EN8060 Telecommunications B

7: OSI Model, TCP/IP, Circuit and Packet

Switching
Tutor: Dr. Mohamed AlJerjawi

Bahrain Polytechnic, Electronics Eng

Isa Town, Kingdom of Bahrain
E-mail: [email protected]
Office: 20-005
Protocol Layers

• A protocol is required when two entities need to

communicate. When communication is not
simple, we may divide the complex task of
communication into several layers. In this case,
we may need several protocols, one for each
layer.
• Let us use a scenario in communication in which
the role of protocol layering may be better
understood. We use two examples. In the first
example, communication is so simple that it can
occur in only one layer.
Example
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common
ideas. However, Maria speaks only Spanish, and Ann speaks
only English. Since both have learned the sign language in their
childhood, they enjoy meeting in a cafe a couple of days per
week and exchange their ideas using signs. Occasionally, they
also use a bilingual dictionary. Communication is face to face
and Happens in one layer as shown in Figure
Example
Now assume that Ann has to move to another town because of
her job. Before she moves, the two meet for the last time in the
same cafe. Although both are sad, Maria surprises Ann when
she opens a packet that contains two small machines. The first
machine can scan and transform a letter in English to a secret
code or vice versa. The other machine can scan and translate a
letter in Spanish to the same secret code or vice versa. Ann
takes the first machine; Maria keeps the second one. The two
friends can still communicate using the secret code, as shown
in the following Figure.
Figure 2.2 Example 2.2
THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
Almost three-fourths of countries in the world are
represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.
The OSI model
OSI layers
An exchange using the OSI model
Note

The physical layer is responsible for

moving individual bits from one
(node) to the next.
Summary of OSI Layers
Layer1: Physical Layer

 The Physical Layer defines the electrical and

physical specifications for devices. In
particular, it defines the relationship
between a device and a physical medium.
 This includes the layout of pin, voltages,
cable specification, hubs,
repeaters, network adapters, host bus
adapters, and more.
Layer1: Physical Layer
 The major functions and services performed by
the Physical Layer are:
 Establishment and termination of a connection to
a communication medium.
 Participation in the process whereby the
communication resources are effectively shared
among multiple users. For example, flow control.
 Modulation, or conversion between the
representation of digital data in user equipment and
the corresponding signals transmitted over a
communications channel. These are signals
operating over the physical cabling (such as copper
and optical fiber) or over a radio link.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 The Data Link Layer provides the functional
and procedural means to transfer data
between network entities and to detect and
possibly correct errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer.
 Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-
point and point-to-multipoint media,
characteristic of wide area media in the
telephone system.
 The data link layer is divided into two sub-
layers by IEEE.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 One is Media Access Control (MAC) and
another is Logical Link Control (LLC).
 Mac is lower sub-layer, and it defines the
way about the media access transfer, such
as CSMA/CD/CA(Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection/Collision
Avoidance)
 LLC provides data transmission method in
different network. It will re-package data
and add a new header.
Layer 3: Network Layer
 The Network Layer provides the functional
and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from a
source to a destination via one or more
networks, while maintaining the quality of
service requested by the Transport Layer.
Layer 3: Network Layer
 The Network Layer performs
 Network routing functions,
 Perform fragmentation and reassembly,
 Report delivery errors.
 Routers operate at this layer—sending
data throughout the extended network
and making the Internet possible.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
 The Transport Layer provides transparent
transfer of data between end users,
providing reliable data transfer services to
the upper layers.
 The Transport Layer controls the reliability
of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/de-segmentation, and error
control.
Layer 5: Session Layer
 The Session Layer controls the dialogues
(connections) between computers.
 It establishes, manages and terminates the
connections between the local and remote
application.
 It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex,
or simplex operation, and establishes check
pointing, adjournment, termination, and
restart procedures.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
 This layer provides independence from
differences in data representation (e.g.,
encryption) by translating from application
to network format, and vice versa.
 This layer formats and encrypts data to be
sent across a network, providing freedom
from compatibility problems.
 It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
Layer 7: Application Layer
 The application layer is the OSI layer
closest to the end user, which means that
both the OSI application layer and the user
interact directly with the software
application.
 Application layer functions typically include:
 Identifying communication partners,
 Determining resource availability,
 Synchronizing communication.
Layer 7: Application Layer
 Identifying communication partners
 Determines the identity and availability of
communication partners for an application with
data to transmit.
 Determining resource availability
 Decide whether sufficient network or the requested
communication exist.
 Synchronizing communication
 All communication between applications requires
cooperation that is managed by the application
layer.
Layer 7: Application Layer
 Some examples of application layer
implementations include
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to

the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite do not match exactly with those in the
OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as four software layers built upon the
hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as
a five-layer model with the layers named similarly to
the ones in the OSI model. Following figure shows
both configurations.
TCP/IP and OSI model
Some TCP/IP Protocols
Layer Protocol
DNS,TFTP,TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC, NNTP, POP3,
SIP, SMTP, SMPP, SNMP, SSH,Telnet, Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP
Application
Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over TCP/UDP,
may also be considered part of the Internet Layer.
Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP
IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6

Network OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol since it
runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed on the Link since RFC
2740.
Data Link ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP
A private internet
Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

Note

The unit of communication at the

physical layer is the bit.
Communication at the data link layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame
Note

The unit of communication at the data

link layer is the frame.
Communication at the network layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram
Note

The unit of communication at the

network layer is the datagram.
Communication at transport layer

A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment
Note

The unit of communication at the

transport layer is the segment, user
datagram, or a packet, depending on the
specific protocol used in this layer.
Communication at application layer

A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
Note

The unit of communication at the

application layer is the message.
ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical address,
logical address, port address, and application-
specific address. Each address is related to a one
layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as shown in the
following figure.
Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite
Example
In below Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a
node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a
link (a LAN). At the data link layer, this frame contains physical (link)
addresses in the header. These are the only addresses needed. The
rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. As
the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
The data link layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer. It
encapsulates the data in a frame. The frame is propagated through
the LAN. Each station with a physical address other than 87 drops the
frame because the destination address in the frame does not match
its own physical address. The intended destination computer,
however, finds a match between the destination address in the frame
and its own physical address.
Example : physical addresses

1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

4
Example
Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal
digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address
Example
The following Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair
of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case,
each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only
one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks. So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection. The computer with logical address A and physical
address 10 needs to send a packet to the computer with logical
address P and physical address 95. We use letters to show the
logical addresses and numbers for physical addresses.
Example: logical addresses

20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed
Note

The physical addresses will change from

hop to hop, but the logical addresses
remain the same.
Example
Next Figure shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three processes at
this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to
communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note that
although both computers are using the same application, FTP,
for example, the port addresses are different because one is a
client program and the other is a server program.
Example: port numbers

A Sender Receiver P

Data Data
a j Data a j Data

A P a j Data A P a j Data

H2 A P a j Data H2 A P a j Data

Internet
Note

The physical addresses change from

hop to hop, but the logical and port
addresses usually remain the same.
Example
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal
number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single number
Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching

McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

Overview
• Networks are used to interconnect many devices as in
Local Area Networks (LANs).
• Now, wide area networks
— Since the invention of the telephone, circuit switching has
been the dominant technology for voice communications.
— Since 1970, packet switching has evolved substantially for
digital data communications. It was designed to provide a more
efficient facility than circuit switching for bursty data traffic.
• Two types of packet switching:
– Datagram (such as today’s Internet)
– Virtual circuit (such as Frame Relay, ATM)
Switching Networks

 Long distance transmission is typically

done over a network of switched nodes
 Nodes not concerned with content of data
 End devices are stations
 Computer, terminal, phone, etc.
 A collection of nodes and connections is a
communications network
 Data routed by being switched from node
to node
Nodes
 Nodes may connect to other nodes only,
or to stations and other nodes
 Node to node links usually multiplexed
(many to one)
 Network is usually partially connected
 Some redundant connections are desirable for
reliability
 Two different switching technologies
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
Simple Switched Network
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching:
— There is a dedicated communication path between two stations
(end-to-end)
— The path is a connected sequence of links between network
nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to
the connection.
• Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
— Circuit establishment (link by link)
• Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
— Data transfer
— Circuit disconnect
• Deallocate the dedicated resources
• The switches must know how to find the route to the
destination and how to allocate bandwidth (channel) to
establish a connection.
Circuit Switching Properties
• Inefficiency
— Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole duration of a
connection
— If no data is sent, capacity is wasted
• Delay
— Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
— Low data delay: after the circuit establishment, information is
transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the
propagation delay. The delay at each node is negligible.
• Developed for voice traffic (public telephone network)
but can also applied to data traffic.
— For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high
percentage of utilization because most of the time one party or
the other is talking.
— But how about data connections?
Public Circuit Switched Network

Subscribers: the devices that attach to the network.

Subscriber loop: the link between the subscriber and the network.
Exchanges: the switching centers in the network.
End office: the switching center that directly supports subscribers.
Trunks: the branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-frequency
circuits using either FDM or synchronous TDM.
PBX: Private Branch Exchange
Telecomms Components
 Subscriber
 Devices attached to network
 Subscriber line
 Local Loop
 Subscriber loop
 Connection to network
 Few km up to few tens of km
 Exchange
 Switching centers
 End office - supports subscribers
 Trunks
 Branches between exchanges
Circuit Establishment
Circuit Switch Elements
Circuit Switching Concepts
 Digital Switch
 Provide transparent signal path between
devices
 Network Interface
 Control Unit
 Establish connections
 Handle and acknowledge requests
 Determine if destination is free
 Construct path
 Maintain connection
 Disconnect
Blocking or Non-blocking

 Blocking
 A network is unable to connect stations
because all paths are in use
 Used on voice systems
 Non-blocking
 Permits all stations to connect (in pairs) at
once
 Used for some data connections
Space Division Switching

 Developed for analog environment

 Separate physical paths
 Crossbar switch
 Number of crosspoints grows as number of
stations square
 Loss of crosspoint prevents connection
 Inefficient use of crosspoints
 All stations connected, only a few crosspoints in
use
 Non-blocking
Space Division Switch
Multistage Switch

 Reduced number of crosspoints

 More than one path through network
 Increased reliability
 More complex control
 May be blocking
Three Stage Space Division Switch
Time Division Switching

 Modern digital systems rely on intelligent

control of space and time division
elements
 Use digital time division techniques to set
up and maintain virtual circuits
 Partition low speed bit stream into pieces
that share higher speed stream
Control Signaling Functions

 Audible communication with subscriber

 Transmission of dialed number
 Call can not be completed indication
 Call ended indication
 Signal to ring phone
 Billing info
 Equipment and trunk status info
Control Signal Sequence
 Both phones on hook (not in use)
 Subscriber lifts receiver (off hook)
 End office switch signaled
 Switch responds with dial tone
 Caller dials number
 If target not busy, send ringer signal to target subscriber
 Feedback to caller
 Ringing tone, engaged tone, unobtainable
 Target accepts call by lifting receiver
 Switch terminates ringing signal and ringing tone
 Switch establishes connection
 Connection release when Source subscriber hangs up
In Channel Signaling
 Use same channel for signaling and call
 Requires no additional transmission facilities
 Inband
 Uses same frequencies as voice signal
 Can go anywhere a voice signal can
 Impossible to set up a call on a faulty speech path
 Out of band
 Voice signals do not use full 4kHz bandwidth
 Narrow signal band within 4kHz used for control
 Can be sent whether or not voice signals are present
 Need extra electronics
 Slower signal rate (narrow bandwidth)
Drawbacks of In Channel
Signaling
 Limited transfer rate
 Delay between entering address (dialing)
and connection
 Overcome by use of common channel
signaling
Common Channel Signaling
 Control signals carried over paths independent of voice
channel
 One control signal channel can carry signals for a
number of subscriber channels
 Common control channel has two modes
 Associated Mode
 Common channel closely tracks inter-switch trunks
 Disassociated Mode
 Additional nodes (signal transfer points)
 Effectively two separate networks
Common vs. In Channel Signaling
Common
Channel
Signaling
Modes
Signaling System Number 7
 SS7
 Common channel signaling scheme
 ISDN
 Optimized for 64k digital channel network
 Call control, remote control, management
and maintenance
 Reliable means of transfer of info in
sequence
 Will operate over analog and below 64k
 Point to point terrestrial and satellite links
Softswitch Architecture
 General purpose computer running software to make it a smart
phone switch
 Lower cost
 Greater functionality
 Packetizing of digitized voice data
 Allowing voice over IP
 Most complex part of telephone network switch is software
controlling call process
 Call routing
 Call processing logic
 Separate call processing from hardware function of switch
Traditional Circuit Switching
Softswitch
Packet Switching Principles
• Problem of circuit switching
—designed for voice service
—Resources dedicated to a particular call
—For data transmission, much of the time the
connection is idle (say, web browsing)
—Data rate is fixed
• Both ends must operate at the same rate during the entire
period of connection
• Packet switching is designed to address these
problems.
Basic Operation
• Data are transmitted in short packets
— Typically at the order of 1000 bytes
— Longer messages are split into series of packets
— Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some control
info
• Control info contains at least
— Routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the intended
destination
— Recall the content of an IP header!
• Store and forward
— On each switching node, packets are received, stored briefly
(buffered) and passed on to the next node.
Use of Packets
Advantages
• Line efficiency
— Single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by many
packets over time
— Packets are queued up and transmitted as fast as possible
• Data rate conversion
— Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
• In circuit-switching, a connection could be blocked if
there lacks free resources. On a packet-switching
network, even with heavy traffic, packets are still
accepted, by delivery delay increases.
• Priorities can be used
— On each node, packets with higher priority can be forwarded
first. They will experience less delay than lower-priority packets.
Packet Switching Techniques
• A station breaks long message into packets
• Packets are sent out to the network
sequentially, one at a time
• How will the network handle this stream of
packets as it attempts to route them through
the network and deliver them to the intended
destination?
—Two approaches
• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach
Datagram
• Each packet is treated independently, with no
reference to packets that have gone before.
—Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path.
• Packets can take any possible route.
• Packets may arrive at the receiver out of order.
• Packets may go missing.
• It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and
recover from missing packets.
• Example: Internet
Datagram
Diagram
Virtual Circuit
• In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is
established before any packets are sent, then all
packets follow the same route.
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit
identifier instead of destination address, and
each node on the preestablished route knows
where to forward such packets.
—The node need not make a routing decision for each
packet.
• Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM
Virtual
Circuit
Diagram
A route between stations is
set up prior to data transfer.
All the data packets then
follow the same route.
But there is no dedicated
resources reserved for the
virtual circuit! Packets need
to be stored-and-forwarded.
Virtual Circuits vs. Datagram
• Virtual circuits
— Network can provide sequencing (packets arrive at the same
order) and error control (retransmission between two nodes).
— Packets are forwarded more quickly
• Based on the virtual circuit identifier
• No routing decisions to make
— Less reliable
• If a node fails, all virtual circuits that pass through that node fail.
• Datagram
— No call setup phase
• Good for bursty data, such as Web applications
— More flexible
• If a node fails, packets may find an alternate route
• Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the network
Packet Size
Comparison of
communication
switching
techniques