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4- Physical Layer

The document provides an overview of data types, specifically distinguishing between analog and digital data, as well as discussing transmission impairments such as attenuation, distortion, and noise. It also covers channel capacity, explaining the Nyquist and Shannon theorems for calculating data rates in noiseless and noisy channels, respectively. Key factors influencing data rate include bandwidth, signal levels, and channel quality.

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Nisha Mehta
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13 views

4- Physical Layer

The document provides an overview of data types, specifically distinguishing between analog and digital data, as well as discussing transmission impairments such as attenuation, distortion, and noise. It also covers channel capacity, explaining the Nyquist and Shannon theorems for calculating data rates in noiseless and noisy channels, respectively. Key factors influencing data rate include bandwidth, signal levels, and channel quality.

Uploaded by

Nisha Mehta
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Computer Networks

(CSPC-207)
Dr Samayveer Singh

Physical Layer
Data & Signal, Transmission
Impairments, and Channel
Capacity
Data and Data Types

What is Data?

Data is an entity that conveys some meaning based on some


mutually agreed upon the rules/conventions between a sender
and a receiver.

Today's, data comes in a variety of forms such as text,


graphics, audio, video and animation.

Data types:
• Data can be Analog and Digital.

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Analog and Digital data

Analog Data:
Analog data refers to information that is continuous and take
on continuous values.

Digital data:
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states and
take on discrete values.

3
Analog and Digital Signals

Figure: Analog signal can take infinite data values whereas digital signal takes
limited number of discrete value

4
Distinguish between data and
signal.

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Transmission Impairments

Signals travel through transmission media,


which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment.

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Attenuation

Measurement of Attenuation: To show the loss or gain of


energy the unit “decibel” is used.
dB = 10log10P2/P1 P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

7
Example 1

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and


its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated
as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the


power.

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Example 2

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is


increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case,
the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as

9
Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or


shape

10
Noise

Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise,


crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.

11
Channel Capacity

Channel capacity is concerned with the information handling


capacity of a given channel.
A very important consideration in data communications is how
fast we can send data over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
• The bandwidth available
• The level of the signals we use
• The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

We have two models to calculate the data rate :


• Nyquist
• Shannon

12
Nyquist Theorem

It is always a Noiseless Channel.


Nyquist theorem states that:

C = 2 B log2 L

C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
L=No. of signal levels used to represent data

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Example 3

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of


3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a


signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send
2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

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Example 4

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a


bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

Solution: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

15
Shannon Capacity

It is always a Noisy Channel.

Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the


presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
Example 5: Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the
value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is weak. For this
channel the capacity C is calculated as

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Example 6

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular


telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as

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Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the


Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we
need.

18

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