Methods of Projections

Parallel and central projection

Learning Objectives
• Introduce the classical views
• Compare and contrast image formation by computer with how
images have been formed by architects, artists, and engineers
• Learn the benefits and drawbacks of each type of view
• Introduce the mathematics of projection

Linear mapping

1. Image of a point is point

2. Image of a line is line (or point)
3. Image of a plane is plane (or line)

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View
We call the pictures for observing objects with different
ways are views.
View results are related with the shape and size of
scene objects, the position and direction of viewpoint.

Planar Geometric Projections

• Standard projections project onto a plane
• Projectors are lines that either
– converge at a center of projection
– are parallel
• Such projections preserve lines
– but not necessarily angles
• Nonplanar projections are needed for applications such as
map construction

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Classical Projections

Perspective vs Parallel
• Computer graphics treats all projections the same and
implements them with a matrix
• Classical viewing developed different techniques for
drawing each type of projection
• Fundamental distinction is between parallel and
perspective viewing even though mathematically parallel
viewing is the limit of perspective viewing

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Multiview Orthographic Projection
• Projection plane parallel to principal face
• Usually form front, top, side views
isometric (not multiview
orthographic view)
front
in CAD and architecture,
we often display three
multiviews plus isometric

side
top

Advantages and Disadvantages

+ Preserves both distances and angles
Shapes preserved
Can be used for measurements
• Building plans
• Manuals
- Cannot see what object really looks like
because many surfaces hidden from view
Often we add the isometric

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Types of Axonometric Projections

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Isometric projection

Isometric projection- a drafting

style in which a two-dimensional
object is drawn to look three-
dimensional. The horizontal edges
of the object are drawn at a 30° or
150° angle, and all vertical lines at
90° (remain vertical).

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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Lines are scaled (foreshortened)

scaling factors are known only for a axis (principal directions)
Projection of a circle in a plane not parallel to the projection
plane is an ellipse
• Does not look real for large objects because far objects are scaled
the same as near objects
• Used in CAD applications (with perspective)
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Axonometry

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M. C. Escher, Waterfall, 1961

Taska:
Tangent plane of the cone
Regular hexagon
Helix
Hyperboloid of revolution

Oblique Projection
Arbitrary relationship between projectors and projection plane

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Advantages and Disadvantages
• Can pick the angles to emphasize a particular face
– Architecture: plan oblique, elevation oblique
• Angles in faces parallel to projection plane are preserved
while we can still see “around” side
• In physical world, cannot create with simple camera;

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Orthographic

and Oblique drawings

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Pohlke’s Theorem (1860)
The principal theorem of oblique axonometry

Three straight line segments of arbitrary length in a plane, drawn

from a point under arbitrary angles form a parallel projection of
three equal segments drawn from the origin on three
perpendicular coordinate axes.
However, only one of the segments or one of the angles
may vanish.

Any complete plane quadrangle can serve

as the parallel projection of a tetrahedron
similar to a given one.

https://www.geogebra.org/m/CsamWsfy

Sketching
Method of pictorial sketching of an object

1. Sketch an enclosing box of the given object. If the object

decomposes from different parts we sketch the boxes
circumscribed to these parts.
2. Sketch views in the principal faces (thin lines).
3. Sketch auxiliary parallel lines
4. Thick lines to highlight visible edges.

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Sketching-isometric grid

The horizontal edges of the object are drawn at a 30° or

150° angle, and all vertical lines at 90° (remain vertical).

Perspective Projection
Projectors converge at center of projection

Naturally we see things in perspective

o Objects appear smaller the farther away they are;
o Rays from view point are not parallel. 22

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Vanishing Points
• Parallel lines (not parallel to the projection plan) on the object
converge at a single point in the projection (the vanishing point)
• Drawing simple perspectives by hand uses these vanishing point(s)

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Types of Perspective
Three-Point Two-Point One-Point

• Number of principal face parallel to projection plane

• Number of vanishing points for cube
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Advantages and Disadvantages

• Objects further from viewer are projected smaller than
the same sized objects closer to the viewer (diminution)
– Looks realistic
• Equal distances along a line are not projected into
equal distances (nonuniform foreshortening)
• Angles preserved only in planes parallel to the
projection plane
• More difficult to construct by hand than parallel
projections (but not more difficult by computer)

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Yp
Window Image
coordinate
plane

3D space Window
Viewing Volume
Xp
Projection

2D image Far plane

World coordinate system Screen coordinate system

Z
Near plane

Viewpoint

Viewport
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Matrix Reprezentation of Projection

Orthogonal projection to coordinate plane p = (xy)

xp  x
yp  y
zp  0
X  ( x, y , z )  E 3  X   ( x p , y p , z p )  p
1 0 0 
X   PX ; P  0 1 0 
0 0 0 

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Simple Perspective
Consider a simple perspective with the COP at the origin,
projection (picture) plane p parallel to coord. plane (x,y).

xp d  X  ( x, y, z)

x z
yp d X   (xp , y p , z p )

y z
zp  d

Matrix reprezentation only in the projective space!

Perspective Matrices
Simple projection matrix in homogeneous coordinates
d  d   d 
xp  x d d
X    x , y , d    x , y , d ,1  xd , yd , zd , z 
z
 z z   z z 
d
yp  y
z d 0 0 0
zp  d 0 d 0 0 
X '  PX ; P  
0 0 d 0
 
0 0 1 0

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