valley
(539–323 BCE) central Asia, from in building up their empire; first ruler Cyrus the Great. Later empire
Egypt through to India taken over (and extended) by Alexander the Great
Mauryan dynasty India Set up by Chandragupta Maurya who united large parts of India;
(322–183 BCE) during the reign of his successor Ashoka (273–232 BCE) India
enjoyed a ‘golden age’; dynasty destroyed by internal conflict
Qin dynasty China Winning state (Qin) of the ‘Warring States’ period (see above); its
(221–206 BCE) leader, renamed Shi Huangdi, united China for the first time
Yayoi period Japan Bronze being used, and some iron by early rice-growing societies
(c. 350 BCE –250 CE)
Han dynasty China Began when an army, led by peasant Liu Bang, overthrew Qin
(206 BCE –220 CE) dynasty; saw start of first professional army, improved trade
and prosperity; new emphasis on education; new social class of
bureaucrats emerged whose status acquired through learning
Gupta dynasty Northern India Chandra Gupta (c. 320–330 CE) and his son Samudra Gupta
(320–467 CE) (330–380 CE) built up the empire which is regarded
as a high point of Indian culture

Source B3 Some of the ancient empires and civilisations of the Asian region
268
Source B4 Part of the Buddhist
religious paintings at Ajanta Caves,
India, painted during the Gupta
dynasty

Check your learning

1 Look closely at Source B1 (the map) and a modern atlas. Find
two Asian countries that have in their past been ruled as part
of more than one kingdom, dynasty or empire. Record your
findings in your workbook in a table like that shown below

Modern country Past kingdoms, dynasties or empire

of which it was once a part

2 Through research, find out three religions, besides Buddhism,

that originated in Asia.
3 What was happening in China around the time of the collapse of
the Indus Valley civilisation?
4 The Qin dynasty was established in China in 221 BCE.
Approximately how long after this did Buddhism become
established in Japan?
5 Use a physical map of Asia from your atlas to identify five
distinctive physical features of Asia (mountains, river, ranges,
etc.). For each feature, suggest how it might have influenced
the history of those who lived near it or encountered it (such as
conquerors).
6 Which two cultures formed the basis for the emerging society of
ancient China?
7 Who headed up the world’s first proper empire, and where was it?
8 What do you know about the Vedic society in ancient India?
9 Describe two developments that emerged in the society of
ancient China during the Han dynasty.
10 a Which Chinese leader united China for the first time?
b Which Zhou state had he formerly led?
11 The Gupta dynasty of India was a high point in India’s cultural
past. What evidence does Source B4 provide about what life
might have been like in India at that time?

the asian world 269

depth study

Ancient China
The society of ancient China was one of the earliest in the world to
become urbanised. In fact, many of its current features were set by
cultural practices and urban traditions laid down thousands of
years ago.
Like the other earliest civilisations, such as those Chinese who first used a magnetic compass and
of ancient Egypt and Sumer, China’s had its roots crafted porcelain china.
in farming. When the last glacial ended, Stone
As in ancient Egypt, ancient China was ruled
Age people began to drift towards the fertile
for most of its last 3800 years by a series of
valley of the Huang He (Yellow) River. By about
dynasties. For nearly half of this time, these were
8000 bce , people were growing rice and millet
headed up by emperors, such as Shi Huangdi
there and herding animals. In time, villages and
of the Qin dynasty. His tomb was ‘guarded’ by
then towns formed from these settlements, some
thousands of terracotta statues, some of which
becoming cities. Beliefs and art forms developed.
are shown on this page.
So did a system of writing.
China’s society became very highly organised.
China has contributed a great deal to the
Its written language was common across the
modern world. Besides the more obvious
country as were its cultural values. Some
things—chopsticks, Chinese food, martial arts—
historians say this is what held its civilisation
the Chinese were the first to make silk cloth. It is
together for so long.
from China’s long traditions that we get practices
such as acupuncture and fireworks. It was the

Key inquiry questions

6.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?

6.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?

6.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?

6.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?

Hundreds of terracotta warriors were found in the tomb of Emperor Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty.
6
bigpicture
Ancient China
Evidence of Neolithic cultures has been found at sites in the Huang
He River valley. Pottery and other artefacts were also found in
Yangshao and at the settlement of Longshan. The Longshan culture 220
came to dominate the region about 3000 bce. From this emerged Work begins on joining
up and extending the
what most scholars claim was China’s first dynasty. Great Wall

China was united for much of the next 3600 years under the rule of
dynasties. In between some dynasties were periods when rival kingdoms 202
struggled for power. There was also nearly a century of rule under Start of Han dynasty,
during which China’s
Mongolian invaders. Another invading people, the Manchus, bureaucracy was
expanded and
formed China’s last dynasty, the Qing. It ended in 1912 ce. strengthened

By 1949, China was being ruled as a communist country.

563 140
Siddhartha
481 Han emperor
Wu Di
1766 Gautama (Buddha) Start of Warring
States period commences
Start of Shang born
c. 2200 rule
dynasty, during which
Possible start of a system of writing
Xia dynasty
551
emerged and large Confucius
cities were built born

BCE

221
c. 2000 Start of 15-year Qin
Longshan culture c. 1122 dynasty, and rule of
declining Start of Zhou dynasty China’s first emperor,
Shi Huangdi

A bronze urn made during the Warring

States period of the Zhou dynasty
1368
Start of Ming dynasty
(ended in 1644)
Section of the Great Wall of China from the outside. This barrier, lined with armed
soldiers, faced would-be invaders.

960
Start of Song dynasty
(ended in 1279)
CE
220 581
End of Han dynasty, Start of Sui dynasty
with Han empire (ended in 618)
divided into the three
kingdoms of Wei, Shu 1279
and Wu Mongols gain
control of China

1644
Start of Qing dynasty (under Manchu rule),
618 which ended in 1912
Start of
Tang dynasty
(ended in 907)

c. 100
Evidence of steel
being made in
China

A trench of partially
excavated terracotta
warriors, built to protect
the tomb of China’s first
emperor: Shi Huangdi

Porcelain china being made in Jingdezhen, the home of ‘china’ pottery

Source 6.1 Timeline of some key events and developments in

the history of ancient China

chapter six ancient china 273

Source 6.2 A steep section of China’s 6500-kilometre-long Great Wall

6.1 How do geographical features

influence human settlements?
Modern China, which is 9.6 million square kilometres in area, is the
world’s third largest country after Russia and Canada. (Australia is the
sixth biggest.) In 2009, about 1.3 billion people, almost 20 per cent of
the world’s population, called it home. China has many huge cities as
well as infrastructure such as bridges and massive dams. It also has a
growing number of industrial centres.
Yet it began as a small settled area in the Huang He (Yellow) River
valley. From that, it grew to just over half its current size by 220 bce .
There were cities then, as well as huge palaces and canals and roads.
But the society was still mainly built around its agriculture.

274
M ONGOLI A

Huang
He Anyang
Luoyang River Zhengzhou
Xianyang
Chang’an
P la te a u (Xi’an)

r
ve
of Tib e t Yangtze

Ri
Shang
Zhou
Qin PA C IFIC
Han OC EA N
Present day N
Great Wall
Land relief 0 800 km Source 6.3 The territorial borders of some past
dynasties and of present-day China

Landscape and climate

For a long time, ancient societies to the west knew very little
about China. The third largest ocean on Earth (the Pacific) lay
to its east. To the south were dense tropical forests of places
such as today’s Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam (see Source 6.5). To
the south-west were the towering Himalayan ranges, the Tibet
Plateau and the mountainous country of parts of today’s Pakistan
and Afghanistan. To the west and north-west were huge deserts.
It was only China’s northern edge that was less protected by
geographical features. Over 2000 years ago, work began (and was
later continued) to protect much of this frontier with a huge wall
(see Source 6.2).
China has two very long rivers: the Huang He River and
the Yangtze further to the south. They both begin in the high
plateaus to the west. The Yangtze is some 6300 kilometres long,
about 800 kilometres longer than the Huang He.
The Huang He river basin is mostly flat, which makes it ideal
for growing crops such as millet (a kind of cereal). Regular floods
deposit fertile silt on the riverside lands as the Nile River did in
Egypt. South China is more mountainous. Much of the Yangtze
River basin and surrounds is better suited to growing rice and tea.
China’s vast area and range of landscapes mean wide
variations in climate. To the south, the climate tends to be more
tropical, with monsoonal rains and regular typhoons. The
north is typically drier. Some desert areas in the north-west have
temperatures in the high 40s (°C) in summer and snow on the
sand dunes in winter.
Source 6.4 Part of the Yangtze River

chapter six ancient china 275

freshideas
Thinking about your
observations
It is easy to let the information that our senses detect wash over us. There is so much to do, we often
don’t take the time to focus on what our senses are telling us. Observation is a very important thinking
skill for such things as information-gathering tasks.
Below is a physical map of China. Observe the terrain and physical features, using the Key for
reference. Note the different landforms and geographical features, and where they are. Observe the
extent of certain types of landforms, such as deserts, and the length of certain physical features, such
as rivers. Also look at the pattern of human settlement. What do you conclude about China?

Source 6.5
Physical map of
East Asia, including
China
EY
K EY 00 people
Over 5 000 000 people
eop 000
1 000 e to 5 000 000 people
rDesert F rest
rest CroplanCr
floor reli River Country border 0 e
ert res
eople
500 000 to 1 000 000 people
Lake Disputed border 0
lG assland
nd
dland HHighland
ghland Searelief
Sea floor floo
Sea e100 000 to 500 000 people
h an Mt Everest Mountain 0
8848 m
Under 100 000 people
bSand
nd rubland
and Mo
s ntntain
ountainsins 0
Country capital city
n 0

276
_BAH
bigideas
6.1 How do geographical features influence human settlements?
Remember Create
1 Prepare a facts chart on China’s main geographical features. 11 Start at any point on the Chinese border shown in Source
2 a Why was construction of the Great Wall begun? 6.5. Extend a ruler from this point, in any direction, to
b What link did this have with the country’s geography? another point on China’s border. This represents the journey
you will travel. In order, list all the physical features and
3 a Explain how geographical features helped to isolate
landscapes you will cross as part of your journey. Conduct
China from the rest of the world for a long time.
extra research if you need to. Which feature do you think will
b What impact do you think this isolation would have in represent the greatest challenge, and why?
shaping the society of the people who lived there?

Understand 0°C
Max
Av. no. of
days of rain
4 The Yangtze River is the third longest river in the world. Find Min
HARBIN
out which two rivers are longer.
5 Suggest why the earliest Neolithic settlements in ancient 20 12
China might have drifted towards the eastern stretches of
the Huang He River (see Source 6.5). 10 10
6 Explain how the terrain in China influenced some of the food
0 8
crops grown in particular regions.
7 Suggest reasons why the early human settlements of China –0 6
were located where they were.
–20 4
Apply –30 2
8 The residents of the remote planet Xkrl are being threatened
by development by people from Earth. Your brief is to 0 0
J F MA M J J A SON D
‘create’ (and sketch) the world in which the Xkrlons live —
one in which ‘natural features’ mostly (but not completely)
0°C
protect it against invasion. What are these natural features? Max Av. no. of
Why do they provide protection? Where are the Xkrlons Min days of rain
most vulnerable? Why? Add labels to explain. GUANGZHOU

Analyse 30 16
9 Source 6.6 shows climographs for Harbin (in China’s north-
20 14
east) and Guangzhou (in China’s south-east). Compare and
contrast the data. Write two short paragraphs to explain 10 12
how the different climates of these two cities would affect
0 10
the lifestyle of their people.
–10 8
Evaluate –20 6
10 Which of China’s surrounding barriers (natural and built)
do you think would have posed the greatest challenge -30 4
for an invading force? Justify your opinion. Suggest what 0 2
an invading force might have had to do to overcome J F MA M J J A SON D
this obstacle. Source 6.6 Climographs for Harbin and Guangzhou

chapter six ancient china 277

Source 6.7 A cracked oracle bone

6.2 What shaped the roles of key

groups in ancient societies?
Ruling dynasties headed the society of ancient China. Members of
these powerful families inherited their great wealth and status. A new
dynasty often began after a struggle for power between rival warlords
or kingdoms; the ‘winner’ became the new ruler. Often a dynasty ended
because the ruler was corrupt, cruel or weak. That ruler had a problem
if nature was out of balance at the same time (causing severe floods or
poor harvests, for example). The people would see this as a sign that the
ruler no longer had a mandate (permission) from ‘the heavens’ to rule.
The palace complexes in which ruling families and their supporters lived
were highly organised social units. Everybody, from the emperor down to the
humblest servant, had a role to play. This order and harmony within the complex
was reflected in the society at large.

278
Dynasties
The top social group in ancient China was the imperial (the ruler’s) family. For much of China’s
history, these families were part of ongoing dynasties. After 221 bce , rulers were emperors, all
men except one. These ruling families were a very wealthy and privileged group.
Some dynasties (such as the Han and Tang) brought long periods of peace and prosperity to
China. Others (such as the Zhou) were marked by extended conflict. There were also unsettled
times when invaders such as the Mongols fought to gain control in China (see Source 6.1).

Shang dynasty (c. 1766–1122 bce) Zhou dynasty (c. 1122–256 bce)
Impressive bronze, ivory and jade Eastern territory divided into
artefacts were made that showed a fairly independent states, ruled
high level of craftsmanship by lords
System of writing in place, and New capital at Luoyang
horse-drawn chariots used (see Source 6.3)
Large cities (e.g. Zhengzhou, Confucius spreading his views
Anyang), with palaces and temples for good living (about 500 bce)
(see Source 6.3)
Iron introduced
Ruler seen as divine; ancestors
Warring states period: after
worshipped
475 bce, states fought for over
Calendar introduced 200 years to gain supreme
(basis for Chinese calendar today) power; the state of Qin won

Bronze food container, made

Wine vessel made during the
during the Shang dynasty
Zhou dynasty

Qin dynasty (221–206 bce) Han dynasty (202 bce – 220 ce)
Currency and weights and Large numbers of trained officials
measures standardised appointed to help administer the empire
Strict new set of laws (that Emergence of the idea of appointment by
saw Confucian scholars merit (based on learning)
harshly treated)
Renewed spread of Confucian teaching
China unified and economy
Laws simplified and taxes reduced
strengthened
Trade greatly increased because of
Common language
the Silk Road (see p. 313)
introduced
Professional army established
Work begun to build the
Great Wall

Han spearhead, complete

with ‘victims’
Some of the thousands of terracotta horses and
soldiers buried to guard the tomb of China’s first
emperor, the Qin ruler Shi Huangdi

Source 6.8 Some artefacts from the early dynasties

chapter six ancient china 279

Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was the longest of China’s dynasties. It lasted for nearly four centuries (from 202 bce
to 220 ce). It was broken only by a brief takeover by the Xin dynasty between 8 and 25 ce . It began
when a rebel army, led by the popular but poor peasant Liu Bang, overthrew the remains of the
Qin dynasty.
Liu Bang became the first Han emperor, renamed Gao Zu. His sense of fairness and his reforms
eased much of the suffering and fear the Qin had imposed on the people. His reforms also restored
the importance of Confucian ideals for education and civil service. He set up an academy for
examinations where those who studied could become eligible for appointment to positions in society
based on merit. In fact, the centralised and efficient state created in China under the Han dynasty
provided a model for China for the next 2000 years. It saw a new emphasis placed on reward for effort;
social status became linked to learning.

Professional army
During the Han dynasty, China’s first
full-time army was created. The arts
and sciences flourished and there were
many inventions.

Growth of trade and cities

Trade increased, boosting the size
of many cities. The Han capital,
Chang’an (now Xi’an), built after
Shi Huangdi died, remained China’s
capital for 1000 years.
A census was conducted in China
in 2 ce . It confirmed a population of
55 million, about eight times that
of the ancient Roman empire. It was
during Han rule that China was linked
with the West for the first time.

Growth of public service

Prosperity and strength peaked
under the sixth Han emperor Wu Di
(140–87 bce). By then, Confucianism
was almost China’s official ‘religion’.
Education was encouraged and a
new social class was emerging. These
were men whose qualifications and
abilities earned them a career in the
public service. Their status was gained
through learning, not wealth or birth.
The chancellor appointed in 124 bce ,
Gongsun Hong, had once been a
pig keeper.
Source 6.9 Artist’s impression of Han emperor Ngai (6 – 1 bce) presiding over his court. This work was
painted in the 17th century.

280
Source 6.10 Ancient painting of women playing for the emperor. Music was seen to have special powers. Instruments included
bells, chimes, harps, flutes, drums and the stringed zither.

Social hierarchy in China Scholars (the shi): former elite warrior class who,
over time, became highly educated, respected for
Like most human societies, that of ancient China was hierarchical. At the their knowledge and learning
top were the wealthy and privileged: the rulers, the scholars and the nobles.
Unusually, the merchants had less social standing than farmers. Farmers (the nong): a poor group, but highly
respected for their hard work to feed the
population and to provide tax revenue for
Emperors and their families governments. Most soldiers came from this
The ruling family (after 221 bce , the family of the emperor) was at the top of the group.
social hierarchy. These families lived lives of luxury in palaces. The ruler (the
Artisans and craftspeople (the gong): a mostly
emperor once China was united) owned all the land, but might choose to give poor group, but well regarded for their skills and
some to nobles. labour in producing what people needed (e.g.,
Farmers could live on the land in return for working it. They also paid heavy cloth, weapons, buildings, jewellery).
taxes (in produce, such as rice) and provided other services. These might have Merchants (the shang): a wealthy group, but
included serving as soldiers or labouring on building projects. There were slaves in regarded poorly for their perceived greed and
ancient China, but they were not a large social group as they were, say, in ancient self-interest. Some merchants would buy land to
Rome. farm to improve their social status.

Food (including meat) was plentiful for ruling families, as were treasures and
Source 6.11 Beneath the imperial family and
embroidered or painted silk garments. Leisure time might be spent drinking
the nobles, Chinese society was divided into four
tea or rice wine, while being entertained by palace dancers and musicians (see broad groups. This source depicts these in order,
Source 6.10), or playing board games. from the highest social class down. By the time of
the Ming dynasty many of the divisions between
these groups had become less rigid.
Nobles
Nobles often included the emperor’s relatives, top army commanders, very wealthy
land owners and conquered lords of former kingdoms. They, too, led privileged
lives, often in palaces of their own. Sometimes their ‘homes’ were located within
the emperor’s palace complex. There they mingled with government officials who
administered laws and managed tax collections. There were also concubines and
eunuchs. One or two highly trusted eunuchs might be advisers and confidants of
an emperor.

chapter six ancient china 281

significantindividuals
Shi Huangdi

Ying Zheng had ruled the state

of Qin since he was 13. It was
Shi Huangdi’s were, by nature, weak and selfish. Thus, a
strong centralised government and strict
one of the mostly independent achievements discipline were needed.
states formed during the Zhou
Shi Huangdi’s victory unified a country that Shi Huangdi saw past traditions as a threat
dynasty. In 221 bce, after defeating
had been divided by war between rival to his rule, particularly any that encouraged
the last of the other states, Ying
kingdoms for 260 years. free thought. These included the teachings
Sheng declared himself emperor
of Confucius.
of China. He changed his name to The new emperor built his massive palace
Qin Shi Huangdi. This meant ‘first within a walled complex at his capital of
magnificent god of the Qin’. Xianyang (see Source 6.3.). There were
Shi Huangdi’s
also the palaces of some 270 feudal lords. ‘darker side’
Shi Huangdi was feared by his people.
Source 6.13
Thousands died working on his building
The land was divided, battles broke out programs. He also ordered that writings
daily, blood flowed over the plain. Now that did not support his ideas be burned.
our emperor has made the world [China] Scholars found reading the works of
one family and weapons are put aside. Confucius were killed or enslaved. Some
From a Chinese legal document prepared 460 scholars were buried alive for the
during the rule of Shi Huangdi
‘crime’ of owning banned books.
Shi Huangdi ordered them to relocate Shi Huangdi also taxed the people heavily
to Xianyang when he defeated the other and conscripted them to serve in the
Zhou states. army and work on his projects. Strict laws
Shi Huangdi did much to organise, unify were introduced; people could be burned
and protect the new empire. He was an alive, branded, or have their nose, feet or
autocrat (ruler with total power) but a head cut off for breaking them.
very clever administrator (manager). The Such behaviours eventually angered
model he used to govern was a system his people. Shi Huangdi began to fear
called Legalism. It held that a people he would be killed. Perhaps because of
this, he became more isolated and more

Built grand public buildings Built a network of canals

Shi Huangdi’s key
and palaces and bridges to connect the
achievements
provinces

Introduced a common currency, Ordered carts to be built

Made significant progress
common weights and measures, with the same wheel
on starting to build the
and a common language throughout width; regulated road
Great Wall
China (based on the same widths
3000 characters)

Source 6.12 Artist’s impression of Shi

Huangdi, painted during the 19th century Source 6.14 Some key achievements of Shi Huangdi

282
obsessed with his death. He began to Source 6.15 Artist’s
drink substances containing mercury and impression: the
other poisons that he hoped would give emperor travelling in a
him eternal life. He was only 49 years old litter. Often the curtains
of the litter would be
when he died. drawn to protect the
emperor’s privacy.
His death
Shi Huangdi died while on a journey during
a hot summer in 210 bce. He and his aides
were touring the east of the country. His
chief adviser, the eunuch Li Si, knew
that there could be a revolt if the people
realised that the emperor had died before
a successor was announced. So he left
Shi Huangdi’s corpse in the litter in which
he was travelling and arranged for it to be 1 Describe how China’s first emperor came to power.
surrounded by cartloads of dead fish.
2 Draw a concept map, based on Source 6.14,
On reaching Xianyang, Li Si told Shi expanding on some of the effects you think Shi
Huangdi’s unwanted son to commit suicide Huangdi’s reforms might have had on China.
(which he did). The younger son, Qin Er Shi,
3 Given that he introduced so many reforms, why do you
was then appointed
think Shi Huangdi was so fearful for his life?
as emperor.
4 Why was Li Si so trusted by the emperor?
Shi Huangdi was buried in an elaborate
5 What happened in China after Shi Huangdi died?
tomb, prepared for him during his life.
He was ‘protected’ by a terracotta ‘army’ of 6 List at least three reasons why you think Shi Huangdi is
soldiers, horses and chariots. regarded as a historically significant figure.

Last days of the

Qin dynasty
Soon after Qin Er Shi was crowned, a
powerful eunuch at the court, Zhao Gao,
persuaded the new emperor to have
Li Si killed. Shi Huangdi’s former adviser
was cut in half in the marketplace.
Uprisings and revolts followed. By the time
Qin Er Shi was forced to commit suicide,
the civil unrest was almost out of control.
Soon a new dynasty, the Han, would be in
power in China.

Source 6.16 Some of the thousands of excavated terracotta warriors guarding the tomb of Shi Huangdi

chapter six ancient china 283

perspectives: Shi Huangdi

focus on …
Historians hold different perspectives about Shi Huangdi.
The traditional view of Confucian scholars then and now is that he was a brutal tyrant motivated by
self-interest and cruelty.
A 1955 book by an author in Communist China, the Complete History of China, describes Shi Huangdi
being motivated only by a desire to preserve the wealth of the ruling class and its power over the common
people. (Communism is a political system in which all the property and goods of a society are owned by the
people, or the State, as a whole—not by just a privileged few.)
Other 20th century Chinese scholars such as Ma Feibai see him as a man of courage and vision. They
praise his strength in uniting China. They see his motives as a wish to do the right thing for the new empire.
1 As a class, discuss why some of these different perspectives might be held about Shi Huangdi.
2 What is your view about the man, based on what you have learned and heard? Write a paragraph
to describe your thoughts.

Women
From birth, women in ancient China were seen as lower than men socially. They were expected
to do what their fathers and husbands said. Women who pushed against these restrictions were
described in ancient Chinese records as ‘crowing hens’.
Women married whom their fathers chose, and were not educated (though wealthy women
might receive some education). They had to accept that their husband might have other wives
and mistresses.
Their life was spent almost entirely within the home (or palace, if wealthy). Poorer women
typically cooked, cleaned, wove cloth, raised the many children they were expected to have, and
helped out on the land if married to farmers.

cause and effect: foot binding

focus on …

The motivation for (or cause of) foot binding in

ancient China was to improve a woman’s social
status (and hence the status of her family).
Bound feet, for a time, were essential for a ‘good’
marriage. The practice began among the wealthy,
and then became more widespread. A poor girl
might have her feet bound to improve her family’s
social prospects.
Bones in a girl’s foot were broken and the
feet tightly strapped until she was fully grown.
The U-shaped foot had all its toes but the big
toe curled under the sole. The foot might be
10 centimetres long.
The effect of foot binding was to inflict great pain
on the woman. Walking was impossible. Poor
women with bound feet, who had no choice but to
work, often did so on their hands and knees.
Source 6.17 The bound foot of a Chinese woman,
photographed in 1992. Foot binding was abolished in the
early 20th century, but was still illegally practised in some
areas.

284 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Introduced labour-saving
techniques to improve
farming productivity

Established
Buddhism as the Reduced tax for
preferred state ordinary people
religion
Some achievements of
Wu Zhao

Built grand public Set up promotion

works, improved based on merit, not Wu Zhao
irrigation schemes wealth or birth
Wu Zhao was the only woman to become emperor in
Promoted the role of
China. As such, she is a significant figure. She was born
women as proactive
members of society in 624 ce , during the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 ce). Her family
was rich and well-connected, and she was beautiful and
Source 6.18 Some of the achievements of Wu Zhao very clever.
At 14, she became a low-grade concubine of the emperor
Taizong. Her beauty and intelligence soon attracted his
attention, and his son’s. She was given privileges, which
gave her insights into court procedures.
In 649 ce , the emperor died. So Wu Zhao was sent to a
Buddhist nunnery, as was common practice for childless
concubines. There she might have stayed but for the interest
of Taizong’s son. He was now emperor Gaizong. He brought
her back to the court as a higher-grade concubine.
Some historians contest that what happened next was
an unfair attempt to smear her. But the story goes that her
fierce ambition drove her to kill her baby daughter. She then
blamed the murder on the empress and the top concubine.
The emperor Gaizong believed her and made her his new
empress. The other two women had their hands and feet cut
off before being thrown down a well.
In 660, Gaizong had a stroke. So Wu Zhao took over
many of his duties. She had the intelligence, experience
and skills to do so. When he died in 683, she appointed
one of her sons, Zhongzong, as emperor. But he was too
independent for her liking, so she forced him to give up the
throne. She then appointed another son over whom she had
more control, Ruizong.
By 690 ce , Wu Zhao decided to stop being ‘the power
behind the throne’. She crowned herself Emperor Zetian
Source 6.19 Artist’s
impression of Wu Zhao and set up her own dynasty, the Zhou. This briefly
interrupted the Tang dynasty. In her old age, she was
pressured to give the throne back to Zhongzong. She died in
705 ce , after having control of the country for almost half
a century.

chapter six ancient china 285

Snapshots: some different social roles
Social order and harmony were highly valued by the ancient Chinese, more formally so than by civilisations
to the west. These values were reflected in almost every aspect of people’s lives. Each social group knew what
was expected of them and how to behave in respect to other groups.

o A link to an Interactive White Board activity about social roles in ancient China is available on the obook.

I’m the First Wife of a noble. Our I’m one of the emperor’s closest
palace is three storeys high and very advisers, and a eunuch. The emperor
elegant. We have lots of servants. trusts me because I cannot father
I travel in a litter when I go out so children or threaten his relationship
people can’t see me. I wear silk with his wives. My testicles were
clothes and jewellery made from gold removed when I was a boy. My
and jade. My hair is tied up on top of poor parents sold me to the palace.
my head so I look taller. Some people bribe me to pass on
information to the emperor as I am
one of very few who speak to him
directly.

I’m a Tang potter—an artisan, if

I’m a Han mandarin, one of China’s you like. Merchants buy my pots
top officials. I’m a scholar, of course and transport them west in camel
and I can read and write. Along with caravans and in carts pulled by oxen.
thousands of others, I had to pass For all their money, merchants are
an exam lasting 60 hours to become not as well respected as I am. I have
an official. I passed first time as, like skills, learned from my father. I will
most officials, I am clever. Many try pass them on to my son.
to cheat, and some kill themselves if
they fail the exam.

I’m a calligrapher and a scholar, too.

I’m one of the emperor’s many It took me years of practice to write
concubines. I have borne him two with ease the thousands of characters
sons. This gives me some security. I know. They started as tiny pictures.
Otherwise I might be sent to a Over time they became more stylised.
monastery when he tires of me, or I use a fine brush and ink made from
dies. I came to the palace when I soot. Did I mention that I am highly
was 14. The Empress, a First Grade respected?
wife, was always kind to me. Some of
the lesser-grade wives were not.

Source 6.20 Some of the social roles of people

in ancient China

286
contestability: t he first dynasty
focus on …

Many historians consider that the Shang dynasty was China’s first. Others contest
that it may have been the Xia dynasty. The problem is that there are no written
records of China’s history before about 1300 bce. Those that mention the Xia
dynasty were written long after it was said to exist.
The historian Sima Qian (1st century ce) stated that the Xia dynasty was falsely
‘created’. He said this was done to justify the Zhou dynasty’s takeover of the
Shang. In other words, the Zhou were returning China to the ‘way it had been’
before the Shang. Modern historians remain cautious. (After all, Sima Qian also
wrote that the mother of the first Shang king became pregnant by standing on the
footprints of a big bird!)
The earliest date given by scholars for the start of the Xia dynasty is 2205 bce, and
1558 bce for its end. But for a long while, there was no archaeological evidence to
support the existence of the Xia dynasty.
Then, in 1959, excavations at Erlitou revealed what some claim was the Xia
capital. The tombs and palace-like structure found there date to about
2100 bce. The bronze artefacts on the site are the oldest in China. Source 6.21 A bronze wine beaker said to be a Xia artefact

Despite this evidence, some historians still contest that this is not enough to
confirm the existence of the Xia dynasty. They say more evidence is needed,
such as a written script. At best, they argue, the remains may be evidence of
a transition culture between the Longshan culture (see p. 272) and the Shang
dynasty.

Source 6.22 Jade discs believed to be from the Xia dynasty

chapter six ancient china 287

bigideas
6.2 What shaped the roles of key groups in ancient societies?
Remember Apply
1 a What was the ‘mandate of heaven’? 9 Draw a mind map to display reasons why
b How did it shape the role of China’s rulers, and the Shi Huangdi was a significant figure in history.
way in which they were perceived by the people? 10 Use what you have learned (and your imagination)
2 Create a timeline that shows (using colour shading to write an account of a day in the life of a Chinese
on the timeline bar and a matching key) the dynasties emperor.
of ancient China. Which dynasty ruled for the longest 11 Draw a timeline to record some of the significant
period of time? events in Wu Zhao’s life.
3 Who was Wu Zhao? Why was this person such a 12 The author of Source 6.23 writes about watching her
significant figure in Chinese history? grandmother (who had bound feet). Based on this and
4 What sort of social role could a poor woman expect in what else you know about foot binding and women’s
life in ancient China? Why? roles, write and perform with a partner a dialogue
5 a What jobs might farmers in ancient China be between a poor farmer and his wife. The man wants
sometimes called on to do? his young daughter’s feet to be bound. Empathise as
you do this: think as they would have thought then, not
b Do you think farmers, though poor, felt valued
as you think today.
within the society? Explain.
13 Think about the various factors that shaped the society
Understand of ancient China. Prepare a visual collage of factors
6 In your workbook, match the Chinese words that that you think are currently shaping Australian society
describe social roles with the examples given: nong, today.
gong, shang, shi; merchant, farmer, calligrapher,
Source 6.23
jewellery maker.
When we came home from shopping, the first thing she
7 Into which of the four social classes shown in Source
would do was soak her feet in a bowl of hot water, sighing
6.11 would you put each of the following: Chinese
with relief ... Then she would set about cutting off pieces
warlords, eunuchs, calligraphers, weapon makers?
of dead skin. The pain came not only from broken bones,
8 Copy the following table into your workbook. but also from her toenails, which grew into the balls of
Then draw lines to connect the items in the left-hand her feet.
column with items in the right-hand column. Extract from Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China
by Jung Chang

Relevant ancient dynasty Significant achievement or development

Zhou calendar introduced

Han currency and weights-and-measures standardised

Shang iron started being used

Qin professional army established

288 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

14 Many women in ancient China had their feet bound to
improve their chances of securing a ‘good’ marriage.
a Suggest any ways that women today in Australia
damage (or risk damaging) their bodies in the
interests of ‘marrying well’. Discuss in small
groups.
b Consider what such behaviours (in ancient China
and today) symbolise about the roles of men and
women.

Analyse
15 a Describe the appearance of the men in Source
6.24.
b To what social group do you think they belonged?
Give reasons for your answer.

Evaluate
16 Decide on the five factors you think were most
important in influencing how the society of ancient
China was organised. Share your list with a partner.
Try to convince him or her to accept your ranking if
there are differences.

Create
17 In groups of 5 or 6, present a puppet show for the
class about some aspect of life in ancient China that
clearly shows the roles and responsibilities of differing
social groups. Share the tasks involved in planning the
task, writing the script, making the puppets and their
costumes, preparing the backdrop, manipulating the
puppets and providing the ‘voices’.
18 Select any two figures shown in Source 6.20.
With a partner to share the tasks, write a short
dialogue between the characters. Present it for
the class if asked, perhaps using costumes and
props from home. Your dialogue should reflect the
differences between the social roles you select, not
only in the words said, but also the tone of voice
and body language.

Source 6.24

chapter six ancient china 289

Source 6.25 The mummified remains of the wealthy Chinese woman Xin Zhui (see p. 303)

6.3 How do beliefs, values and

practices influence lifestyle?
The civilisation of ancient China was influenced by a complex mix of
beliefs, values and traditions. Some, such as Taoism, were religious;
others, such as Confucianism, were more to do with behaviour. Closely
tied in with these were many unique rituals to do with how people were
buried, how they arranged their homes, how they drank their tea and
many other practices.
Options
How beliefs, values and practices Beliefs and values in ancient China
influenced the lifestyle of the ancient
Chinese is discussed in respect to the Ancestors had been worshipped by the ancient Chinese since the Shang dynasty.
three topic areas listed below. So were gods and goddesses. Like many deities of other civilisations, they were
Choose ONE of these: believed to control the forces of nature. People tried to keep their ancestors and
• everyday life (pp. 293–295) deities happy. Natural events—such as floods or poor harvests—were taken as
• warfare (pp. 296–301) a sign that the gods were displeased. Rituals to ensure they remained happy
• death and funerary customs included (at first) human sacrifice.
(pp. 302–305) Three dominant influences on ancient China’s beliefs and values were
Related activities are on pages 306–7. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Judaism, Christianity and Islam would
also be introduced to China, but were not dominant.

290
Source 6.26 Statue of
Lao-Tzu

Taoism
Taoism (or Daoism) began with the teachings of Lao-Tzu (600–531 bce). He believed that, to live
forever, people had to become one with the life force (the Tao or ‘the Way’). This effort required
constant change to balance within oneself the yin (female) and yang (male) forces that he
believed made up everything in the world. Two things helped this spiritual struggle. The first was
Source 6.27 Chinese meditating, usually at shrines built in beautiful natural spots. The second was exercise, such
character representing
as kung fu and tai chi. Today we still see both of these aspects reflected in the lifestyle of the
‘the Way’. Some people
today wear this symbol as Chinese.
a tattoo.
Buddhism
Travellers from India brought Buddhism
to China during the 1st century ce , via the
Silk Road (see p. 313). By the middle of the
5th century ce , it was the state religion in
China. It was begun by a wealthy Indian
prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who was born
around 563 bce . He was upset by the suffering
and poverty he saw as a young man. So he
turned his back on his inherited wealth to
Source 6.28 The yin–yang
symbol. Yin and yang search for more spiritual meaning. He called
were seen as two equal this process looking for ‘the truth’.
and opposite forces that
together controlled the
The state of Nirvana he sought was one
world. They had to be in where there was no more hurt or pain. A
balance. The yin included person who reached it, as he did, became one
things that were cold,
closed, dark and still; the
with the universe, or ‘buddha’, which means
yang, those that were hot, ‘the enlightened one’. He or she was then
open, bright and active. freed from all the bad things about being
human, such as wanting to kill, cheat or lie.
To reach nirvana, a person might have to be
reincarnated (live again in another form)
many times. Each life lived, with its unique Source 6.29 Carving of Buddha, Fengxian Temple,
experiences, taught the person more. Longmen Caves

chapter six ancient china 291

freshideas
Using multiple intelligences

Confucius (K’ung Ch’iu) Dr Howard Gardner, an American education specialist, first proposed the theory of
(c. 551 – 479 bce) was born at a time multiple intelligences in 1983. He claims that we all have a unique mix of intelligences,
some stronger than others. For example, a boy with strong verbal/linguistic intelligence
of civil war in China. As a man, his
might write wonderful essays but be a clumsy soccer player; a girl with strong bodily/
fear was that this conflict would tear
kinaesthetic intelligence might be a ‘wiz’ on the tennis court but a poor speller.
China apart. He developed a set of
We can each work towards our full potential by first knowing what our mix of intelligences
ideas, called Confucianism, which
is, and then building on it. It might, for example, influence what we do as a career.
he thought would help.
Dr Gardner identified eight intelligences; he says there may be more. These are:
Confucianism was not a religion 1
verbal/linguistic: good at using words and language
but a code of behaviour. It was to 2
visual/spatial: good at interpreting and using images and pictures
influence almost every aspect of life 3
bodily/kinaesthetic: good at using body skills (whole body and/or hands)
in China. 4
logical/mathematical: good with numbers and in using logic
5 interpersonal: good at relating to others
intrapersonal: good in knowing and understanding yourself
6
7
musical/rhythmic: good with music and rhythms
8
naturalistic: good at interpreting and responding to the natural world and its patterns

Source 6.31

Confucius says …
What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.
Before you start out on a journey of revenge, dig two graves.
Those who strive to do perfect work must first sharpen their tools.
To learn without thinking is useless; to think without learning is dangerous.
A person who knows what is the right thing to do and does not do it is a coward.
You cannot tell others what they should be doing if you do not do it yourself.
Strong individuals and strong families make strong nations.
Translation of some of the sayings of Confucius

1 List the intelligences Dr Gardner describes in the order you think best represents your
unique mix, from strongest to weakest.
2 Select two sayings of Confucius from Source 6.31 that interest you. Work out a way
to use the intelligences you placed at the ‘top’ and ‘bottom’ of your list to show that
you understand what they mean. For example, you might draw a sketch (visual/
spatial) for one, and present a rap (musical/rhythmic) for the other.

Source 6.30 Artist’s impression of Confucius

giving wise advice in dealing with a wrongdoer

292
Everyday life
No single influence has had more impact on the lifestyles and values of China than Confucianism,
particularly after the Han dynasty. Confucius believed that China’s people were like a big family.
They should behave towards each other and towards their ruler as would be expected in a family.
This meant being respectful, moral, fair, obedient, courteous and self-disciplined.

Family structure
The family was the basic social unit of ancient China. It included all generations and in-laws. Older
people were treated with great respect, especially by younger family members. The oldest male was
the family head. He probably had more than one wife to ensure many sons. If rich, he also had
concubines. His decisions had to be obeyed, including those about whom his daughters would marry.
As mentioned earlier, women in China did not enjoy the same social status as men. There were,
however, some notable exceptions, but only among the very wealthy. Hu Dao, the wife of a Shang
emperor, became an army general. The concubine Wu Zhao (see p. 285) became an emperor.
A woman’s status was improved if she had sons. Daughters had little value. Girls spent their
childhood learning to cook, weave cloth and help around the house. When they married, it was
their husband’s family, not their own, that benefited.

Food, diet and medicine

Rice was being grown for harvest in the warm, moist Huang He River valley
7000 years ago. It was eaten as a food, and made into wine. In the cooler,
drier north, millet and sorghum (a cereal grass) were harvested. Wheat took
much longer to become part of the Chinese diet. In fact, it was not until about
1500 years ago that it became a popular food (second only to rice). Farmers grew
vegetables to mix with their grain dishes. (The wealthy might buy these at a
market.)
Meat was typically eaten only on special occasions, chicken at first, then
pork and later still, beef and mutton. It was costly for a start (and therefore only
a common dish for the wealthy). But diet was also influenced by beliefs: some
forms of Buddhism, for instance, forbade eating meat. For many, protein came
Source 6.32 Timber was in short supply in
from foods such as soy bean curd (tofu).
many parts of China, so food was typically
chopped into smaller pieces (like stir fries today), What the Chinese ate, like their medicine, was linked with their beliefs
which needed less heat (and less fuel) to cook about the balance in nature, the yin and yang (see p. 291). Foods were eaten and
quickly.
combined in ways that were thought to preserve the needed balance in the body.

evidence: very, very old noodles!

focus on …

About 2000 bce, an earthquake devastated the small village

of Laija in the Yangtze River valley. Over time, its remains
were buried with ash, sediment and dirt. In excavating this
village, archaeologists were surprised to find a very old
meal consisting of noodles. It had been preserved in an
upturned bowl. Scientific analysis confirmed what scholars
expected: evidence that these were very old noodles! It also
confirmed that the noodles were made from millet.

Source 6.33 These noodles are 4000 years old.

chapter six ancient china 293

Feng shui
Feng shui means wind and water in Chinese. The practices
of feng shui developed from the Chinese belief that people
should plan their living spaces in harmony with the
energy of the natural world (including the cosmos).
Good feng shui meant placing settlements and
buildings so they faced a particular way (for good energy).
It also meant arranging things, such as furniture and
mirrors, in a particular way within rooms. In ancient
times, this arrangement was believed to protect against
evil spirits.
Today, good feng shui is said to protect against poor
health, business loss and unhappy relationships. Many
Source 6.34 The arrangement of this room has good feng shui.
people today check popular magazines to find out how to
design their houses and arrange their rooms for good feng
shui.

Horoscopes
Many Australians like to read a horoscope, which you 2003 1992

will often see in newspapers and magazines. This is a plan 2002

Goat Monkey
1993
Rooster
used by astrologers to tell people where they fit into the Horse

2001 1994
Dog
universe. The Chinese horoscope is based on the ancient Snake

Dragon Pig
belief that people have certain traits, relating to an animal, 2000 1995

Rabbit
depending on the year in which they were born. 1999 Tiger Ox
Rat
1996

Chinese horoscopes are often used today in business 1998 1997

situations to work out how people should behave. Imagine

a meeting where people all seem to be in the same age
bracket (say 40 to 50 years). A man who says he was born
in the Year of the Tiger will be older than one born in the
Source 6.35 Zodiac for Chinese horoscope for the 12-year cycle from 2004
Year of the Goat. He will therefore be due more respect,
to 2016. The rat is the first year of the cycle, and the pig the last.
even without having to state his age.
There are 12 signs in the Chinese horoscope, based
on a 12-year cycle and on a Chinese calendar. The cycle
continually repeats itself. Time, in Chinese tradition, is
seen as cyclical (repeating the same pattern), rather than
linear (going in a straight line).

Tea drinking
Tea has been drunk in China for over 2000 years. It was
first drunk as a medicine or a stimulant. Since the Tang
dynasty (c. 618–908 ce), it has become more of a social
tradition. It is a formal way of relaxing and mixing with
others. After about 100 ce , wine made from fermented
millet also became very popular. For many Australians,
taking time out ‘to have a cuppa’ is a similar practice,
though not as formal.
Source 6.36

294
Martial arts
The martial arts (called Wushu) began in
ancient China. At first, it was a type of self-
defence, practised by its soldiers. It has since
become a unique part of China’s culture, and
its various forms are now also practised by
many people around the world.
Kung fu is the code of skills from which
a great many styles of martial arts, such as
karate, have developed. It is perfected only with
years of intense practice, study, meditation and
self-discipline. Like so many aspects of Chinese
lifestyle, it is shaped by a belief in the need for
harmony and balance.
A kung fu student follows the Tao—the Way
Source 6.37 A competitor at the Wushu championships in China, 2006, demonstrating
(see p. 291). He or she strives for a balance of kung fu skills
yin and yang in body and mind. Great skill
and self-control is needed to do this. A master
will move and breathe, quickly and then
slowly, so it seems to be all one fluid movement
to the observer.
Masters strive to keep these opposites—fast
and slow, sharp and gentle, loud and soft—in
balance. In a sense, the physical and mental
state that allows this copies the balance of
opposites in nature. Take, for example, the ebb
and flow of the tides, floods and droughts, the
Sun’s heat during the day and the chill at night
under the Moon’s light.
A kung fu master learns to use the ch’i,
described as the energy force of the universal
power. This gives someone who is small and
slight the ability to smash through a pile of
bricks with a bare hand or a head. It also gives Source 6.38 Martial arts have featured in many modern movies. This still is from the
masters great athletic ability. 2000 movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon.

Check your learning

1 Explain how the practice of drinking tea changed over time in China.
2 How did belief systems influence the eating of meat for some in ancient China? What substitute food
was commonly eaten to provide protein?
3 What was feng shui and how was it influenced by Chinese beliefs?
4 a What mental and physical skills do you think would be needed to master the feats shown in
Sources 6.37 and 6.38?
b In what way do the movements of kung fu reflect ancient Chinese beliefs?
5 a Use Source 6.33 to work out the Chinese year for 1986, 1997, 2023, 2031 and this year.
b Explain how the horoscope might influence social behaviour among Chinese business people.

chapter six ancient china 295

Source 6.39 The
remains of a Shang
dynasty chariot, and
the skeleton of its
charioteer

Warfare Source 6.40

Wagons rattling and banging,

The first permanent army in ancient China did not form horses neighing and snorting,
until the Han dynasty (206 bce –220 ce). During this conscripts marching, each with bow and arrows at his hip,
dynasty, China was often at war, enlarging its empire and fathers and mothers, wives and children, running to see them
engaging in fights with northern tribes. Han rulers required off …
all able-bodied men between the ages of 23 and 56 to enlist so much dust kicked up you can’t see Xian-yang Bridge!
in the army for two years. They might have to serve again And the families pulling at their clothes, stamping feet in anger,
if there was a military emergency such as an uprising or an blocking the way and weeping …
attack. Some also had to perform guard duty (such as on the ah, the sound of their wailing rises straight up to assault heaven.
Great Wall of China). And a passer-by asks, ‘What’s going on?’
Until then armies were made up of ordinary men (mostly The soldier says simply, ‘This happens all the time,
farmers). They were called up for military service as the From age fifteen some are sent to guard the north,
and even at forty some work the army farms in the west.
need arose. These farmer–soldiers were not trained. For
some, the only exposure they had to battle skills and tactics When they leave home, the village headman has to wrap their
was what they learned ‘on the job’ when called up. Soldiers turbans for them;
did not receive pay, but they were fed and given weapons when they come back, white-haired, they’re still guarding the
frontier.
and a uniform. While on army service, they kept fit by
The frontier posts run with blood enough to fill an ocean …
wrestling, throwing stones and playing games similar to
Translation by David Lunde of extract from an ancient Chinese poem
football and polo.

296
Battle tactics
During the Shang dynasty, battles were fought mainly using
chariots. Ancient records report farmers having to plough
their fields all in the same direction so that chariot wheels
could more easily cross farmland in the event of a battle. A
great deal of archaeological evidence has been uncovered at
Shang sites in China of the chariots and weapons that were
used.
After about 600 bce , the cavalry began to play a much
greater role in China’s warfare. Leaders also began recruiting
large armies of foot soldiers, as and when required, from
among the peasants.
If the buried ‘terracotta army’ of China’s first emperor,
Shi Huangdi, is any indication, it would seem that armies
by the time of the Qin dynasty had some formation in
battle. The evidence suggests that they were led by lightly
armed foot soldiers. Behind were massed troops of heavily
armed foot soldiers, with chariots and the cavalry bringing
up the rear.

Armour
The first armour of Chinese soldiers was made from wood
or bamboo. Later, small overlapping pieces of leather or
iron were joined together with fabric ties or metal studs
(see Source 6.40). This made upper-body armour both sturdy
and flexible. Helmets were also worn by soldiers from the
Han dynasty on. Source 6.41 One of the ‘terracotta warriors’ guarding Shi Huangdi’s tomb,
which provides evidence of armour worn by soldiers during the Qin dynasty

Check your learning

significance: The Art of War
focus on …

1 a During which dynasty did China’s first permanent army

Around 500 bce, during the Warring States period, a
emerge? How was it made up?
military leader named Sun Tzu wrote a manual called
(in translation) The Art of War. This text outlined b What duties and potential activities might a Han soldier
strategies to be used in warfare; however, its principles have to carry out?
are so basic that they are still followed today in many 2 Read Source 6.40. What evidence does this provide about
fields such as sport and business. This makes the text army life in ancient China, and the impact of army service
a highly significant ancient document. on soldiers and their families?
Legend has it that Sun Tzu demonstrated that his 3 How were battles typically fought during the Shang
strategies work to the king of the then independent dynasty? What changed?
state of Wu by quickly training 100 women in the 4 Study Source 6.41, looking particularly at the soldier’s
palace as soldiers. armour. Using only materials and methods available in the
ancient world, can you suggest any ways it could have
been modified to provide its wearer with more protection?
Draw labelled sketches. Justify your design solution.

chapter six ancient china 297

examiningevidence
Ancient China’s warfare

The armies of China used a range of

weapons and other means to fight
their battles. Shi Huangdi’s buried
terracotta army—intended to protect
him in the afterlife—included a
number of horse-drawn chariots such
as shown here.
Until China was united in 221 BCE
under its first emperor Shi Huangdi
(see pp. 282–3), the different warring
states had their own fighting forces.
To remain strong as an empire and to
combat the threats posed by Mongol
tribes to the north, China’s army had
to be united.
This happened during the Han
dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). China’s first
professional army was formed, even
Source 6.42 Part of the terracotta army
if it was a conscription-type force.
(Men of ‘fighting age’ had to all serve
in the army for short terms.) Horses were often used in warfare in ancient China,
Throughout its history, China’s armies especially after about the 7th century bce. By the
used a range of weapons and tactics late 4th century bce, the cavalry was, in fact, the
to fight their battles. Early weapons, key force of an army. Fighting on horseback
such as spears and daggers, were was greatly helped by the Chinese
typically made of bronze; later iron invention of the stirrup around 350 ce.
was used. During the Shang dynasty, It enabled riders to sit more securely
chariots were used in great numbers on a fast-moving and weaving horse
for battles. Later, the cavalry and when using their weapons.
armed foot soldiers had a greater role. Most weapons of the Shang and Zhou
Historians and other scholars found dynasties were made of bronze, which
out a great deal about ancient China’s is an alloy (mix) of either copper and
warfare methods and weaponry with tin, or copper and zinc. Besides battle
the discovery of Shi Huangdi’s buried axes, other weapons made from
‘terracotta army’ (see pp. 304–5). This bronze included spears, swords and
reconstructed army was arranged halberds (a combination of a spear and a
in formations, which may have dagger axe).
reflected how Shi Huangdi’s army was The crossbow was invented in ancient
organised in real life. China and used some 2500 years ago.
It fires a bolt with great force due to the

Source 6.43 A sculpture of two members of

the Han cavalry with their spears

298
Source 6.44 A Chinese crossbow (and arrowheads) from the Han dynasty. Source 6.45 A modern Chinese dragon kite

energy built up in the very taut string. Check your learning

It was possible to fire bolts up to
about 200 metres. They had sufficient 1 Study Source 6.42.
speed and force to penetrate armour. a What evidence does it provide that such a chariot would be fast and that it
The kite was another Chinese would give its charioteer little protection from, say, enemy arrows?
invention, first used some 2500 years b What might have happened if one of the horses (say when charging the
ago. Some early kites were made enemy) had been killed?
to spy on the enemy or to 2 What evidence does Source 6.43 provide about:
send messages. An ancient a how Han cavalrymen dressed for battle
document states that kites b the weapons they carried
big and strong enough to hold small
c use of saddles?
children were once used by a Han
general to disperse the enemy. The 3 a Conduct some Internet research to find out how the crossbow was
kites were floated up through the fog operated.
around the enemy camp. The children b What evidence does Source 6.44 provide to support the commonly stated
they carried were told to play tunes view that wounds from a crossbow bolt were horrific?
that would make the enemy homesick, 4 a Documents record kites being used in battle in a strange way. What was
and thus retreat. that?
b Suggest as part of a class discussion how the kite shown in Source 6.45
would need to be modified to serve such a military purpose. Decide if such a
feat could have been possible, or is simply legend. Justify your opinion.

chapter six ancient china 299

The Great Wall Source 6.46 Artist’s impression: the building of a section of the Great Wall

of China
One of the strongest defensive
structures in the world is the Battlements run along the wall’s
As the crow flies, the wall is about
sides and around the perimeter of
Great Wall of China, now a World 2700 kilometres long. Its actual length is
the watchtower roofs.
Heritage Site. The wall is also around 6500 kilometres because it twists
and turns so much through mountainous
the world’s longest. It started as a Bamboo or timber
country (see Source 6.2).
number of separate mud-brick walls reinforcing
built by lords during the Zhou
dynasty. The first emperor, Shi
Huangdi, began the task of joining
and extending these walls to keep
out northern invaders (Mongols).
The structure we see today was
largely completed during the Ming
dynasty (1368–1644 ce). That was
when the watchtowers and cannons
were included.
Study this illustration and its
supporting captions carefully. Put
yourself in the picture as the Site
Manager of this section of the
wall. Prepare a work schedule for
the ‘day’ shown here and the next
week, listing all the tasks to be
done and, where relevant, the order
in which they will be done.

The Great Wall ranges from about 5 to 9

metres thick and is as tall as 7.5 metres
in parts. The road built on top (between
the outer walls that enclose it) is about
6 metres wide.

The fill included earth, sand, rocks—and

lots of dead bodies. It was carried into
position by hand. As a section of fill built
up, vertical slats of bamboo or wood were
hammered in to keep it in place.

300
Watchtowers, about 12 metres high,
were built along the wall. They were close
enough for messages to be sent from one
to the next, using fires (by night), smoke
(by day), drums and flags.

The builders were farmers (mostly), slaves

and, later, criminals. Working conditions
were shocking and fatal accidents were
common. Guards forced the builders
to work hard and stopped anyone from
running away. Historians think that at least
100 000 men died building the wall. Their
dead bodies were added to the fill.

The Great Wall was built in sections. The

two outer walls were built first. The space
between them was then filled, reinforced
and finally paved.
chapter six ancient china 301
Source 6.47 Jade burial suit of Dou Wan, wife of the Han prince Liu Sheng. It contains 2156 jade pieces and 703 grams of gold thread.

Death and funerary The dead person’s family made it known by loud weeping and
customs moaning, and by hanging up messages, that someone had died.
They put on white clothing. The coarseness of the cloth and how
It was very important to the ancient Chinese long it was worn depended on how close the mourner was to the
that their ancestors be honoured and dead person.
remembered. It was just as important that all
proper rituals be observed for those who died.
This included gift-giving at the grave sites The corpse was washed, dressed and laid out in the home,
and home shrine. If this did not happen, it perhaps for up to a week. People would call to pay their respects,
was feared that the dead person’s spirit might give gifts to the family and offerings for the dead person.
become angry and cause bad things to happen
to the living.
Offerings typically included money and small paper models of
Keeping the balance household items. These were burned so the corpse could ‘receive’
them’. A stone plaque was placed near the family shrine in honour
Generally, never-ending life for the ancient of the person.
Chinese entailed living on through one’s
descendants. There were differences of course,
depending on one’s religion. Those Chinese
After religious procedures (which varied depending on the belief
who became Buddhists, for example, would see system of the dead person), the corpse was placed in a coffin.
things differently. Music was played to calm the dead person’s spirit.
Just as it was for so many aspects of life in
ancient China, preparing for death was a matter
of balance (or give and take). Parents did the The coffin was carried in a procession, for burial or cremation.
right thing for their children when they were (Most ancient Chinese were buried.) Feng shui determined when
growing up. The hope was that their children this happened, where the gravesite (or funeral pyre) was located
and how the remains were placed in the grave.
would then do the right thing for them, not
only in their old age, but when they died—and
after they died. Source 6.48 The rituals of a typical funeral in ancient China

302
Burial practices
The ancient Chinese believed that the burial site (or tomb) was a place where the spirit of the dead
person ‘lived’ near. So people were usually buried with a range of items they might need, such as food,
clothing, mirrors (for light) and weapons.
Rulers had more elaborate tombs than ordinary people. Goods such as furniture and chariots might
be included among their tomb goods. So, too, might their wives, and any concubines who had no
children. These women were often buried alive! Later, the practice was to replace living people with
models, made from wood or clay.

The tomb and mummy of Xin Zhui

The best-preserved mummy in the world was found in
China in 1971 (see p. 290). It was so well preserved, doctors
were able to conduct an autopsy to find out why the
woman died.
The woman, Xin Zhui, had been married to a wealthy
Han ruler. She died around 2200 years ago of a heart attack
when she was around 50 years old. She was 158 centimetres
tall and overweight. When found, her skin was soft, she still
had hair, and her limbs were flexible. Her blood was still
red. Her body had been wrapped in many layers of silk after
being first dipped in a mysterious liquid that still puzzles
scientists.
Her tomb had not been robbed. It contained about Source 6.49 Mourners at a Chinese funeral following the traditional custom
to wear white and to burn (fake) money for the dead person
1000 items. These included lacquerware, silks, musical
instruments and many containers of food (meat of all sorts,
grains, eggs and fruits). There were also 162 small-scale
Body wrapped in silk Outer wooden box,
wooden servants to serve her in the afterlife. sitting on 26 bamboo
mats
Tomb of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan
Three years earlier, another tomb had revealed the bodies of
other Han royals—Liu Sheng, the son of the Han emperor
Surrounded by
Jing Di, and one of his wives, Dou Wan (see Source 6.47). earth
They died around 100 bce and were buried with nearly
3 coffins
300 objects and 12 horses. Their remains had been totally
encased in jade suits shaped to look like armour. Jade was Inner 4 caskets
believed to have magical properties that would stop the
body decomposing.
Surrounded by
Surrounded by clay
charcoal

Source 6.50 Artist’s impression of the tomb prepared for Xin Zhui

Check your learning

1 Why did the ancient Chinese believe it was important to remember and honour their ancestors?
2 Use the information in Source 6.48 to write a short ‘eye-witness’ account of a funeral in ancient China.
3 Explain why the ancient Chinese buried goods and food within the tombs of dead rulers.
4 What do the burial practices for Xin Zhui and Dou Wan reveal about ancient Chinese beliefs and values?

chapter six ancient china 303

Layers of wooden logs,
pavers and soil covered

Shi Huangdi’s the buried army.

‘terracotta army’
A massive army made of terracotta
clay was made to guard the
emperor Shi Huangdi (see Ordinary soldiers have their hair in a knot;
pp. 282–3) in the afterlife. This officers have helmets. Some are standing; Wooden roof
others, such as archers, kneel. A name
illustration represents what a
is engraved on each, possibly that of its
typical day at the site may have creator.
looked like.
This site was discovered in 1974
by farmers digging a well near the
city of Xi’an, formerly Chang’an
(see Source 6.3). The site had to be
carefully excavated because the roof
that covered the army collapsed
soon after the emperor died.
The ancient Chinese writer Siam
Qian said it took 700 000 workers
38 years to build this buried army
and Shi Huangdi’s tomb (seen as They carried bronze weapons
a pyramid shape in the distance). such as swords, axes and spears.
Observe this illustration and read
its captions carefully. Think of
at least five reasons why this task
required such a large workforce
over such a long time.

The clay used for the upper part of each

statue is about five centimetres thick. The
lower part is solid. The soldiers and horses
were once colourfully painted.

Source 6.51 Artist’s impression of the construction of Shi Huangdi’s terracotta army.

304
About 8000 warriors, 130 chariots and The pyramid of earth The site is about
700 horses are buried over an area around above Shi Huangdi’s tomb two kilometres away from
the same size as the Melbourne Cricket is nearly 80 metres high. Shi Huangdi’s tomb.
Ground. It is thought there may be more
still to be uncovered.

The tomb of Shi Huangdi has not yet

been excavated. Sima Qian writes that
it contains priceless treasures; and has
rivers of mercury, huge magnetic security
doors and a roof studded with pearls.
Shi Huangdi’s ‘coffin’ is said to lie within
a scale-model of the city of Xianying,
which has an outer perimeter of about
The 7-metre deep pits 6.3 kilometres.
have rammed earth
walls and floor.

Corridors are reinforced

with wood.

The warriors were laid

out in military columns
in ‘corridors’ dug deep
into the earth.

Each warrior is about two metres tall.

No two are exactly alike. Their faces are
so carefully carved it is possible to tell
which ethnic group of China’s empire each
represents.

chapter six ancient china 305

bigideas
6.3 How do beliefs, values and practices influence lifestyle?
Everyday life: Complete questions1–4, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 20
Warfare: Complete questions 1–4, 5, 7, 10, 16, 17, 20
Death and funerary customs: Complete questions 1–4, 6, 12, 14, 19, 20.

Remember 9 Source 6.53 shows a child having a procedure developed

in ancient China: acupuncture. Find out what this involved,
1 What values did Confucius believe should influence the and why it was (and still is) believed to be effective.
behaviour of individuals, families and governments? Explain
in your own words Apply
2 Who was Buddha? Why did he choose the life he did, and 10 Look at Source 6.45 and some other Chinese kite designs
why is he called ‘the Buddha’? on the Internet. Now design a kite suitable for some military
3 Explain why Hu Dao was an unusual woman in China. (or intelligence) purpose you select. If possible, use ICT tools
to create and present your design. Explain why your design
Understand will serve its intended purpose.
4 a Decide which of the following are yin forces or states of
being, and which yang: peaceful, darkness, calm, fire,
moon, hot, light, calm, open, cold, sun, violent, water,
cold, closed.
b Do you think the ancient Chinese regarded women as
a yin or yang force? How might this have influenced the
role expected of them?
5 How do you think the instruction to farmers to plough all
their fields in the same direction would have benefited the
Shang army in a battle? Draw a sketch to support your
explanation.
6 Write a brief newspaper article, suitable for inclusion in your
local newspaper, on the discovery of the tomb and mummy
of Xin Zhui, also known as Lady Dai. Include comment on
what this find reveals about burial traditions in ancient China
and ancient beliefs.
7 Explain how training in kung fu, or others of the martial arts,
would have benefited a professional soldier in ancient China.
8 What impression do you get about the lifestyle of nobles in
ancient China from the following extract?

Source 6.52

Although my brother is a lord, he spends all his time doing

the work of his officials. A proper lord should spend his day
listening to music and delighting himself with beautiful sounds.
Translated statement of Liu Shen,
son of Han emperor Ching-ti (ruled 157–141 bce)
Source 6.53

306 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

11 Research some of the feng shui principles for room design.
Then draw a labelled plan of how you would rearrange your
bedroom (a plan view is one viewed from directly above) in
accordance with good feng shui.
12 In small groups, role-play a conversation a band of farmers
might have at night around their fireplace. They have been
recruited to work on the Great Wall and that day two of the
farmers’ friends died on the job. Their bodies were disposed
of without any proper funeral rituals.
13 Buddha’s birthday is celebrated by Buddhists around the
world. The date varies from year to year: 10 May (2011),
28 May (2012), 17 May (2013) and 6 May (2014). Through
research, find out how this event was typically celebrated in
ancient China. Then, as a class, decide on an appropriate
way to acknowledge this event in your school this year.

Analyse Source 6.55

14 Shi Huangdi’s tomb has not yet been excavated. Based on
the extract below, why might some fear being the first to
enter the tomb? Evaluate
17 What do you think is the most effective aspect of the Great
Source 6.54
Wall’s design as a military defensive structure? Give reasons
[The tomb builders] dug through three subterranean streams for your opinion.
and poured molten copper for the outer coffin … Artisans were 18 Complete the following PMI table for an everyday custom of
ordered to fix up crossbows so that any thief breaking in would
ancient China of your choice.
be shot. All the country’s streams, the Yellow River and the
Yangtze were reproduced in quicksilver [mercury] and by some P lus (good things about it)
mechanical means made to flow into a miniature ocean … The
M inus (bad things about it)
candles were made of whale oil to ensure their burning for the
longest possible time. I nteresting
Description of the interior of Shi Huangdi’s tomb, by Han historian
Sima Qiam about 100 years after the death of Shi Huangdi 19 Prepare an instruction card an ancient person might give
you about the most important things to know (and customs
15 With a partner, design and conduct a survey (surveying at to observe) about death and funerals in ancient China.
least 15 people among your family and friends) to find out
how much they know about everyday life in ancient China. Create
Design the questions based on what you have learned. You 20 Use Internet search techniques to find an especially
may also wish to check the Internet for some of the basic interesting and informative website about one of the
rules that apply in designing survey questionnaires. Sum up following. Justify your choice.
your findings for the class. • the practice of gift-giving etiquette in China
16 The ancient Chinese weapons shown in Source 6.55 were • the size and predicted extent of Shi Huangdi’s army of
used some 3000–3300 years ago. Analyse their various ‘terracotta warriors’
features. What do you think they are? • the use of gunpowder as a weapon in ancient China.

chapter six ancient china 307

Source 6.56 A page from the Diamond Sutra, the world’s first book. This Buddhist text was printed
around 868 ce, using the block-printing method. It was made 500 years before Gutenberg printed his
first Bible in Europe.

6.4 How do contacts and conflicts

change societies?
Sir Francis Bacon, a 17th-century English thinker, said that there were
three inventions that had changed the world. These were the magnetic
compass, gunpowder and printing. All of these were invented, or first
used, in China. They, and a great many other inventions and discoveries
of the ancient Chinese, not only changed their own society, but also the
societies of all those with whom they came in contact.

308
Bacon’s ‘world changers’
Bacon regarded the magnetic compass, gunpowder and printing as ‘world
changers’ because of the significant impact they had on societies throughout
the world. They influenced such events within China and beyond as travel
(and discoveries), wars (and their outcomes) and the spread of information.

Printing
Flat wooden blocks were carved so that the lines or characters to be printed stood
higher than the rest of the block. When paper was pressed onto the inked block,
only these higher parts printed. The details to be printed were carved in reverse
so they would print the right way on the paper.
The Chinese first wrote on silk or strips of bamboo. By the end of the
1st century ce , a thin paper was being used. The royal eunuch Cai Lun
(c. 50–121 ce) is usually given credit for this invention. He is said to have
squeezed the water out of a sludge of mashed bamboo and mulberry bark and
then spread the fibrous mass out flat to dry. Later, paper pulp was made by
mashing together bark, rags, hemp stalks and water. Bamboo trays were dipped
into the sludge until their fine grids were fully coated with the pulp. The paper
mixture was allowed to partially dry on the grid before being gently peeled off
and hung up to dry. European papermakers used this method until the 1800s.
Also invented by the ancient Chinese was the fine-tipped ink brush. This was
typically used by scholars and artists during the Han dynasty to write on both
paper and silk.

Magnetic compass
The Chinese invented the magnetic compass around
250 bce . Until then, consulting the stars was the only way
of working out direction at sea. The Chinese noted that a
magnetic rock, called a lodestone, always pointed the same
way (north–south) when suspended or floated. Fine metal
pointers, when rubbed on it, were found to have the same
magnetic property. These were the first compass needles.

Gunpowder
Around 850 ce , a Chinese scientist made a mixture he hoped
would give him everlasting life. Unfortunately, it exploded,
burning his beard. The upside of this sorry tale was the
discovery of gunpowder. Fifty years later it was being used
by the Chinese as a powerful weapon in warfare. One
weapon, called the ‘heaven-rumbling thunderclap fierce fire
erupter’ used gunpowder to fire containers of toxic gas.

Source 6.57 A magnetic compass made by the ancient Chinese

chapter six ancient china 309

Other inventions and discoveries
Like the ancient Egyptians, the ancient Chinese were
skilled scientists, mathematicians and astronomers. An
astronomer named Zhang Heng (78–139 ce) is said to
have been the first to use a grid system on maps. He also
made the first seismograph (to detect earthquakes).

First seismograph
Zhang Heng’s invention is shown in Source 6.58. An
earthquake tilted a heavy device inside the vase towards
one of the dragons around its edge. This made a little
ball in the dragon’s mouth drop into the open mouth
of the toad below. The earthquake’s centre lay in the
opposite direction to that toad.

Canals
The ancient Chinese also built a huge network of canals
Source 6.58 Zhang Heng’s seismograph for travel and trading purposes. The journey by road—
on foot, or in a cart dragged by an ox or horse—was
slow and bumpy. The growth in trade and information-
sharing these canals allowed had a marked impact on
the society. The Grand Canal, 1100 kilometres in length,
was built during the Zhou dynasty. Two millennia later,
ships up to 2000 tonnes can still travel its length (see
Source 6.61).

Silk
Perhaps ancient China’s best-known discovery is silk-
weaving. Legend has it that the wife of Huang Di (the
man credited with inventing ancient China’s writing
system and calendar) was the first to work out how to
unravel silk cocoons. She is said to have accidentally
dropped a cocoon in water. This enabled her to unravel
the thread.
Through its export of silk cloth (and later silk-making
techniques) to markets such as ancient Rome, ancient
China became very wealthy. Its knowledge of silk-
making gave it great status in ancient trading markets.

Source 6.59 The Chinese kept the secret of

silk making for thousands of years.

310 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

More inventions and discoveries
The inventions and discoveries described in this section are only some of the
many factors that changed the way people lived in ancient China. Through trade
and other contacts with other societies many of these were spread more widely.
With time, they have been passed down to societies in the world today.
• wooden wheelbarrow
• mechanical clocks, made in China six centuries earlier than in Europe
• acupuncture, a treatment that involves pushing small needles into the body
so as to correct any imbalance in energy flows in the body (see Source 6.53)
• paper and matches
• umbrellas
• kites
• porcelain or ‘china’
• the rudder (the steering oar on boats used by the ancient Egyptians and
Greeks was useless on Chinese boats in heavy seas because the Chinese boats
were too big to be turned by this; so, they invented the rudder)
• cast iron, first made around 600 bce .
Source 6.60 Artist’s impression of the
manufacturing of cast iron in ancient China. Molten
iron was poured into moulds dug into beds of sand.
Many metal shapes, for both tools and armour,
could be made in this way.

chapter six ancient china 311

The impact of trade
While internal trade within China along its rivers and vast
network of canals had existed for some time, trade outside
of China’s borders did not begin until the Han dynasty
(206–220 bce).

The Silk Road

The Silk Road had its beginnings in 138 bce . The Han
emperor Wu Ti ordered his army general, Zhang Qian, to
travel west to contact a people known as the Yeuzhi. His
motive was to persuade the Yeuzhi to become his allies.
Such an alliance would solve the problem he was having
Source 6.61 Part of the Grand Canal, which runs through the city of with another tribe in the area, the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu
Suzhou. Located on the Yangtze River delta, Suzhou was an important were then attacking the western fringes of Wu Ti’s empire.
trading port in ancient China, especially for silk.
Along the way, the Xiongnu captured Zhang Qian. He
and his fellow travellers were thrown into prison where they
stayed for 10 years. But Zhang Qian then escaped, finally
reaching the Yuezhi. But by then the people had no more
interest in fighting or alliances. So Zhang Qian returned
home—13 years after leaving.
His military news may well have disappointed Wu Ti.
But Zhang Qian had other things to tell him. He described
regions that, till then, China did not know about. He
told of different customs and products such as furs and
Source 6.62
huge horses. This news prompted Wu Ti to send further
Sculpture of a
mounted archer made missions west, both for trade and political reasons. Many
about 2000 years horses (called celestial, or heavenly, horses) would later be
ago. The horses China
imported for China’s army.
imported through its
early trade contacts to
the west were prized Not one … but many
for their speed and
strength. Over time, the Silk Road continued to push further west
till it eventually stretched from Chang’an (near modern
Xi’an) to the Mediterranean Sea (see Source 6.65). It was not
one road, rather many tracks heading in the same general
direction. There were also offshoots along the way to places
such as India.
Merchants typically travelled in long lines of camels,
loaded with goods. Along the way, they traded with the
isolated communities who had lived in the region since
about 1000 bce . These local people, in turn, might trade
with others further along the route.

Source 6.63 This 1700-year-old cave painting at Dunhuang (in today’s

Gansu Province, in north-western China) shows Zhang Qian making
representations to peoples to the west of China

312
The Silk Road ran through some of the harshest terrain
Aral
on Earth—mountains, hot deserts, and bitterly cold steppes. Sea

Caspia
In 1900, Swedish explorer Sven Hedin said about one region Black Sea

through which it passed, ‘Nothing living was to be found, Samarkand

n Sea

g
an
Hw
nor a drop of water; a more God-forsaken region one could Antioch
Luoyang

r
Baghdad

ve
Ri
not imagine on the whole Earth’. It was a frightening Tyre Chang’an
experience for many travellers, as Source 6.64 indicates.

r
ve
Yangtze

Ri
Ga
n
ge
Rive
Source 6.64

s
r

Red
Sea
There were some who … have seen a host of men [spirits] coming Bay
of
towards them and, suspecting they were robbers, returning, Bengal
South
have gone hopelessly astray … Even by daylight men hear these China
Sea
spirit voices … For this reason bands of travellers keep very close
Silk Road
together. Before they go to sleep they set up a sign pointing in the Journey of
Zhang Qian
direction in which they have to travel. Round the necks of all their
Mountainous
beasts they fasten little bells, so that by listening to the sound country
they may prevent them from straying off the path. Desert
Great Wall Java Sea
Translated extract from the Travels by Marco Polo (c. 1254–1324), of China 0 1000 2000
describing the Silk Road crossing kilometres

Source 6.65 The broad route of the Silk Road, so called in the late
19th century ce by the geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen
Later developments
In time, merchants and other travellers followed Zhang and oases sprang up along the way. Goods such as silk
Qian’s route, pushing on even further. Few merchants began to be introduced to the west.
travelled the entire distance. Rather, the exchange The contact this route provided between East and West
happened at different locations along the way, with goods for centuries largely ended once and for all during the
passed on ‘down the line’. Ming dynasty (1368–1644 ce). Its rulers returned China to a
Once the Silk Road reached the Mediterranean Sea, period of isolation from the rest of the world, much as it had
China had contact with western societies such as those of been at the beginning of its history. As well, Western traders
ancient Rome. Trade along the road boomed and then fell were beginning to explore trade by sea.
away over the centuries that followed. Cities, towns, forts

Source 6.66 The

ruins of Gaochang, an
ancient city on the Silk
Road, lie on the edge
of China’s Taklimakan
Desert.

chapter six ancient china 313

Silk—and other goods
Silk was ancient China’s most important trade good. For a
long time, only the Chinese knew how to make it. It is spun
from the cocoons of silkworms, which feed on mulberry
leaves. It became highly prized, particularly by the ancient
Romans, who exchanged large amounts of gold for it. It was
such a valuable resource to the Chinese that people were
executed if caught stealing silkworm eggs or cocoons.
Silk was used mostly to weave into cloth. But it also
served in making many other goods: fishing line and the
strings of musical instruments to name two. It was also used
for a time as ‘money’ (along with bronze coins) before the
introduction of paper money (around the 12th century ce).
Trade in silk and other goods boosted the economies
of societies involved and exposed them to new products.
Some, such as silk, became ‘markers’ of social status. Source 6.67 Silkworms, a mulberry leaf and the cocoons from which silk
thread is unwound

Imports Exports

Medicines Pearls and

coral Silk Porcelain china Hand-crafted
Precious and
pots and
semi-precious Slaves Salt (from salt Iron (and iron
figurines
stones such Ancient China mines) goods)
Furs
as lapis lazuli, Lacquerware
Cattle Dried fish
jade, gold and Glassware
silver
Spices

Source 6.68 Some of the goods

exchanged between ancient China and
other societies

Transfer of ideas
Trade between ancient China and other societies helped
the transfer of ideas between East (east Asia) and West (then Check your learning
the Mediterranean world). Many of the inventions and
1 What was the Silk Road and how did it get its name?
discoveries of the ancient Chinese, mentioned earlier, were
2 Given the dangers it posed, suggest why so many
shared by Silk Road traders.
continued to use this route.
Users of the Silk Road (both ways) were exposed to
3 In which way do you think some of the goods ancient China
different cultures, including religions. It was along this
imported would have helped to change its society?
road that some metalworking technologies and Buddhism
4 With a partner, consider the costs and the benefits for
were introduced into China. It was the route followed by
a Chinese merchant using the Silk Road. (Costs and
those who passed China’s silk-making secrets to the West.
benefits are more than just money considerations; they
It was also the means by which terrible diseases such as the
involve things such as risks, experiences, personal losses
bubonic plague were introduced to new populations. and harm.)

314
c. 1523
Battle of Ming Chiao, one of

BCE
many chariot battles by which

He
the Shang dynasty asserted n

g
H ua Yellow
its supreme power Sea

ze
gt
East

n
N

Ya
China
Sea

0 1000 km

Chu Qin Yan

c. 1060 Han Shu Zhao
Massive chariot battle of Mu Lu Song Zhou
Yu at which Shang forces Qi Wu Zongshan
were defeated by an uprising
of a people until then under
their control (Zhou)
Source 6.70 The rival kingdoms that were in
conflict during the Zhou dynasty

The impact of conflict

Conflict helped to shape the political structure of ancient
China (see Source 6.70). Conflicts were prompted by both
internal tensions and foreign threats. While China’s later
history was marked by the invasions of the Mongols and
later the Manchus. In this section we consider only to the
519
476 First peasant army (foot end of the Han dynasty. (This is commonly considered to
Start of the ‘warring states’ soldiers) conscripted by one mark the end of China’s ancient period.)
period which saw some of the Zhou states, the Wu
250 years of conflict between For a start, conflict marked the beginning and end of
the many Zhou states China’s dynasties—and the regimes that each introduced.
c .320
247 It also prompted the creation of a permanent professional
Cavalry introduced as a key part
Ying Sheng of the army army (during the Han dynasty).
becomes ruler of
the state of Qin 221
(at age 13) Ying Sheng conquers last of
the rival Zhou states, unites significance: Wu Ti
202 China and creates dynasty.
focus on …

Liu Bang defeats a He changes his name to Wu Ti (who ruled 140–87 bce) was one of ancient China’s most
crumbling Qin empire to Shi Huangdi significant emperors. During his long reign, he expanded China’s
become Gao Tsu, the first territory through his military conquests, and greatly increased
Han emperor. 140
Start of the rule of Han emperor its power and wealth through trade. It was Wu Ti who laid the
The army of the Han battle
invading Mongols Wu Ti, who extends the power foundations for the growth of the Silk Road.
CE

and influence of the Han empire

One of his strategies was to make allies of the tribes who lived in
8 the lands surrounding China’s borders. As mentioned on page
Brief takeover by the 312, these efforts obtained for him, among other things, huge
Xin dynasty: it lasts numbers of large horses to boost the cavalry of his army.
220 17 years, and then
Internal conflict, corruption and the Han dynasty Many Chinese people still call themselves the ‘Han’. In part this
poor management see the Han resumes
empire split into three kingdoms:
reflects the huge military, economic and cultural impact that Wu Ti
the Wei, Shu and Wu. had on Chinese history.

Source 6.69 Some key dates marking conflict in ancient China’s history until the end of the Han dynasty

chapter six ancient china 315

bigideas
6.4 How do contacts and conflicts change societies?
Remember 10 Select two of the characters from Source 6.71. With a
partner, construct the dialogue of a conversation they have
1 Name three ways in which the modern world has been
that reflects their current and recent experience as Chinese
influenced by contact with ancient China’s inventions and
merchants on the Silk Road.
discoveries.
2 Draw a flow chart to depict the steps that led to the Apply
beginnings of the important East–West trade route known 11 Think about the two potential scenarios below.
as the Silk Road. Hypothesise what might and might not have happened in
3 Explain how conflict helped to bring about the end of the China as a result. What do you conclude?
Zhou dynasty in China. a China never exported silk and the ancient world never
4 What was the eventual outcome of internal conflict and discovered silk-making secrets
corruption within the Han empire? b Ying Zheng was killed during the battle for power with
5 How did ancient China’s army ultimately benefit from Wu other warring states.
Ti’s efforts to make allies of the people on China’s western 12 Come up with a mnemonic to help you remember the
border? name of the warring states, as they are depicted in
Source 6.70.
Understand 13 Think of your class as a small ‘society’. In small groups,
6 Through what modern countries do the main routes of the discuss how the following scenarios might be likely to
Silk Road pass? change the features and behaviour of your ‘society’:
7 a Describe one way in which you think each of the • the arrival into the class community of some new
following Chinese exports may have affected the members from a different country whose native
societies (such as Rome) that received them : iron, language is not English
silk, salt. • a major disagreement or verbal argument among
b Describe one way in which you think each of the members about something both sides feel strongly
following imports may have had an impact on the society about
of ancient China: spices, glassware. • the arrival into the classroom of new, more advanced
8 Find out what the bubonic plague is, and how it is goods (latest technologies, air conditioning, etc.)
contracted. Then explain why the Silk Road would have • exposure to new ideas and perspectives (e.g. through
helped to spread this terrible disease. texts such as this one, class addresses by visiting
9 Copy and complete the following table in your workbook. speakers, viewpoints expressed by your teacher).
One entry has been partially completed for you.

Item invented in China How and/or when it is thought to have come about Impact on modern life
Gunpowder
Magnetic compass
Silk
Porcelain Evolved from pottery made during the Shang dynasty. Fine
porcelain required a particular clay or style, a high firing
temperature and glazing.
Rudder

316 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Analyse
14 Find out more about Liu Bang (sometimes written as Liu
Pang). Based on your research, what is your opinion on why
he succeeded in his conflict with the Qin dynasty?

Evaluate Source 6.71 A 15th century artist’s impression of merchants transporting

goods along the Silk Road
15 Debate this topic as a class, sharing roles for the
preparation: ‘Ancient China could never have become the
major power that it did without the Silk Road’.

Create
16 In groups, compile a travelogue of what Chinese merchants
travelling from Chang’an to the Mediterranean Sea might
have seen and done while travelling along the Silk Road.
Draw on what you know already and your further research.
This will included checking Google Earth and your atlas.
Your account can be fictitious, but you should draw on
facts. Remember to empathise: write it from the point of
view of ancient merchants, not your own. Include sketches
and photographs; use Google Images, and use Google to
search photo libraries such as Corbis and Getty.
17 Go to the Corbis photo library site, or other similar photo
library site, and search for images of ‘modern China’. Two
images are provided on the right to give you ideas.
Create a 4-page photo album with images you locate to
show how modern China has been changed by contact
with other parts of the world. Where possible, include in
your labels the part of the world that has influenced China.

chapter six ancient china 317

connectingideas
Ancient China
Medicine
Western medicine is science-based. It relies on a knowledge
of anatomy and microbiology. It is supported by ongoing
scientific scrutiny and research. Its practices change as
new evidence comes to light. Traditional Chinese medicine
(TCM), by contrast, is much the same today as it was in
ancient China. It is based on religious and other beliefs,
and ancient traditions. Therapies include acupuncture,
massage and animal- and plant-based medicines. TCM
is becoming more popular for some in the West as an
alternative medicine.

Acupuncture is used to treat a range of conditions such as pain, disease,

skeletal problems, infertility, even breech births. Tiny needles are pushed
into the skin at points along body ‘pathways’ known as meridians.
Practitioners believe this stimulates the flow of an energy force (called qi)
along these pathways. That flow can at times be blocked. This may be due to
the weather or astrological factors. Mostly, it is caused by an imbalance of
yin and yang in the body. Sometimes an acupuncturist uses moxibustion.
A tiny piece of a plant called mugwort is set on fire on or close to the skin
where the needle will be inserted. The burning plant may sometimes be
used just to heat the needle.
1 What is yin and yang? Give some examples.
2 What does acupuncture involve? How is it connected with Taoist beliefs?
3 Write a short script for a dialogue between a typical Western doctor and a
typical TCM practitioner when both faced with a patient presenting with nausea.
4 Suggest why a TCM practitioner might use moxibustion to treat a patient
diagnosed as having too much cold and damp in their body.
Source 6.72 Acupuncture is even used to treat
wrin es!

318 oxford big ideas history 7: australian curriculum

Source 6.73 A form of
massage used in Chinese Chinese medicine includes a range of massages and exercises. Some require the skills of
medicine called cupping
martial arts specialists (such as for broken bones); others take account of feng shui and
astronomy in deciding where and when one is massaged. Gentle tai chi and meditation
may be recommended for some. For others, the treatment can be more painful. One form of
massage sees the skin rubbed hard until the surface becomes grazed and bruised. Another
is cupping. Before a cup is placed on the skin, a lit match is held inside it. As the heated air
cools and contracts, the skin is sucked up inside the cup.
1 Select and view a YouTube video of tai chi of your choice. Based on this viewing and what you
know about Chinese martial arts, why might a TCM doctor recommend such exercise?
2 Explain what feng shui might have to do with how one is massaged.
3 Cupping leaves large red marks (bruises) on the skin as it forces blood to the surface. How is this
treatment a bit like a ‘love bite’ or hickey?

One of the side effects of yin and yang being unbalanced, according
to TCM, is that body organs get out of balance, too. Some become
overactive, some underactive. Medicines made from herbs and
animal parts are used as treatments. These potions include
powdered tiger penis (for impotence), snake oil (for aching joints)
and the dried faeces of the flying squirrel (to control bleeding).
Plants commonly used include ginseng (for energy) and goji berry
(for wellbeing). Some substances used, such as lead oxide and
strychnine (a highly toxic poison), are known to be toxic.
1 What might a Western doctor say about animal faeces being used as a
medicine?
2 Some cancer treatments in Western medicine use toxic substances
(such as the venom of the southern copperhead snake and certain
rainforest plants). So-called Western chemotherapy is toxic for many
healthy cells as well as cancer cells. What might a TCM practitioner Source 6.74 Chinese
say about this? herbal medicines,
including dried snake,
3 Can you suggest reasons why TCM might not be supported by some
dried seahorses and the
Western medicine authorities and practitioners? antlers of a deer

Some TCM require the killing of endangered animals, such as the rhinoceros and the
Sumatran tiger. Other practices such as bear bile farms are cruel. But then, Western
medicine also relies for its advancement on testing and experimenting on animals. In small
groups, discuss whether the use of animals is justified if it improves human health.

chapter six ancient china 319

glossary
A aristocrat person who through wealth
or birth belongs to the upper class of a
had a similar value (e.g., 2 eggs = 1
loaf of bread or a half-hour of labour).
social group Bartering was used in many ancient
acid rain rain that has become slightly
Aristotle Greek philosopher who lived cultures before the introduction of
acidic from pollutants (e.g., sulfur
during the 4th century BCE currency.
dioxide) in the air. Acid rain kills some
trees and plants and corrodes some artefact any object that is made or battering ram long pole (often a tree
building surfaces. changed by humans trunk) with a carved ram’s head at one
acropolis raised and fortified area end that was mounted on a wheeled
artisan person skilled in working with
(often on a rocky hill) within a Greek cart and slammed with force into an
his or her hands in some specialised way
city-state on which public structures enemy structure (such as a castle gate)
Aryans nomadic warlike people
such as temples were built from central Asia thought to have bias pre-set view about someone or
acupuncture medical treatment begun begun migrating southwards around something that is not altered by the
in ancient China whereby very fine 1500 BCE . Among the early societies presentation of facts and opinions to
needles are inserted in particular they influenced was the Indus Valley the contrary
positions on the body to restore its civilisation. biographical recount account of
natural balance what happened to someone told in the
astrologer person who makes
agora large open area at the base of an astrological predictions, based on the order in which things happened
acropolis that was both a meeting position of bodies in the heavens (such biologist someone who studies living
place and the centre of business and as planets), about what might happen things
government for a Greek city-state in the future bireme ancient ship, commonly used by
Amkhu special honour given to Attica extended area of farmland the ancient Greeks, that had two layers
someone in ancient Egypt that meant surrounding Athens during the time of of oarsmen, one above the other on
that the pharaoh would pay that ancient Greece each side
person’s funeral costs
auditorium ancient version of today’s Book of the Dead ancient papyrus text
amphitheatre ancient version of theatre, where a tiered layer of seats recording spells to recite when ancient
today’s football stadiums, where tiered rise up from, and partially surround, Egyptians were being mummified.
seats rose up around a flat central area a stage where drama performances (or This was thought to protect them in
where events or performances were held films) are presented the afterlife.
amphora type of Greek pot autopsy medical procedure performed booty goods taken from a defeated army
amulet magical charm thought to push on a dead person’s body to find out the by the conquering army.
away evil cause of death These were often then distributed
anthropologist person who studies auxiliary soldier who fought in the among some of the soldiers of the
the human race (its development, Roman army but who was not Roman; conquering army.
practices, behaviours, etc.) he might be recruited from a faraway Bronze Age period (which occurred at
aqueduct channel (often on top of province different times in different societies)
arches; other times underground) that when the people were using bronze
carried water, under gravity, from
distant mountain springs to ancient
B and copper to make artefacts such as
weapons, tools and utensils
human settlements bar mitzvah Jewish ceremony that bubonic plague infectious disease
Aramaic ancient Semetic language is held for a boy when he turns 13. It caused by a bacterium carried by
archaeological dig site known (or recognises that he is now responsible the fleas of rats and mice, and which
thought) to contain artefacts or items for his own behaviour and decisions, quickly kills most of those who
of interest from the past which is roped and that he has the same rights as an contract the disease. Visible symptoms
off and excavated by archaeologists adult male. include blackened, swollen, pus-filled
archaeologist person who uncovers barbarian term used by the ancient lymph nodes (the bubos).
and interprets sources from the Romans to describe those who lived bureaucrat someone who attends
past, such as the remains of people, outside the borders of their empire to the administration (paperwork,
buildings and artefacts; he or she barter process by which two parties filing and record keeping) of a
investigates archaeological digs traded goods or services they agreed governing body

320
C surrounded by houses; this built centre
was, in turn, surrounded by farmland.
cosmos the universe
crucify to kill someone by nailing him
calligrapher someone trained and civil service group of people working or her to a cross or a tree. Crucifixion
skilled at writing the script of a as part of a governing body but not was a punishment commonly
particular people involved in its military operations reserved in ancient Rome for the worst
civilisation typically defined as criminals, or people who were seen
canopic jar jar used to store
a society with large-scale urban as a political threat (Jesus Christ and
body parts removed during the
settlements, with a defined system Spartacus, for instance, were crucified).
mummification process. Separate jars
stored the liver, lungs, stomach and of government, social organisation cryogenics study of what happens to
intestines. and religion, and sophisticated particular materials when exposed to
technologies extremely low temperatures. Many
catapult ancient (and later medieval)
colony outpost set up by a country, people today have their bodies placed in
weapon that worked like a giant
kingdom or empire, often for reasons cryogenic suspension after death in the
slingshot. It hurled large rocks,
of trade; sometimes colonies were set hope that a way of bringing them back
sometimes the infected bodies of
up to provide strategic security to life might be found in the future
people and animals, over the walls of a
city an army might be laying siege to. Colosseum large amphitheatre, cryptographer someone skilled in
still in existence in Rome, which decoding scripts
cauterise to seal the blood vessels and
flesh of an open wound by applying a during the Roman empire was used CT scan medical procedure whereby a
red-hot piece of metal to stage gladiator fights and to special instrument (and a computer)
torture and murder Christians for the use radiation to take many pictures of
Celt a person whose forebears were the
entertainment of the crowds cross-sections of parts of the body
very early settlers of places such as
Britain and Ireland concubine woman kept for the cultural norm practice that is very
entertainment and pleasure of a man common within a particular culture
census basically a ‘head count’ of a
(typically a ruler) who might also have culture sum total of practices and
society at a given point in time; in
one or more formal wives traditions that a community develops
ancient Rome, a census was conducted
so that the regime knew how much to conscription system whereby people over time and which are then
tax its citizens are forced to provide military service passed down (even if modified) from
for a fixed term generation to generation
century in the context of ancient
Rome, a military unit that consisted of conserve to take what action is needed custom a traditional practice of a
between 80 and 100 soldiers to preserve something from the past particular people (e.g., funerary or
for future generations; it might be marriage customs)
chancellor senior official (and restored to its original condition
sometimes a judge) of an ancient society
chemotherapy medical means of
or adapted in some way. A person
involved in this work is called a
D
treating cancer by administering conservator.
certain drugs that kill cancerous (and deity god or goddess
constitution legal document that
sometimes healthy) body cells defines how a country will be governed delta the build-up of silt at the mouth
circumcision removal of the foreskin of a river, which forms a fan-shaped
consul title of the top official in ancient
of a penis, often done for religious cluster of rivers and islands
Rome; there were two consuls, each
reasons with different responsibilities democracy political system in which
Circus Maximus large racing track people decide who will govern them,
contest to argue against (refute) the
in ancient Rome where thousands and freely express what they think
opinions of another based on new or
of spectators were entertained by about the government
additional evidence, or on a differing
watching horse-drawn chariots race interpretation of the same evidence; demotic adaptation of the original
around the circuit something that can be contested is script of ancient Egypt that is more
citizen someone who through birth said to be contestable like running writing. It was faster to
(or by meeting certain conditions) write than hieroglyphs.
continental shelf edges of a continent
is a recognised legal member of a that are exposed during a glacial and dendrochronology dating method
community covered by seas during based on counting the rings in the
Citizen’s Assembly one of a number an interglacial (when a lot of the cross-section of tree trunks
of assemblies of citizens set up in ice melts) dictator someone who rules with
ancient Rome to help govern and corvus plank-like device used on some absolute authority, without any
administer the society ancient ships. When lowered and democratic input
city-state independent settlement hooked into the deck of an enemy direct democracy form of democracy
(typical of those in ancient Greece) ship, it allowed sailors to easily board that requires the active participation
made up of an inner fortified city, the enemy ship. of all citizens

glossary 321
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, found in
almost all living things, and which
F geophysical surveyor someone who
uses particular tools and techniques
sets the unique genetic code of each to search for and locate something
fasces a symbol of strength that dates
living thing underwater or underground
back to the Etruscans of ancient
dowry contribution (goods, money, Rome. It was a bundle of sticks, Germanica large region in today’s
livestock, etc.) that the families of tied together around a central axe. central Europe that was home to many
women of many ancient cultures made Bodyguards in ancient Rome who of the barbarian tribes fought by
to the woman’s new husband when protected the rulers were said to have ancient Rome as it expanded
she married carried these. its empire
dynasty period of rule by successive Fates three female deities of ancient gaps and silences information that is
members of one extended family Greece who intervened in, and shaped, missing or is left out of evidence
people’s lives; in particular, they glacial cold period during an ice
E decided when a person would die age, when glaciers advance across
fault line crack in the Earth’s landmasses from the poles
Ebers Papyrus medical document, crust around which events such as gladiator person (usually male)
recorded on papyrus in ancient earthquakes might be more common who fought to the death in the
Egypt around 3500 years ago first person communication that relays amphitheatres of ancient Rome for
electorate division of registered voters information from the perspective of the the entertainment of the crowds. Many
electrocardiogram medical person talking or writing were prisoners; some were criminals or
procedure that examines the electrical flood plain area of flat, low ground slaves and a few chose to fight.
activity of the heart to test for any often found either side of rivers which Gregorian calendar the calendar that
abnormalities may flood when the river floods we use
emperor title of someone who rules fluorine dating method of dating griffin mythical creatures with eagle
an empire; ancient Rome and ancient remains according to the amount of wings and the body of a lion
China had emperors fluorine they contain
empire group of countries and/or areas,
probably speaking different languages
forum in the context of ancient Rome,
an open area in the centre of the
H
and having different cultures, but city where people met, debates were
Hades Greek deity of the Underworld;
which are ruled by a central power or held and markets were set up. It was
sometimes the word was also used to
leader surrounded by the city’s important
describe the Underworld, the place
epitaph inscription on a gravestone public buildings and temples. that the souls of people went when
equite name given to a man who was a fossil a once-living thing (animal or they died
merchant or businessman in ancient plant) that is so old that its remains or heir someone who will legally inherit
Rome. The equites were a wealthy impressions have hardened in rock. It the fortunes of another; often the first-
middle class; their forebears were the is said to be fossilised. born son
wealthy landowners who provided frieze decorated (painted or sculpted) Hellenistic empire empire created
the early Roman army with a cavalry. panel that ran horizontally around the
by the conquests of Alexander the
There was also a category of gladiator perimeter of many ancient temples, at
called equites. Great, King of Macedon, in the
the top of the columns
4th century BCE . The culture of ancient
eulogy speech given at someone’s fresco art work painted on wet plaster; Greece was spread so extensively
funeral by someone who knew the the colours merge with the plaster as throughout the empire that it is
dead person well it dries sometimes described as the Hellenistic
eunuch a boy or man whose testicles period.
have been deliberately removed
G helot slaves of the ancient Spartans;
evidence information provided they were the former peoples of
by a source that supports a given Gaul area of western Europe that Messenia, whom Sparta put down and
interpretation, or provides support for formerly included today’s France, enslaved when they revolted against
possible answers to pre-framed inquiry Luxembourg and Belgium Spartan rule.
questions
genetic describes a living thing’s heritage sum total of what we have
excavation area dug up by people such unique genes, formed from strands of inherited from past generations that
as archaeologists to look for sources DNA; a person who studies genetics is we think is worth preserving, either
of evidence of the past called a geneticist culturally or as a natural feature. Some
geological time period defined very important remains are included
period in the timescale of the Earth. on a World Heritage List.

322
hierarchy way of organising so that Isis important female deity in ancient litter lightweight box, hung on poles,
items (or people) are arranged from Egypt and the mother of the god Horus in which members of important
top down in order of importance or families in ancient China travelled.
significance; such an organisation is
said to be hierarchical
J They were carried by servants.
loincloth type of clothing worn by
hieratic less complicated script than jade hard, semi-precious stone often men in many ancient cultures. It was
the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt, green in colour a length of cloth wrapped around the
though not as easy to write as the hips and between the legs.
Julian calendar calendar introduced
demotic script lyre ancient stringed musical
by the Roman consul Julius Caesar.
hieroglyph one of the many picture- Compared with a solar year, it gained instrument, a bit like a small harp
like signs used in the original form of about three days every 400 years.
writing of the ancient Egyptians The Gregorian calendar was adjusted M
Homo sapiens Latin for ‘knowing to take account of this.
man’; the species we are members of mace weapon with a heavy block
hoplite Greek warrior K on the end of a handle; the block
was often studded with spikes or
horoscope chart that uses the position
protruding bumps
of heavenly bodies (planets and stars), khepresh head-hugging blue crown
to foretell the future for individual (often studded with semi-precious Macedon region to the north of the
stones to create a harder surface) ancient Greece mainland which today
people
that was often worn by the Egyptian includes parts of modern Greece,
Horus very important deity in ancient Bulgaria, Serbia, the Republic of
pharaoh when in battle
Egypt, the god of the sky, who was Macedonia and Kosovo.
shown with the head of a falcon kingdom area or people ruled by a king
Mandarin official in ancient China
hunter-gatherer describes a society of
people who survive solely by hunting L maniple strategically organised
fighting unit of the army of ancient
and gathering food and water. Such
Rome, made up of about 60 soldiers
a people move on if food and water Latins ancient people living in the
supplies in one area dry up. western, central region of today’s marble relief piece of marble carved
Italian peninsula so that the design stands out from the
hypothesis considered opinion about
background
something for which there are not as laurel type of bush whose leaves were
yet any firm answers. A hypothesis is woven into crowns for winners of Mecca city in Saudi Arabia which is the
based on one’s analysis of available events in the ancient Olympic Games holiest city in the world for followers
evidence. One who expresses such an of Islam
legacy something (e.g., a tradition,
opinion is said to hypothesise. The practice, belief) inherited from forebears Medes ancient people who lived in a
plural of hypothesis is hypotheses. region within today’s Iran
Legalism governing system favoured
by China’s first emperor, Shi Huangdi, meditate to focus deeply on
I which held that people needed strict something, removing all other
thoughts from one’s mind. A person
laws and a firm leader to function as
a society. People were not encouraged who is meditating may do so for
ice age one of a number of extended
to think for themselves and they had religious reasons or to relax.
periods in the Earth’s past when large
sections of the planet were covered to strictly obey the commands of the mercenary soldier who is paid to fight
in ice. Ice ages are made up of colder emperor. meridian energy pathways in the
periods (glacials) and warmer periods legend often mythical tale of someone body which those who practise
in between (interglacials) or something in a people’s ancient past acupuncture use to locate the places
incense something burned often as part that may or may not have begun as a where they insert needles
of religious ceremonies that gives off a true story about a real person (see myth) Mesopotamia Greek for ‘between
pleasant smell legion military unit in the army rivers’; the fertile land lying between
infrastructure network of devices, of ancient Rome made up of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
systems and supplies needed to sustain 60 centuries. Soldiers in a legion were microbiology study of micro-organisms
an operation or a community. For called legionaries. (living things that are so small they can
example, the infrastructure of a city Levant name used to describe an area only be seen under a microscope)
includes its roads, bridges and water around the eastern Mediterranean midden a rubbish heap (food scraps,
supply. Sea that extended from today’s Sinai broken pottery, shells, etc.) found near
Inundation the time each year in Peninsula, up through modern ancient communities; archaeologists
ancient Egypt when the Nile River countries such as Israel, Syria and use these to find out more about the
flooded Lebanon, through to southern Turkey people of those communities

glossary 323
Mithras Persian deity believed to gatherer societies being increasingly patrician educated and usually
protect truth and oversee the delivery replaced by agricultural societies. influential male member of one of
of justice Nirvana state that Buddhists believe ancient Rome’s aristocratic families,
monarchy type of government ruled people reach after undergoing much usually wealthy landowners
by a monarch (king or queen) suffering, where there are no more bad Pax Romana Latin for ‘Roman peace’;
monsoon a weather pattern that sees a things (e.g., pain, violence) long peaceful period of the ancient
change in wind direction; often this nomad person who lives in no fixed Roman empire (between about 27 BCE
brings very heavy rain to areas affected place for any length of time; people and 80 CE)
morals the value system of a people— who are nomads are said to be nomadic pectoral relating to the chest of the
what it regards as right and wrong; nunnery place where nuns live body; a piece of jewellery for the chest
something that follows that value area in ancient Egypt
system is said to be moral O pediment triangular shape at the front
moxibustion traditional Chinese of many ancient temples, sitting above
medicine technique which involves obelisk tall four-sided stone, carved the columns and under the roof line.
burning tiny pieces of the mugwort to taper up to a central point. Often It was often richly and colourfully
plant close to places on the body the sides are decorated with carved decorated with stone reliefs.
where acupuncturists insert their figures and writing. pentathlon event of the ancient
needles. It is done in such a way that it oligarchy type of government where a Olympic Games comprising wrestling,
does not burn the skin. small group of people ruled javelin-tossing, discus-throwing,
mugwort type of plant used since Olympians Greek family of deities jumping and running
ancient times for medical purposes who lived on Mt Olympus periods of time amounts of time
mummy in ancient Egypt, a body optically stimulated of some defined length or covering
prepared for burial or entombment (see luminescence dating method used a defined time in history (e.g., ‘the
mummification) to work out when certain minerals in ancient period’)
mummification process of preserving a rock sample were last exposed to the perspective point of view about an
a dead body by preventing its natural light of day event or issue. One’s perspective
decay. In ancient Egypt a body was oracle reply of a deity to a question put may be influenced by what one
mummified by removing internal to it by a human; the ancient Greeks knows, one’s culture or beliefs, one’s
organs (except the heart) and believed certain women, also called particular bias, and one’s agenda (or
completely drying out the remaining oracles, were the means by which this stated reason) for holding that view.
body tissue. The mummy was then advice was given; they lived in temples Phaistos Disc round engraved disk of
buried or placed in a tomb. oral culture a culture with no form fired clay found in the Phaistos Palace
mythology set of beliefs held by of writing in which all information is on Crete. It was made about 3700 years
a particular people to help explain passed on through speech or song ago, probably by the ancient people we
things that were not understood (e.g., call the Minoans.
strange natural events). These may
include individual stories called myths.
P phalanx tight battle formation used
by the ancient Greeks whereby
myth a traditional story, usually pagan term commonly used by those soldiers would pack together, shields
involving supernatural characters who hold a particular belief for those overlapping. Spears in the front row
(see legend) who do not share that belief were held forward; those in the rows
palaeontologist someone who studies behind were held higher.
N fossils pharaoh leader of the ancient
pankration dangerous fighting event Egyptians, whom they believed to be a
Neolithic culture ancient culture ,which had virtually no rules, at the god. The pharaoh had absolute power
that used agriculture and had fixed ancient Olympic Games and total control.
settlements. The change in human
papyrus a type of riverside plant and philosophy study of the deep and
behaviour—from being hunters
the form of paper that the ancient meaningful things in life, such as
and gatherers to living in fixed
Egyptians made from its crushed pulp truth. Philosophers were regarded as
settlements and growing crops and
Parthia ancient region in the north- great thinkers and typically wise.
herding animals—marked such a
major change that it is often called east of today’s Iran, which was once a plague disease, such as the bubonic
the Neolithic Revolution. part of the Persian empire plague, that spreads rapidly and
Neolithic Revolution a marked shift paterfamilias Latin for ‘father of usually causes widespread death
in human behaviour towards the end the family’; male head of a family in plebeian one of the large majority of
of the last glacial that saw hunter- ancient Rome poorer people in ancient Rome

324
‘pointing the bone’ traditional reincarnation the process of being the region we now call the Middle East.
practice of the Indigenous people of born again; to live life again in It included the Phoenicians, Akkadians,
Australia. A carved kangaroo bone, another body (human or animal) Hebrews, Canaanites and Arabs.
containing a strand of the victim’s representative democracy form of Senate body with ruling power during
hair, is pointed at the victim. Someone democracy where people elect someone ancient Rome’s history; it was made up
aware that this has happened would to represent their views and political of senators. It wielded a lot of power
typically believe they were cursed and goals (i.e., speak and act on their behalf) during the republic; it continued to
therefore would die. Some did. in the government of the day function during the empire, though
political party group formed by republic form of government where its power was greatly reduced.
people who share common political the power is held by the people or by shaman someone who is believed to
goals and who work to ensure these their elected representatives be able to communicate between our
can be achieved through the available
resin sticky sap-like substance produced world and the spiritual realm
systems of government
by some trees and plants shrine special place or built structure
porcelain refined type of china, made
Rostra large platform in the forum where deities are honoured and/or
from fired clay of the ancient city of Rome where worshipped
praetor ancient Roman official whose speakers addressed the crowds
siege warfare battles conducted by
responsibilities included running Rubicon River river on Italy’s north-
the law courts, leading armies and laying siege to a town or city; the
east coastline. In ancient times, it was settlement would be surrounded and
governing provinces of Rome a boundary between the territory of cut off from outside sources of food
Praetorian Guard elite group of ancient Rome and that of Celtic people and water. The intention was to starve
Roman soldiers typically used by living to the north of it. the people into surrendering.
emperors as their bodyguard
Silk Road trade route stretching west
prehistory time in the past before S from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
written records were kept
It was the main means by which silk
primary source a source that existed sacrifice to ritually kill an animal or was introduced to the West.
or was made at the time in the past person to please a deity or to prevent
sistrum metal musical instrument
being studied its anger
in ancient Egypt that rattled when
propaganda method of spreading sarcophagus outer case (usually stone)
shaken (plural: sistra)
ideas or statements designed to of the nest of coffins containing the
strengthen a particular point of view dead body of a person of importance society community of people living in
and weaken an opposing point of view a particular area who have a shared
scarab an amulet of ancient Egypt
culture, customs and laws
provenance history of where an shaped to resemble the scarab beetle
artefact came from (where it was made sonar technologist someone who uses
scribe highly educated person in
or created, when, and who made it) instruments that emit sound waves
ancient Egypt who was able to read
and write so as to detect certain things (e.g., a
pyramid geometrical shape; triangular
shipwreck on a sea floor)
sides slope up to a single point from a Sea Peoples mysterious group (possibly
square base a mix of cultures) who raided and source anything that allows us to better
attacked many Mediterranean understand the past; sources can be

R communities towards the latter part of

the 2nd millennium BCE
primary sources (made or existing at
the time being studied) or secondary
sources (created or existing after the
Ra sun god of the Egyptians secondary source a source created
time being studied)
after the time being studied
radioactive property that material has
seer person believed by many ancient standard bearer soldier in many
when the nuclei (or central part) of
cultures to ‘read’ the future by observing ancient armies chosen to carry the
the atoms that make it up is unstable.
particular things (such as the intestines standard into battle. (In ancient times,
The nuclei release particles which are
of an animal killed as a sacrifice) a standard had a similar symbolic
radioactive; they do so at a known rate.
significance to today’s flag.)
radiocarbon dating way of assessing seismograph instrument that
measures the occurrence and intensity standing army force of soldiers
the age of something once alive by
of an earthquake constantly on alert and ready to fight
measuring the amount of radioactive
carbon in its remains. Radioactive semi-nomadic describes a people who stele stone erected to mark the spot
carbon is known to break down in a tend to be nomadic, but occasionally where someone was buried
set way over time. settle for periods of time in the one Stone Age people hunters and
Ramadan ninth month of the Islamic place gatherers who lived before the time
calendar and a time when believers Semitic describes a member of a of written records in caves and forests,
fast every day from dawn until sunset number of ancient peoples who lived in and made tools and weapons of stone

glossary 325
stone relief carving cut into the flat shaped like a striking cobra head. It
surface of a piece of stone so that the symbolised the pharaoh’s power and
design stood up from the carved-out right to rule.
background urban built up, developed human
stonemason an artisan who works settlement. A society living in a
skilfully with stone scattering of such settlements is
stratigraphy dating method that described as urbanised.
determined the approximate (or likely)
age of remains of the past according to V
the strata (or layer) or earth or rock in
which they were found Valley of the Kings deep, rocky
valley close to the Nile where many
Y Egyptian pharaohs were buried once
pyramid robbers started becoming
a problem
taboo something that a society forbids
value quality of character that a society
tectonic plate one of many immense,
or community regards highly. For
slowly moving pieces that make up the
example, Australians traditionally
Earth’s crust and carry the continents
value mateship. A value for another
and oceans
society might be honour.
testudo formation created by Roman
Via Appia road built by the ancient
soldiers in a battle whereby they
Romans in the late 4th century BCE .
would overlap their shields to form a
It was some 200 kilometres long and
protective shell
connected the city of Rome to Capua
thermoluminescence dating dating in the east. It became one of the most
method that involves heating an important roads of the Roman empire.
object to produce a light that helps
vizier chief minister (and chief judge)
experts then measure how much
of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt
radiation the object stores
timeline a diagram showing key events
over a range of time W
toga garment worn by male citizens of
warlord someone who both rules
ancient Rome
a society and heads up its military
trireme type of ancient ship, operations
commonly used by the ancient Greeks,
Western civilisation the civilisation
with three layers of oarsmen sitting
of Europe, which in turn evolved from
along each side, one layer above the
earlier civilisations of ancient Greece
other
and Rome. Other parts of the world
triumvirate a group of three people (including Australia) sharing the same
who work for a single purpose, usually heritage are also said to be Western
a political outcome countries.
typhoon another name for a tropical World Heritage Site a natural or
cyclone man-made site, structure or natural
feature deemed to be of international
U importance and worthy of special
protection
Underworld region to which some
ancient cultures (e.g., ancient Greeks)
believed souls went to when they died
Z
uraeus type of headband (usually ziggurat huge stepped temples built
gold) worn as part of the headdress in ancient Mesopotamia that were
of a pharaoh of ancient Egypt. It was temples to the deities of the people

326
index
A art see cave painting; mosaics; murals;
painting
chariots
in Battle of Kadesh 147–148
afterlife
Art of War, The, Sun Tzu 297 in Egypt 132–133
beliefs in 150, 194–195
Asian region China
preparation for 138–139
empires and civilisations 268 borders 275
agricultural settlements, early 27
extent of 264–265 calligraphy 21
Alexander the Great
key events in 266–267
conflict with Greece 148, 203 canals in 310
timeline for events 94–95
conflict in Persia 97 cast iron in 311
Athens
empire of 205 effect of physical features 274–275
plague in 202
alphabets 21 feng shui 294
politics in 167–168
Americas, migrations into 14 foot binding 284
Australia
amphoras 187, 257 horoscopes 274
artefacts of Indigenous people 82
ancient Asian region 264–265 inventions and discoveries 308–311
cave paintings in 48, 58–59
ancient societies kung fu 295
indigenous people of 56
emergence 16–21 oracle bones 266–267, 278
migrations into 14
evidence of 23–24 physical map 276
sources of early history 82–83
growth of farming 28 printing in 309
key features 36–37
law 34 B rival kingdoms during Zhou dynasty
315
location 26–27 Bacon, Sir Francis, and world-changing
inventions 308–309 silk 310, 314
power sharing 29–30
belief systems social hierarchy in 281, 286
religions 32–33
ancient influences on 38–39 suppression of Confucianism 67
slaves 30
in China 290–291 tea drinking 294
social classes 28–29
in Rome 249 timeline of events 273
trade and economies 31
Bradshaw/Gwion Gwion cave paintings zodiac 294
ancient world timeline 5
58–59 Chinese dynasties
archaeological excavations, stratigraphy
Bronze Age societies 27 artefacts 279
76, 85
bronze pots in China 4–5 Han 279, 280, 296, 299
archeological excavations 51
Shang dynasty food container 279 Qin 279–283
Mungo Man 9
Xia dynasty wine beaker 287
Pompeii 214 Shang 279, 287
terracotta army 270–271, 297, 298, Zhou dynasty urn 272
territorial borders 275
304–305 Zhou dynasty wine vessel 279
Xia 287
archeologists, role of 51–52 burial
Zhou 279, 315
Archimedes 174 in China 303
Chinese emperors
architecture in Egypt 137
Ngai 280
in Greece 184–185 in Rome 248–250
Shi Huangdi 282–283, 284
Greek influence on others 43
armies C Wu Ti 315
Wu Zhao 285
Chinese 296 Carthaginian Empire 97
cause and effect, key concepts 54 Chinese medicine 44
Egyptian 133–134
Greece and Sparta 188–193 cave paintings acupuncture 318
Roman 232–237 Ajanta 269 citizenship 167, 169
armour Australia 48, 58 in Rome 218–221
Chinese 297 Brazil 17, 49 civilisations
Egyptian 135 China 312 in Asian region 268
Hoplite 189 India 269 earliest 27
Roman legionary 233 Lascaux 13 class see social classes
on terracotta warriors 297 ceremonies in emerging societies 18–19 Cleopatra 101, 227

index 327
climate
changes in 7
E emperors
in China 280, 281
early humans, movement of 10–11, 14
of China 275, 277 role in Rome 224–225
east Asia, physical map of 276
effect on Egyptian people 107–110 empires
economies, rise of 31
clothing in Asian region 268
education
Egyptian 110 extent of at peaks 264–265
in Egypt 129
Greek 181, 182 rise and fall of 97
in Greece 180
Roman 239 enquiry, identifying questions for 22
in Rome 238
Clovis people 14 everyday life
Egypt
Colossus of Rhodes 68–69 China 293–295
Apis bull 127
conflict Egypt 128–129
boat from Great Pyramid 143
in China 315 Greece 180–181
Book of the Dead 137
effects on Rome 258–261 Rome 238–244
childbirth 129
impact on Greece 200–205 evidence gathering 23, 50
communications 131
Confucianism 67, 292 deities 126–127
conservation 86–91 early civilization in 96 F
contestability, key concepts 58–59 eye infections 108 fairytales 41
continental drift 7 grave robbing 54 family structure
continuity and change, key concepts 55 Great Pyramid at Giza 140–141 in China 293
cosmetics living forever 150–151 in Rome 238
in Egypt 128 magic and spells 130 farming, growth and spread 28–29
in Greece 181 military rule in 133 fashions see clothing
Cro-Magnon people 12–13 Nefertari 110 Fertile Crescent 28
cryogenics 151 Nefertiti 124 fire, use by Indigenous Australians 83
cultural practices, in early societies 17–19 Nile River 102–106 fluorine dating 76
currency personal hygiene 110, 128 food
jade discs from China 287 physical features affecting 102–113 in Australia 83
Roman coin 55 professional mourners 124 in China 293
Cyclades culture 154, 160 pyramids 140–141 in Greece 183
rulers 114–119 fossil pollen analysis 75
D and Sahara desert 106–107 frescoes
daily life see everyday life seasons 105 mother and baby in Pompeii 222
dating methods 76–78 slaves 122 Terentius Nero and wife 223
death and funerals social hierarchy 120–121 funeral practices
China 302–303 Sphinx 80 China 302–303
Egypt 136–139 sun god worship 67 Egypt 136–139
Greece 184, 194–195 territorial expansion 146 emerging societies 19
Rome 248–251 timeline for 100–101 Greece 184
deities trade routes 145 Rome 250–251
Egyptian 126–127 treatment of enemies 135
Greek 176–177 women 123–124 G
Roman 230–231 Egyptian pharaohs geological eras 7
dendrochronology 77 Akhenaten 67 glacial periods 7
desert animals, effect on Egyptian beliefs Amenhotep III 115 gladiators 210–211, 221
107 Cheops (Khufu) 143 games 244
deserts of north Africa 106–109 dynasties 115 types of 245
Diamond Sutra (book) 308 Hapshepsut 101, 116 glassware, Roman 256
DNA analysis 78 Ramses II 95, 116, 147 gods see deities
Dou Wan roles and responsibilities 114–115, 121 Great Wall of China 267, 273, 274
in jade burial suit 302 Seti I 146 construction of 300–301
tomb of 303 symbols of power 117 Greece
doughnut thinking 90 Thutmose III 144 amphitheatres 46–47
Tutankhamen 118–119, 125 auditoria 186
empathy, key concepts 57 city-states 157–159

328
colonies and areas of influence 157 Hyksos in Egypt 132 Mediterranean Sea
column styles 185 ancient world around 92–93, 111
drama 40, 186 I geographical features of 213–215
effect of conflict on 200–205 ice core analysis 75 sea transport around 213
effect of trade on 198–199 The Iliad 190–191, 206 metal goods and technologies 22, 31
eruption of Mt. Thera 165 Indigenous Australians Minoan civilisation 160–161, 165
heroes 188 artefacts of 82 Mitanni kingdom 27
hetairai 171 cave paintings by 48, 58–59 monumental structures 18
imports and exports 199 Carnac 19
family activities 56
influence on architecture of others 43 monuments
making fire 83
inventors 174
migrations of 14 Antonine column with carvings 253
oracles 177
sources of early history 82–83 Carnac standing stones 19
Panathenaea festival 184
Indus Valley society 23 Djoser pyramid 100
Peloponnesian peninsula 156–157
initiation under Indigenous law 34 graves along Via Appia 249
Peloponnesian war 202–203
Injalak Hill cave paintings 48 the Sphinx 80
philosophers 174
interglacial periods 7 Trajan’s column 248
physical features affecting settlement
157, 160 mosaics
ruins of Selinus 152–153 J Battle of Issus 97
scholars 174 Japan, influence of Chinese beliefs gladiators fighting 211
social groups 169–172, 174 on 39 Roman slave 221
stele 195 jewellery multiple intelligences 292
thinkers, writers and artists 174 from 6th century BCE 31 mummification
timeline for 154–155 from Pompeii 239 body from pit burial 136
triremes 188 pectoral of Tutankhamen 125 cat 127
young people 170 Roman 239 central Asian body 77
gunpowder, invention of 309 Sumerian 24 in Egypt 137, 138–139
Lindow Man 66
H L mummy showing parts of person 136
Hadrian’s wall 5 law Ötzi the iceman 52
Hannibal and Second Punic War 258– development of 34 Ramses II 116
260 Roman 44 Tollund Man 79
Hellenistic Empire 97 legends 41 Tutankhamen 118
Henettaway, painted coffin of 17 Lindow Man, sources for 66 Xin Zhui 290, 303
heritage, preservation of 87–91
literature, ancient influences on 41–42 Mungo Man 9
hieroglyphs 20–21
murals
historical investigations
conducting 60–61
M in Babylon 88
Macedonian conflict with Greece 203 battle with Nubians 132
methods and people 48–53
magnetic compass, invention 309 carroballista 234
sequencing events and periods 71
marriage Chinese musicians 281
sources used in 64–85
in Egypt 129 in Egyptian tombs 108, 123, 128, 145
historical record, gaps and silences in 67
history, language of 35 in Greece 170, 180 gods of Egypt 126
Hittite empire 27 in Rome 238 Grecian woman 170
Homo erectus and Homo habilis skulls 74 Mayan empire heart weighing ritual 137
Homo sapiens extent of 27 in Menna’s tomb 89
first appearance 6, 8 glyphs 21 Nefertari 110
migration routes 10–11 rituals 18 Rameses II on tomb wall 149
skull 74 sundial 70 Sumerian 16
Horus and healing 44 medicine music and dance
housing in Egypt 130 by Indigenous Australians 5
in Egypt 107–109, 128 past legacies in 44 in Egypt 129
in Greece 172 Traditional Chinese 318–319 Mycenaean civilisation 162–163
Roman villas 214, 240–241 Mediterranean region, ancient peoples myths 41
hunting by Indigenous Australians 83 of 96–97

index 329
N public entertainment
legacies of the past in today’s 40–42
standard bearers 235
testudo 233
navies
in Rome 244–247 Roman emperors
in Egypt 134
Punic Wars 258–259 Augustus 225
in Greece 188
Caligula 225
Neanderthal people 12
R Constantine 229
radiocarbon dating 77 Marcus Aurelius 86, 225, 253
O relief carvings Nero 55, 225
The Odyssey 206 at Abu Simbel temple 147 Roman Empire 97, 224, 227
Olmec people 27, 37 at Tanis in Egypt 132 Roman rulers, Julius Caesar 226–227
Olympic Games boatmen on Rhône river 216 Rome
first recorded 154 Buddha 267 attitudes to the dead 249
as legacy of ancient past 40 of Egyptian scribes 30 bread and circuses 262–263
site of 178–179 foot washing at wedding 180 Charon the ferryman 248
oral cultures 17 from Palette of Narmer 135 citizens’ rights 219
oral history 78 Greek stele 195 cremation in 250
oral presentation 81 King Sargon 95 effect of migration 255
Ötzi the Iceman 52 Ramses II 95 effect of physical features 212–217
’out of Africa’ theory Roman domestic slaves 221 Etruscan contribution to 255
explanation and activities 15 Roman merchants 31 expansion over time 261
first migrants 8 Roman wedding 238
extent of republic 227
introduction 6 saleswoman in Ostia 257
festivals 251
migration routes 10–11, 14 on Temple of Karnak 146
government officials 219
Mungo Man inconsistency 9 in tomb at Saqqara 122
graves 249
religions
Greek equivalents of deities 231
P Buddhism 33, 291
hygiene 239, 242–243
paintings Christianity 32–33
influence of Greek beliefs on 39, 248
coffin of Henettaway 17 development of 32
legacies of 43–44
Hinduism 32
on Greek pottery 171, 180, 183 lost legion in China 85
Islam 33
Indian 269 military service 232
Judaism 32
merchants on Silk Road 317 Mt. Vesuvius eruption 214–215
Lao-Tzu and Taoism 291
Shi Huangding suppressing Praetorian Guard 208–209
priestesses in 121, 171
Confucianism 67 public baths 241–243
Shinto 33
two Chinese merchants 288–289 religious beliefs and practices 230–231
Taoism 33, 291
Persian Empire 97 Scipio 258–260
religious belief
perspectives, key concepts 56 Senate 218–219
in China 290–292
Philip II of Macedon 72 timeline of 210–211
in Egypt 126–127
Piltdown man 76 villas in 214, 242–243
in Greece 176–177, 184, 188
political systems western and eastern empires 224
and law codes 34
ancient influences on 39 women in 222–223
in Rome 230–231
in Greece 166–168
religious beliefs, sacred sites 18
Polynesia, migrations into 14
Pompeii, destruction of 214–215
rituals S
in emerging societies 18–19 scientific techniques of
pottery Incan 25 investigation 75–78
ancient 17 mummification 138–139 secondary sources 65, 66
in China 273 sati 57 seismograph, invention of 310
Grecian 40, 120, 155, 180, 187, 199 roads sequencing historic events
Jamon urn 266 Roman technology 43, 45 and periods 72
Minoan urn 161 in Roman trade 257 Serpent Mound 52
porcelain china 273 Roman army Shi Huangdi 282–284
power sharing 29 and fort building 236–237 suppresses Confucianism 67
primary sources 65, 66 organisation of 233 terracotta army of 270–271, 297, 298,
provenance 22 siege warfare 234 304–305

330
siege engines
Greek 192
T warfare in Egypt 132–135
Battle of Kadesh 147–148
temples
Roman 234 campaigns of Ramses II 147
Greek 177
Silk Road 312–313 campaigns of Seti I 146
mortuary 101, 134
slaves
Parthenon 177, 184–185 warfare in Greece 188–193
in ancient societies 30
ruins at Selinus 152–153 battle of Marathon 200
in China 30
terracotta army of Shi Huangdi 270–271, battle of Thermopylae 201
in Egypt 121, 122
279, 297, 298
in Greece 169 with Macedonia 203
panoramic view 304–305
in Rome 221 Mycenaean helmet 162
thermoluminescence dating 77
social classes with Persia 200–201
time, representation and measures of 70
development of 28–30 phalanx 192, 197
timelines
Roman 219–221 siege of Troy 189–191
for Asian region 94–95, 266–267
social groups
for China 272–273 with Sparta 202–203
Chinese 281, 286
for Egypt 100–101 warfare in Rome 232–237
Egyptian 120–121
for Greece 154–155 Battle of Zama 260
Greek 169–172, 174
for Rome 210–211 Punic Wars 258–259
sources
steps in drawing 71 strategies for 260
origin and purpose of 65
Tollund Man 79
thinking about 68–69 weapons
tombs
usefulness of 72 Clovis spear heads 14
in Egypt 136
Sparta Egyptian 135
Gaius Cestius 220
helots 192 Han dynasty bronze spearhead 279
Liu Sheng 303
hoplites 188, 189
Menna’s 89 Han dynasty crossbow 298–299
life in 193
robbing in Egypt 54 Shang dynasty chariot 296
military structure 192
perioeci people 193 Xin Zhui 303 weddings see marriage
politics 167–168 Torres Strait Islands women
women 171 connection of people to sea 87 in China 284–285
stone reliefs see relief carvings personal adornment 64 in Egypt 123–124
structures trade
in Greece 170–173
at Mohenjo-Daro 23 in early societies 31
in Rome 222–223
Colosseum 244, 246–247 effects on China 312–314
writers
Egyptian housing 107–109 effects on Egypt 144–145
effects on Greece 198–199 Herodotus 50
Ishtar Gate, Babylon 88
effects on Rome 256, 257 Homer 174, 206
Knossus palace 160
in Mesopotamia 26 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Sappho 173
mia-miyas 83 318–319 writing 20–21
Parthenon 177, 184–185 cuneiform 20
pyramids 140–141 V Linear B tablet 162
Roman aqueducts 211 values Rosetta Stone 131
Roman fort 236–237 of Chinese 290–292
Roman public bath 242–243
ruins at Gaochang 313
of Romans 231
X
Xerxes II and battle of Thermopylae 200
Shinto shrine 33 W
step pyramid in Saqqara 100–101 wall paintings see frescoes; mosaics;
storehouse in Greece 161 murals Z
in Sumer 24 warfare in China 296–301 Zhang Heng, seismograph of 310
Sumer 16, 20, 24, 96 battle tactics 297 ziggurats 26, 94, 96

index 331
acknowledgements
The author and publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.

AAP, Sources 1.7, 2.58 /AP/Steven Senne, Source 3.78 /Wildlight/The NASA, Source 3.7 /National Geographic Society, Sources 1.35, 1.36,
Right Image, Source 2.70; akg-images, Sources 1.44, 1.45, 1.9, 4.19, 3.35, 3.67, 4.33, 4.56, 4.62, A3, pp. 98-99 /Neal Preston, Source 4.42 /
4.65, 5.18, 5.73, 5.78, 6.10, 6.43 /Bible Land Pictures, Source 3.70 / Oliver Strewe, Source 2.26 /Patrick Ward, p. 5 bottom /PoodlesRock,
De Agostini Picture Library, Source 1.13 /Erich Lessing, Sources Source 4.35 /Randy Faris, Source 2.55 /Richard A. Cooke, Source 2.8 /
1.30, 1.50, 4.9 top, 4.14, 5.34, 6.19 /Herve Champollion, pp. 152- Richard Baker/In Pictures, Source 4.3 /Roger Wood, Source 3.23, 4.11,
153 /Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Source 2.5 /Peter Connolly, p. 94 top right /Royal Ontario Museum, Source 6.55 /Sandro Vannini,
Sources 4.7, 4.15, 4.26, 4.49, 4.61, 4.67, 5.6 /Herve Chmpollion, Source 1.68 , 3.19, 3.22, 3.36, 3.45 /Stapleton Collection, Source 4.48
Source 4.13 /Electa, Source 1.41 /Erich Lessing, Sources 1.22, 2.31, bottom left /Stephanie Pilick/epa, Source 3.34 /The Gallery Collection,
3.46, 3.50, 3.66, 4.24 /Pietro Baguzzi, Source 4.34 /Werner Forman, Source 2.69 /Tom Nebbia, Source 6.53 /Tony Craddock, Source 3.2
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bottom right; AP Photo/Hermann J. Knippertz, Source 5.91 /David Xiaoyang Liu, Source 6.38; DK Images/Richard Bonson, Sources 2.34,
Graham, Source 5.89; Archives Fundação Museu do Homen, Brazil, 2.38, 3.12, 3.62, 3.63, 3.64, 4.06, 4.37, 4.47, 5.54, 5.58, 5.60, 5.63, 6.46,
Source 2.6; Archives Fundação Museu do Homen, Brazil, Sources 6.51, 6.60; Getty, Sources 3.31, 5.86, p. 211 top left /Clive Streeter,
1.19, 2.3; The Art Archive, Sources 5.10, 5.21, 5.36, 5.52, 6.59 / Source 4.30 /De Agostini Picture Library, Sources 4.60, 3.14, 3.72, 4.38,
Archaeological Museum Ostia/Dagli Orti, Source 5.79 /Dagli Orti, 4.39, 4.9 bottom /Matt King, Source 4.21 /Mike Copeland, Source 1.2
Sources 5.11, 5.12 /Egyptian Museum Cairo/Collection Dagli Orti, /National Geographic, Sources 3.47, 4.17 /National Geographic/Peter
Source 3.75 /Gianni Dagli Orti, Source 1.53 Musée Guimet Paris/Dagli V. Bianchi, Source 1.10 /Neil Setchfield, Source 2.39 /Saeed Khan/
Orti, p. 266 (Jamon pottery) /Topkapi Museum Istanbul/Gianni Dagli AFP, Source 4.18; Glenrowan Tourist Centre, Source 2.71; Nuka
Orti, Source 6.24; Auscape/Red Morrison, Source 2.42; Auscape/ Godfredsen, Source 1.17; Ho New/Reuters, Source 5.80; Hunan
Steven David Miller, Source 2.19; Austral/World History Archive/
Provincial Museum, China, Source 6.25; Jupiter Images, Source 2.54;
TopFoto, Source 6.22; Bridgeman Art Library, Sources 2.60, 5.55 /
Jupiter Images, Source 3.28; Kobal Collection, Source 6.38 /
Alinari, Source 4.71 /Herbert M Herget, Source 3.20 /Ken Welsh,
Dreamworks/Universal/ Buitendijk, JAAP, Source 5.46 /Warner Bros,
Source 3.53; British Museum, Sources 1.18, 1,57, 2.29, 3.40, 3.61, 3.38,
Sources 3.77, 4.52 /Warner Bros/Buitendijk, JAAP, Source 4.69 /Warner
3.60, 3.59, 3.69, 4.68, 6.8 (bronze food container), 4.63, p. ix bottom;
Bros/Murray Close, Source 1.59 /The Picture Desk, Source 4.73;
Marie Burgos, Source 6.34 Corbis Images, Sources 1.16, 1.26, 1.27,
National Museum of Australia, Sources 2.65, 2.57; Natural
1.28, 1.29, 1.33, 1.42, 1.43, 1.47, 1.46, 1.48, 1.49, 1.51, 1.56, 1.58, 1.60,
History museum, London, Sources 1.12, 1.15, p. vi bottom; Oxford
1.63, 1.64, 2.11, 2.13, 2.14, 2.56, 2.66, 2.67, 2.61, 2.68, 4.72, 5.2, 5.4,
University Press UK/Stephen Biesty, from Egypt in Spectacular
5.7, 5.8, 5.16, 5.26, 5.30, 5.31, 5.33, 5.39, 5.45, 5.49, 5.56, 5.66, 5.67,
cross-section published by OUP UK, 2005, Source 3.5; Laurence
5.68, 5.69, 5.72, 5.90, 6.4, 6.8 (wine vessel & terracotta horses), 6.17,
Peguy, Source 2.2; photolibrary, Source 6.16, 6.36, pp. 211 bottom
6.21, 6.26, 6.29, 6.37, 6.41, 6.44, 6.49, 6.57, 6.61, 6.62, 6.63, 6.66,
left, 264 top & bottom left, 267, 270-271 /Alamy, Sources 5.20, 5.51,
6.67, 6.72, 6.73, 6.74, pp. iii, 94 (pyramid & temple), 94 (harpist), 95,
5.84, 6.12 /Alamy/© Moviestore collection Ltd, Source 1.62 /Alamy/©
210 (Romulus & Remus), 211 (gladiators), 267 (archer), 272 (bronze
urn), 273, 279 (spearhead), 317 (fast food), 317 (basketball) /Alfredo The Art Archive, Source 5.22 /Alamy/© The Art Gallery Collection,
Dagli Orti, Sources 3.57, 3.43 /Amar Grover, Sources 2.1 /arabianEye, Source 5.81 /Alamy/Art Archive, Source 6.42, p. 208-209 /Alamy/
pp. 46-47 /Araldo de Luca, Sources 4.48 bottom right, A5 /Archivo Robert Fried, Source 1.21 /Bridgeman, Sources 2.12, 5.32, 5.38, 6.15,
Iconografico, Source 5.65 /Asian Art & Archaeology, Source 6.47 / 6.56, 6.79, p. 211 bottom right /Bridgeman/© Look and Learn, Sources
Atlantide Phototravel, Source 4.29 /Bettmann, Sources 4.23, 4.48 / 5.74, 6.30 /Bridgeman/Archives Charmet, Source 6.9 /Bridgeman/
Bob Gibbons, Source 4.2 /Bob Krist, pp. 2-3 /Bruno Cossa/SOPA, British Museum, Sources 3.33, 3.49 /Bridgeman/Louvre, Paris, France,
Source 4.45 /Charles & Josette Lenars, Source 3.11 /Christie’s Images, Source 3.37 /Bridgeman/Palazzo Madama, Rome, Italy/Ancient Art and
pp. 154 bottom left, 155 top, 187 top left /Danny Lehman, Source 266 Architecture Collection, Source 5.13 /Carolyn Brown, p. 100 /Corbis,
bottom left /Dave Dartruff, Source 154 top /Diego Lezama Orezzoli, Source 3.8 /Eve Ubiquitous, p. 101 bottom /Peter Arnold Images,
Source 1.31 /Doug Pearson/JAI, Source 5.61 /Fabian Cevallos/Sygma, Source 2.50 /SPL, Sources 1.11, 1.14, 1.2.7, 2.30, 2.43, 2.44, 2.47,
Source 2.64 /Francis G. Mayer, Source 3.30 /Gianni Dagli Orti, Sources 2.49, 2.52, 3.76 /Visions LLC, Source 4.41; Picture Media/Ho New/
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Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book.
The publisher would be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.

332