Senior Secondary

Biology
1
F O C NDU
P ASUN
J O AINA

i
Learn Africa Plc
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© Learn Africa Plc 2013

First published 1988

Reprinted 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
Second edition 1999
Reprinted 2003, 2008, 2009
Third edition 2013
Reprinted 2014, 2015

ISBN 978 978 925 119 3

ii
Contents
Theme 1 Organisation of life 1
Chapter 1 Recognising living things 1
Living and non-living things 1
Differences between plants and animals 4
Organisation of life 5
Classification of living-things 6
Systems of classification of organisms 7
Chapter 2 The cell 21
The cell as a unit 21
Living cells as a colony 25
The cell as a part of living tissue 27
Cell theory 30
Cell structure 30
Chapter 3 The cell and its environment 37
Diffusion 37
Osmosis 39
Turgidity, Plasmolysis and the living cell 42
Active transport 45
Chapter 4 Properties and functions of the cell 47
Feeding 47
Respiration 50
Excretion 56
Growth 56
Mitosis 57
Cytoplasmic division 59
Cell reactions to its environment 65
Movement 68
Reproduction 69
Forms of reproduction 70
Meiosis 74
The structure and functions of male and female gonads 77

Theme 2 The organisms at work 79

Chapter 5 Tissue and supporting systems 79
What is a skeleton? 79

iii
Location and arrangement of skeletal tissues in animals 80
The vertebra column 80
Joints 83
Supporting tissues in plants 84
Mechanism of support in plants 86
Functions of skeleton in animals 86
Functions of supporting tissues in plants 86
Chapter 6 Nutrition in animals 89
Animal nutrition 89
Food 89
Diet 94
Modes of nutrition 97
Feeding mechanism in holozoic organisms 102
Mammalian teeth 103
Enzymes 105

Theme 3 The organism and its environment 108

Chapter 7 Basic ecological principles 108
Ecological concepts 108
Habitats 109
Ecological or habitat factors 110
Population studies 120
Communities 122
Local biomes 122
World biomes 125
Chapter 8 Functioning ecosystem 128
Components of an ecosystem 128
Food chains 129
Food web 129
Energy-flow in an ecosystem 130
Energy transformations in nature 131
Nutrient cycling in nature 132
Chapter 9 Relevance of Biology to agriculture 137
Classification of plants 137
Effects of agricultural activities on ecological systems 139
Effects of different kinds of farming on the ecological system 141
Pests and diseases of agricultural importance 142
Life cycles of insect pests of plants 144
Diseases of agricultural importance 147
Population growth and food supply 153

iv
Reproduction and population growth 154
Chapter 10 Microorganisms around us 158
Classification of microorganisms 158
Microorganisms in air 159
Microorganisms in water 160
Carriers of microorganism 162
Beneficial effects of microorganisms 162
Chapter 11 Microorganisms in action 165
Growth of microorganisms 165
Are microorganisms beneficial to man? 166
Harmful microorganisms 168
Chapter 12 Towards better health 174
Control of disease-causing microorganisms 174
Public health 179
Chapter 13 Aquatic habitats 184
The marine habitat 184
Major ecological zones of the marine habitat 186
The estuarine habitat 196
The freshwater habitat 200
Chapter 14 Terrestrial habitats 204
Marsh 204
Forest 206
Grassland 210
Arid lands 213

Theme 4 Continuity of life 216

Chapter 15 Reproduction in unicellular organisms and invertebrates 216
Reproduction in amoeba 216
Reproduction in paramecium 216
Reproduction in spirogyra 217
Reproduction in earthworm 217
Reproduction in cockroach 218
Reproduction in housefly 218
Reproduction in garden snail 219

v
Preface
This is the first of a three-book course, specially written to adequately cover the new NERDC
Biology curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools. Books 1, 2 and 3 are designed to cover
the schemes of work in Biology for Senior Secondary School Classes 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

Like the curriculum, this series of books is based on the conceptual approach and covers
the concept of living, basic ecological concepts, plant and animal nutrition, conservation of
matter and energy, variations and variability, evolution and genetics. These major concepts are
presented in spiral sequence running through the three-year course and moving from basic to
complex ideas as the course develops from Senior Secondary School Class 1 to Class 3. This
approach, no doubt, aids learning.

In this third edition, up-to-date and relevant knowledge in Biology is presented in this series
of books in a simple and effective manner. The contents of the books have been enlarged to
include the requirements of WAEC, NECO and UTME Syllabuses. Suitable investigation activities
for the students and demonstration activities for the teachers are also provided. Students are
helped to learn Biology as a science through guided discovery.

We believe that the books in this series satisfy the aims and objectives of the new NERDC
Biology curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools and we recommend them to all students
and teachers of Biology at the Senior Secondary School level.

12 April 2013

vi
Theme 1
Organisation of life

Chapter 1 Recognising living things

The theme for the first four chapters of this book is organisation of life. An organisation,
such as a bank, a school, a factory, a company or a political party contains members who
work together for a united goal. In the same way, organisation of life means that the
body of a living thing has many parts, but all, while doing their individual duties have a
united goal. In the next four chapters, you will learn how living things are organised.

fied some of them which, taken together, distinguish

Introduction the living from the non-living things. Study them and
see which of them feature in your lists.
At a critical point in time, a farmer will painfully decide 1 Movement: All living things move. Movement
if his farm animals would live or die. A medical doctor means a change in position, which could be total, as
will decide if his patient would live. Students of biol- in animals that move from place to place, or lim-
ogy have no painful decisions of this kind to take. Since ited, as in plants which carry out bending move-
biology is the study of living things, it is appropriate to ments under certain conditions.
begin the study of this subject by identifying what liv- 2 Nutrition: This is the taking in and use of food
ing things do that constitute being alive, and the special by animals, as well as the taking in of mineral sub-
way in which their bodies are made up. This chapter is stances and their use by plants.
concerned with these issues. In addition, you will learn 3 Respiration: This is the breaking down of food
how living things are arranged in groups to facilitate substances taken in by the organism to release
their study. energy. There are two types of respiration. They
are;
a) Aerobic respiration, in which oxygen is needed
Living and non-living things to release energy; and
b) Anaerobic respiration, in which energy is released
Everything in the world can be classified as either liv- without the use of oxygen.
ing or non-living. Living things are distinguished from Many organisms have special body parts for taking
non-living things by a number of characteristics. in oxygen for respiration. For instance, human
beings use their lungs; fishes use their gills, while
plants use openings in their leaves (stomata) or
Living things stems (lenticels).
Look outside the classroom or laboratory. Make a list 4 Growth: Growth is a permanent increase in size.
of any five things which you regard as living. Then, With good feeding comes increase in the mass and
make a list of five things which you regard as non- height (or length) of an organism. At birth, human
living. Now, take a second look at your lists and write babies weigh an average of 3.5 kilograms (kg). How
down what characters are common within each group. does body mass increase as a baby grows up?
What are these characteristics? Biologists have identi-

1
5 Excretion: This is the removal of the waste prod- Activity 1.1 Observing growth in
ucts of metabolism. Metabolism is the sum total
of all the chemical processes which take place living things
within the cells of the body, for the continuous
activities of building the cells of the body. From a) Materials required
the continuous activities of building up and using Potassium trioxonitrate (V) (potassium nitrate), glass
up energy, waste accumulates. Such waste is not rod, distilled water, evaporating basin, boiling tube,
useful to the body. It may indeed be removed. The Bunsen burner, and stopwatch.
process of such removal is known as excretion.
6 Reproduction: This is the process by which adult Procedure
organisms give rise to new individuals of the same To about 2 cm3 of distilled water in a boiling tube, add
kind. The adult housefly will lay eggs which, on potassium trioxonitrate (V). Shake the boiling tube.
hatching, develop into adult houseflies. A maize When the potassium trioxonitrate (V) has dissolved,
plant germinates into a maize seedling, which add another small amount and shake the boiling tube.
grows into a maize plant. A sheep gives birth to Repeat the process until some of the potassium trioxo-
a lamb, which grows into a sheep. Reproduction nitrate (V) no longer dissolves and there is undissolved
is the only means by which a living thing is kept solid potassium trioxonitrate (V) in the solution.
in existence from one generation to another. If Warm the boiling tube on a Bunsen burner and
there were no means of reproducing oneself, every add more potassium trioxonitrate (V) until it no longer
given type of living thing would soon disappear dissolves. The warm solution is now saturated.
from the face of the earth. Pour the warm, saturated solution into an evapo-
7 Irritability: This is the ability of a living thing to rating basin and allow it to cool slowly on the table.
receive an external stimulus and respond to it. If Observe it every two minutes for twenty minutes.
you touched a hot plate by mistake, you would Dip the glass rod into the saturated solution. Pull
quickly withdraw your hand. Your skin receives it out and hold it in the air. Observe it.
the sensation of heat, which goes to the brain. The You should see crystals forming as the saturated
brain orders the muscles to contract in an action solution cools. The crystals in the basin grow bigger
which translates as the withdrawal of your hand as the solution cools. They increase in size, but is this
from the heat or other harmful stimulus. growth the same as the growth of a living thing?
Anything which shows all the foregoing seven
characteristics is a living thing. As we shall see, a b) Materials required
crystal can increase in size. This increase is by A few seeds or grains (e.g. beans, maize, okro), tins,
addition to the crystal surface from the outside. garden soil, water and ruler.
The increase in size which takes place in living
things is from within. Procedure
Fill the tins with garden soil and wet the soil, ready to
sow the seeds or grains. Sow two or three seeds in each
tin. After a few days, the seeds will germinate.
Your teacher will assign you one tin. Ensure that
the seedlings are kept in a well-lit location. Water the
soil daily, without flooding it. Measure the height of
light shoots
each seedling and count the number of leaves on it.
bending Keep your records in the form of a table as shown in
towards
the Table 1.1. Is there an increase in height with time? Does
source the number of leaves increase or decrease with time?
of light Continue your observation for two weeks after
the germination of the seeds. Has there been growth? Is
this the same kind of growth observed in the crystals of
potassium trioxonitrate (V)? What is the difference?

Seed ……………………………………………

Date sown …………………………………….

Fig. 1.1 Seedlings responding to the stimulus of light
received from a particular direction. Date it germinated ...........................................

2
Table 1.1 Record of growth of a seedling

Date Height (cm) Number of leaves

Activity 1.2 Observing how living

things reproduce Number of
Duckweeds

Materials required
Duckweed (Lemna sp.), water trough, graph sheets and
water from the stream.
Your teacher will provide you with a small quan-
tity of a water plant called duckweed. You will also be
given water from the stream where the duckweed was
collected. Your teacher may give you what is called a
water culture solution in place of the stream water. Time (days)
Place a few individual strands of duckweed in the Fig 1.2a) Graph of number of duckweeds against time
water or culture solution inside a water trough. Record (days)
the number of strands. Place the water trough contain-
ing the duckweed in a well-aerated and lit location, but
not directly under sunlight. A window still will be suit-
able, provided that the sun is not shining directly on
it. Observe every day, but count the number of strands
of duckweed every other day. Record your observation
each time your count is taken. Continue for two or three
weeks.
At the end of the experiment, how many strands Number of
of duckweeds are there? Plot graphs, such as those in Duckweeds
Figs 1.2a) and (b), to show your findings. Your teach-
er, who should have maintained a large population of
Lemna, will give you his result. Plot that too. Compare
the two sets of graphs. Discuss your findings and write
a clear conclusion to the experiment.

Time (days)
Fig 1.2b) A histogram of number of duckweeds against
time (days)
3
Non-living things metals. Some non-living things are soluble in water (or
Non-living things do not show all the characteristics of in some specific solvent), while others are not. Some
living things. metals are magnetic, others are not.
Note also that growth in living things requires Living things and non-living things interrelate
food. Non-livings things, on the other hand, do not very much. For instance, all living things derive their
feed. Growth in living things is usually irreversible, nutrients from non-living things. All the raw materi-
whereas the ‘growth’ of a crystal can be reversed. als which green plants require to manufacture their
How would you group non-living things? What food are non-living things. Plants and animals use air
properties would you use for this? The answer is quite for respiration and take in water. Similar interrelation-
straightforward. Non-living things are solids, liquids ship exists between the following living and non-living
or gases. Solid non-living things may be metals or non- things: water, soil, air, crops, man, fish and algae.
Can you describe these?

Differences between plants and animals

The differences between plants and animals are shown in Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2

Animals Plants

1 Animals move from place to place Plants do not move from place to place; they carry out
(they exhibit locomotion). only bending movements.

2 Animals do not make their own food; they Plants make their own food from simple inorganic
feed on plants and/or other animals. They substances (carbon dioxide and water) using energy of
are heterotrophic. sunlight. They are autotrophic.

3 Animals grow all over their bodies. Plants grow only at the meristems (groups of cells capable
of dividing). Growth in length occurs only at the tips of
stems and roots, while growth in girth occurs at the
cambium.

4 Animals have specific organs for respiration, Plants do not have specialised organs for respiration,
excretion and co-ordination. excretion and co-ordination.

5 An animal cell has no cell wall. It is bounded A plant cell has a cell wall containing cellulose. A cell
by cell membrane. membrane is on the inside of the cell wall.

6 An animal cell has no cell vacuoles with cell A mature plant cell usually has some cell vacuoles with
sap. It may have food vacuoles. cell sap.

7 An animal cell has plentiful cytoplasm which A plant cell has moderate amount of cytoplasm which
fills the cell. does not fill the cell.

8 An animal cell contains no chlorophyll. A plant cell contains chlorophyll, present in chloroplasts
within green cells.

4
their bodies are performed by cells in tissues. A
Organisation of life good example in the animal kingdom is hydra,
in which the body cells are differentiated into two
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. Each
layers of tissues, known as ectoderm and endo-
organism is made up of one or more cells. If an organ-
derm. Cells of the endoderm carry out the func-
ism is made up of one cell, it is said to be unicellular
tion of digestion of food.
while an organism not divided into cells is known as
non-cellular. If an organism is made up of many cells,
it is said to be multicellular. mouth
In a multicellular organism, cells become special-
ised and rearranged to form tissues. A tissue is a group
of cells which are similar in structure and are special-
ised to perform a particular function. Examples of tis- tentacle
sues in animals include muscular, nervous, epithelial,
skeletal and connective tissues. Examples of tissues in
ectoderm stomach
plants include epidermal, collenchyma, parenchyma, cavity
xylem, phloem and cork tissues.
A group of tissues form an organ. An organ con-
sists of a number of different tissues which are organ- endoderm
ised, and work together to perform a special function mesoglea
in an organism. Examples of organs include an eye, or
a leaf. The leaf is a plant organ which contains epider-
mal, parenchyma, phloem and xylem tissues. Other ex- Fig. 1.3 Vertical section of hydra
amples of organs include heart, lungs, kidney, and liver
in animals, and flower, rhizome, and root in plants.
A group of organs which work together to 3 Organ level of organisation
perform a function is called a system. Examples of sys- A living thing may be an organ. For instance, an
tems in animals are circulatory, excretory, respiratory, onion bulb, a rhizome, a corm and a tuber are
digestive and nervous systems. In plants, examples of organs. Such a living thing is at the organ level of
systems are transport, root and shoot systems. All the organisation.
organ systems in one organism make up the organism.
The organisation of cells in an organism is shown be- 4 System level of organisation
low: Some organisms are organised at the systems
level. Such organisms are more advanced and
Cell → tissues → organs → organ system → organism complex than those at the other levels of organisa-
tion. In the animal kingdom, all animals from
platyhelminthes to mammals are organised on
this level. Man, for example, has many systems in
Levels of organisation of life his body. Higher plants also have systems, such as
The bodies of living organisms are at different levels of or- transport and root systems.
ganisation.
1 Cell level of organisation
Organisms made up of one cell only (unicellular or-
ganisms) are said to be at the cell level of organisa- Complexity of organisation in higher
tion. Specific parts of the cell, known as organ- organisms
elles, perform specific functions, e.g. cilia for mo- Biologists believe that all organisms that live today
vement. All life processes are performed in the have not always existed, but that over a long time,
unicellular organism by the single cell. Examples of some organisms have evolved from others. This is the
organisms at the cell level of organisation include concept of evolution.
amoeba, paramecium. euglena, and chlamydo- In this process of evolution, unicellular organisms
monsa. evolved into multicellular, simple into complex, and
aquatic into terrestrial organisms. Higher organisms
2 Tissue level of organisation are those which are considered to be more recent than
The organisms in this group have only tissues in lower organisms in coming into existence. For instance,
them. They do not have organs. The activities of vertebrates are considered to be higher animals than

5
invertebrates, while flowering plants are considered to fied. Classification may be described in general terms
be higher than nonflowering plants, such as algae and as sorting, ordering and grouping things into sets.
mosses. The principal reason for classification is for the
Higher organisms are more complex than lower convenience of the user. The classification of books
ones. For instance, in amoeba or paramecium, gaseous makes it easier to use the library, that of goods makes
exchange is by diffusion only. In insects, there are tra- it easier to use a shop, and that of living things makes
cheae and spiracles for breathing. In man, there is a it easier to study them. The feature which is used as a
respiratory system consisting of larynx, bronchi and basis for classification, such as the subject matter of a
lungs. The same progression in complexity of organisa- book, is called the criterion of the classification.
tion can be traced in many other systems, such as trans- Man has tried over the ages to classify the confus-
port, excretory and skeletal systems. ing variety of living things found in the world. The ear-
liest classifications of living things were artificial. For
instance, if one used the ability to fly as a criterion for
Advantages of complexity of organisation
classifying animals, then one would put in one group,
1 In organisms with complex organisation, the organ-
such animals as insects, bat (a mammal), flying squirrel
ism can attain a large body size.
(a mammal) and a pigeon (a bird) which we know are
2 It makes it possible to have a division of labour
more dissimilar than similar.
among cells, organs and systems.
In present day classification of plants and animals,
3 It makes the organs and organ systems more
all the characters of the plants and animals are used.
efficient than in a simple organisation.
Such a classification aims at reflecting the natural or
4 It enables an organism to adapt itself to a large
evolutionary relationships among the living things. In
number of various habitats.
practice, organisms which have the largest number of
characters in common are considered to be most closely
Disadvantages of complexity of organisation related by evolutionary descent.
1 As the size of an organism increases, the surface The system of classification of living things used
area to volume ratio decreases. today is based on that introduced by a Swedish natural-
2 Diffusion alone is not sufficient to move materials ist, Carl Von Linne (1707-1778). He was better known
from one part of the organism to all other areas. by the Latinised form of his name, Carolus Linnaeus.
A transport system is necessary. He published a classification of plants in 1753, and of
3 A system of co-ordination is necessary in a com- animals in 1758.
plex organism. A simple organism, such as amoeba
can do without a nervous system but a complex
one, such as man cannot. Taxonomic groups
In the classification of plants and animals, individual
organisms are arranged in small groups based on their
Classification of living things common features. Then the small groups are arranged
into progressively larger groups. The basic unit of clas-
If books in a library or goods in a large shop are left in sification of things is the species. This is the small-
disarray, it would be difficult to find the book or article est unit containing members which have the largest
which one wants. The books or goods have to be ar- number of features in common and usually interbreed
ranged in some kind of order. Books in a library may among themselves. For instance, all maize plants be-
be arranged according to their sizes or colours, but this long to one species and all human beings belong to one
would not be very useful. They are usually arranged by species.
subject matter and by authors. Species which have many features in common are
There are about one and a half million distinct placed in one genus. For instance, the horse belongs to
types of plants and animals. It would be difficult to one species, the donkey to another and the Zebra to yet
study these plants and animals without arranging them another species. These three species have so much in
in some kind of order. Just as books on the same sub- common that they are placed in one genus. In the same
ject are arranged together, similar plants and similar vein, genera which have many things in common, are
animals are grouped together. This makes the study of placed in one family; families are placed in an order.
each group of plants or animals easier, as the members Orders are placed in a class, and classes in a phylum or
of each group have certain features in common. division, and phyla or divisions are placed in a king-
The grouping of living things into their kinds is dom (see Fig. 1.4). In this arrangement, each smaller
called classification or taxonomy. Classifications are not group belongs to a larger group that includes it, and
limited to living things. Books or goods may be classi- every organism belongs to a species, genus, family, or-

6
der, class, phylum and kingdom.
antenna
compound eye

leg
wing

claws

Fig. 1.5 The housefly, Musca domestica

The classification of the housefly is summarised be-

low:
Kingdom: Animalia – all non-plant living things.
Phylum: Artropoda – animals with jointed legs,
appendages.
Class: Insecta – animals with bodies divided
into head, thorax and abdomen, as well
as three pairs of jointed legs.
Order: Diptera – insects with only two wings.
Family: Muscidae – the flies.
Genus: Musca – a fly-type.
Species: Domestica – the housefly.

The housefly is, therefore, named scientifically as

Musca domestica. The first of this pair of names is the
Fig. 1.4 Hierarchy of groups used in classification of living
generic name and the second, the specific name. In the
things
same way, the mango tree is named as Mangifera indi-
ca, the domestic dog as Canis domestica and the potato
Nomenclature plant as Ipomea batata.
It is necessary to name things before classifying them;
otherwise it would be difficult to refer to them by name.
If a book had no title, for instance, it would be difficult
to classify it precisely. It would have to be referred to
Systems of classification of organ-
by some vague description, such as ‘the book with the isms
red cover’.
Linnaeus also introduced a system of naming liv- The two-kingdom classification
ing things which biologists use today. It is called the In the two-kingdom system of classification, organisms
binomial system of nomenclature. In this system, each are grouped into two kingdoms: the plant kingdom
species is given two names. The first name is the ge- and the animal kingdom.
nus or generic name. It is usually started with a capital The plant kingdom is further divided into these
letter. It can be abbreviated (if it occurs in a context in phyla or divisions: thallophyta (including bacteria, al-
which the full name is clear) and can also stand alone gae, and fungi); Bryophyta (including liverworts and
e.g. the scientific name of water leaf is Talinum triangu- mosses); pteridophyta (ferns); and permatophyta (seed-
lare or T. triangulare or Talinum. Talinum is the generic bearing plants, which are subdivided into gymnosper-
name of water leaf. The second name is the species or mae (gymnosperms) and angiospermae (flowering
specific name. The specific name starts with a small plants).
letter e.g. triangulara is the specific name of water leaf. The animal kingdom is further divided into the
Both the generic and the specific names are underlined following phyla: protozoa, porifera, coelentrerata, platy-
separately when written or typed. When printed, they helminthes, nematoda, annelida, mollusca, echinodermata,
are italicised. The scientific name of man is Homo sapi- chordata.
ens.

7
The five-kingdom classification 5 Animalia (includes various multicellular animals)
This modern classification replaced the old two-king-
dom classification in 1969. The criteria taken into con- The viruses were not included because they have some
sideration for this classification include: characteristics of living things and some of non-living
1 The complexity of cell structure (i.e. whether it is things.
prokaryotic or eukaryotic).
2 The complexity of the organism’s body structure Kingdom: Monera
(whether it is unicellular and simple or multicel- The organisms in this kingdom include the bacteria and
lular and complex). the blue-green algae. They have the following charac-
teristics:

Table 1.3 Classification of living things into two kingdoms

Kingdom Phylum Class

Schizophyta
Plantae Thallophyta
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Spermatophyta Gymnosperm
Angiosperm

Living things Protozoa

Animalia Porifera
Coelenterata
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
Annelida
Mollusca
Arthropoda
Echinodermata
Chordata
Pisces
Amphibia
Reptilia
Aves
Mammalia

3 Mode of nutrition (i.e. whether autotrophic or het- a) They are unicellular, though some form filaments
erotrophic). of cells.
Almost all the examining bodies in Europe b) The cells are prokaryotic.
and America have adopted this system. The New c) The cells have no organised nucleus, with nuclear
York State Biology Regents syllabus adopted it in envelope.
1982. d) They do not have complex chromosomes.
e) The cells have no mitochondria, no endoplasmic
The five kingdoms are: reticulum, no chloroplasts, but polysaccharides
1 Monera (includes bacteria and blue-green algae) and amino acids.
2 Protista (includes mainly aquatic, primarily unicel- f) There is no sexual reproduction.
lular organisms, photosynthetic or heterotrophic g) They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
ones and some decomposers)
3 Fungi (includes moulds, mushrooms) Phylum: Schizophyta (bacteria)
4 Plantae (includes multicellular photosynthetic Characteristics:
plants) i) They are microscopic.

8
ii) They consist of one cell only. Kingdom: Protista
iii) The cell is prokaryotic (lacks a true nucleus and a Characteristics:
nuclear envelope). a) The organisms are all eukaryotic and
iv) Organelles, such as mitochondria are absent. unicellular.
v) Contain one strand of DNA, not bound by nuclear b) Some of the protista are heterotrophic (including
membrane. parasitic forms) while some are photosynthetic
vi) The cell has a rigid cell wall, which is complex. It autotrophs, and some are both heterotrophic and
lacks cellulose, but consists of polysaccharides photosynthetic.
and amino acids. c) Reproduction is usually asexual by mitosis but
vii) Reproduction is by binary fission. some also have sexual reproduction by fusion of
gametes.
d) Movement may be by cilia, flagella or may be
flagellum
amoeboid.

cell wall This kingdom is divided into the following phyla: pro-
tozoa, euglenophyta, chrysophyta and pyrrophyta:

nuclear Phylum: Protozoa

material
Characteristicss:
i) They are simple and microscopic.
cytoplasm
ii) They are unicellular.
iii) The different classes are characterised by their loco-
motory organelles: the rhizopoda or sarcodina
move by means of pseudopodia, e.g. amoeba, the
ciliate move by means of cilia (e.g. paramecium),
Fig. 1.6 A bacterium cell
the mastigophora move by means of flagella (e.g.
zooflagellates) while the sporozoa have no organ-
elles for movement and are all parasites.
viii) Some are autotrophic (photosynthetic or chemo-
iv) They may be commensals or symbiotic.
synthetic) and some are heterotrophic (parasitic
v) Mode of nutrition is variable; it may be holophyt-
or saprophytic).
ic, holozoic, saprozoic or parasitic.
vi) Reproduction occurs asexually by binary fission,
Bacteria are divided into classes according to their
multiple fission, budding, and spore formation,
shapes.
and sexually by conjugation.
Phylum: Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)
Class: Mastigophora (zooflagellates)
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
i) They are microscopic.
i) Each organism has one or two flagella for
ii) Some are unicellular, others are filamentous with
locomotion.
individual cells joined end to end; few form
ii) The cells have generally no outer wall.
branched filaments, very few form colonies, and
iii) Most members are free-living, some are parasitic,
none is truly multicellular.
e.g. Trypanosoma gambiense, which causes sleeping
iii) Cells contain chlorophyll, but not in chloroplasts.
sickness. Trichonympha, another member of this
They also contain accessory pigment, such as car-
class, lives as a symbiotic in the digestive tract of
otenoids. Some contain a blue pigment, phycocya-
termites, where it digests wood ingested by the
nin, and some a red pigment, phycoerythrin.
termite.
iv) Cell wall does not contain cellulose, but some sort
of polysaccharides and amino acids as in bacteria.
v) The cells lack cilia, flagella or other locomotory
organelles, but some filamentous blue-green algae
move by gliding.
vi) Reproduction is by cell division.

9
Class: Ciliophora
Characteristics:
i) The organisms are unicellular.
flagellum
ii) Each organism has cilia for locomotion and food
gathering.
iii) The organisms have macronuclei and micronuclei,
e.g. paramecium.

Class: Sporozoa
nucleus
Characteristics:
i) All the members of this class are parasitic.
ii) They have no cilia or flagella.
undulating iii) Each organism has a complex life cycle, e.g. Plas-
membrane modium, which causes malaria.

Fig. 1.7 Trypanosoma

Class: Sarcodina
blood
Characteristics:
cells
i) The organisms are unicellular.
ii) Temporary pseudopods are used for locomotion
and food capture, e.g. amoeba.

pseudopodia

food vacuole
plasmodium
ectoplam
Fig. 1.10 Plasmodium
nucleus
endoplasm Phylum: Euglenophyta
Characteristics:
i) The organisms are unicellular.
contractile vacuole ii) Each organism has one or two flagella.
iii) The organism stores carbohydrates as paramylum.
Fig. 1.8 Amoeba
flagellum
maganucleus contractile vacuole
contractile vacuole gullet
micronucleus eye spot
pellicle
contractile
vacuole

cilium chloroplasts
ectoplasm
mouth pore endoplasm nucleus
gullet pellicle
anal pore oral groove

Fig. 1.9 Paramecium

Fig. 1.11 Euglena

10
iv) The cell lacks a cell wall but has a pellicle, made ing, e.g. rhizopus, or it may be made up of tightly
of protein, inside the cell membrane. packed hyphae as in a mushroom.
v) Chloroplasts are present in the cells and contain e) In a fungus, there are many nuclei in a cell.
chlorophylls a and b as in higher plants. f) All fungi are heterotrophic. They lack chlorophyll.
vi) Reproduction is asexual by longitudinal division, Some are saprophytic, some are parasitic, and
e.g. euglena. some others are symbiotic.

Phylum: Chrysophyta (Diatoms)

These are the golden algae, which are the main compo-
nents of phytoplankton in inland and oceanic waters. columella
Most of the golden algae are diatoms. sporangium
sporangiophore
Characteristics:
i) The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophylls a spore
and c.
ii) They contain a yellow carotenoid called fucoxan-
thin, which gives the algae their characteristic
colour.
iii) The cell walls contain no cellulose, and are often stolon
impregnated with silicon compounds. Each spe-
cies has characteristic markings on the cell walls.
iv) The cells store food in the form of oil, not starch. rhizoid
v) A diatom has two halves of its shell, which fit
together, one on top of the other.

Phylum: Pyrophyta (Dinoflagellates) Fig. 1.12 Rhizopus

The dinoflagellates are single-celled algae, which are
almost all marine. They are important components of
phytoplankton.
Characteristics: g) The fungi, together with the bacteria, are the prin-
i) Each dinoflagellate has two flagella, which beat cipal decomposers in the biosphere.
within grooves. One flagellum encircles the body h) Fungi reproduce by asexual and sexual methods.
like a belt; the other is perpendicular to it. The
effect of the beating of the two flagella is that the
cell spins as it moves through the water. Kingdom: Plantae
ii) The cell has a stiff cellulose wall. Division (phylum): phaeophyta (brown algae)
The brown algae are the principal seaweeds of the tem-
perate and polar areas. They dominate rocky shores
Kingdom: Fungi throughout the cooler areas of the world. Sargassum
The fungi were for a long time classified with the plants. nitans, a brown algae occurs in the Sargasso Sea, which
They, however, differ from plants in the position of lies between the West Indies and the Azores.
their cell walls. In most groups of fungi, the cell walls Characteristics:
are composed primarily of chitin, a polysaccharide that a) The plants are multicellular, and some are large
is not found in the plant kingdom but which is the prin- in size.
cipal component of the exoskeleton of insects. b) The cells contain chlorophylls a and c, and a yel-
Characteristics: low pigment, fucoxanthin.
a) Some fungi are unicellular, e.g. yeast, while many c) They differ from all other plants in storing food
are multicellular, e.g. rhizopus, mushroom. as an unusual polysaccharide called laminarin,
b) The body of a fungus is composed basically of fila- and sometimes as oil, never as starch.
ments, each called a hypha. d) The plant body is differentiated into a holdfast (for
c) All the hyphae of a single organism are collective- attachment), a stripe (or stalk) and a blade.
ly called a mycelium. e) The sperms and spore cells are often flagellated.
d) The mycelium may be a loose mass of hyphae on
the surface of the material the fungus is grow-

11
flagellum
anterior papilla
contractile vacuole

eye-spot
nucleus
chloroplast
cytoplasm
pyrenoid cell wall

Fig. 1.14 a) Chlamydomonas

mucillase
cellulose cell wall

cytoplasm
pyrenoid
Fig. 1.13 Bladderwrack and Kelp(brown sea weeds) spiral chloroplast

Division (Phylum): Rhodophyta (red algae) nucleus

The red algae are most commonly found in warm ma- vacuole
rine waters, usually at some depth below the surface. cytoplasmic strand
Characteristics:
i) The cells contain chlorophylls a and d, carotenoids,
and also certain phycobilins which give them their
distinctive colour. cell wall of
ii) They usually grow at greater depths than other neighbouring
cell
algae.
iii) They do not normally grow as large as brown
Fig. 1.14 b) Spirogyra
algae.
iv) The gametes are not mobile. The male gamete is
carried to the female gamete by the water.
cilia
Division (phylum): Chlorophyta
Most of the chlorophyta are aquatic, but some live in wet
places, such as tree trunks, some live as symbionts in
invertebrates, and lichens. The majority live in fresh
water, few are marine.
plasmodesmata
Characteristics:
a) Some are microscopic and unicellular, e.g. chlamy-
domonas. Fig. 1.14 c) Volvox
b) The chlorophyta show a wide variety of forms.
Some are filamentous, e.g. spirogyra, some are
colonial, e.g. volvox. Division (phylum): Bryophyta
c) They resemble higher plants in the following The bryophytes are found in moist habitats, such as
ways: tree trunks, damp places, walls of open drains, and
i) They contain chlorophylls a and b and carot- sides of ponds. Bryophytes are made up of two classes:
enoid pigments. hepaticae (liverworts) and musci (mosses).
ii) They store food as starch. Characteristics:
iii) They have cell walls of cellulose. a) The vegetative body of the plant is made up of
i) Rhizoids, which absorb water and mineral

12
salts from, and attach the plant to the substra- Characteristics:
tum; i) There is tissue specialisation.
ii) The ‘shoot’, which may or may not be differ- ii) Egg cells develop in the body of the parent plant
entiated into stem and leaves. inside a specialised organ.
b) Chloroplasts are present, as in higher plants. iii) There is alternation of generations.
c) The plant undergoes an alternation of generations. iv) Most members are differentiated into roots, stem
This means that there are two forms of the same and leaves.
plant, which regularly follow each other in the life cycle.
The form that produces spores is called the spo- Class: Filicinae (Ferns)
rophyte generation, while the form that produces The ferns are found in moist places in both tropical and
gametes is called gametophyte generation. temperate areas.
Characteristics:
position of i) The leaves are large and feathery.
reproductive
organ ii) The stems are usually underground rhizomes.
iii) Spores are borne in sporangia which occur at the
under-surface of leaves or sometimes on spe-
gemma cup cialised leaves.
iv) The sperms are coiled, multiflagellated and re-
quire free water to swim to the female gamete for
fertilisation.

A B
thallus indusium
(sporangia beneath
rhizoids
C
Fig. 1.15 a) Marchantia: a liverwort
sporangium
capsule
(contains spore
spores)
indusium

seta

leaf

stalk

frond (leaf)
rhizoid
rhizome
(underground stem)
Fig. 1.15 b) Brachymenium: a moss plant

root
d) The dominant plant is the gametophyte plant.
Examples of bryophytes are: marchantia, a liver-
Fig. 1.16 Arthropteris, an example of a fern
wort, and funaria, a moss.

Division (phylum): Tracheophyta Class: Coniferinae (Conifers)

The tracheophyta includes plants with well-developed The conifers occur mainly in temperate regions. The
conducting tissues. The majority of land plants belong leaves are needle-shaped. The seeds are naked and
to this phylum. borne in cones. The plants are usually ever-green. Ex-
ample: Pinas

13
Class: Cycadinae (Cycads) ii) They have two body layers called ectoderm and
The leaves are large and fan-like, and the seeds are na- endoderm, with a structureless mesogloea lying
ked. Example: cycas. between them, i.e. they are diploblastic.
iii) The body cavity or coelenteron has only one
Class: Ginkgoidae opening to the exterior called the mouth.
The leaves are large and fan-like, and the seeds are na- iv) Organs are absent; the body has two layers of cells
ked. Example: ginkgo. which are organised as tissues.
v) The nerves are in the form of a primitive nerve
Class: Gnetinae net.
The leaves are often scale-like, while the seeds are na- vi) They have stinging cells called nematocysts for
ked. (The four classes above are all gymnosperms). offence and defence.
vii) The organism is radially symmetrical.
Class: Angiospermae (Flowering plants) viii) Asexual reproduction is by budding while sexual
The flowering plants constitute the majority of the land reproduction is by the fusion of gametes.
plants. They bear flowers, and their seeds are enclosed
in the mature ovary or fruit. They have well-developed Phylum: Platyhelminthes (The flat worms)
conducting sytems. They are mostly endoparasites of animal hosts while
few are free living in water. Examples include flukes,
tapeworm, and planaria.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera (Sponges) Characteristics:
Multicellular, sessile, aquatic (largely marine) organ- i) The organisms are bilaterally symmetrical.
isms, with a single body cavity, called gastric cavity. ii) They are triploblastic (i.e. they have three body
The body has two layers of cells, an outer pinacoderm mouth
and an inner choanoderm. The choanoderm consists
mainly of collared flagellated cells.
genital pore
The body has many holes through which water
carrying food particles enters the gastric cavity. A skel- ventral sucker
eton of calcareous or siliceous spicules or horny fibers
of sponging may be present. There is no nervous sys-
tem. Asexual reproduction is by budding.

Phylum: Coelenterata
Coelenterates are mostly marine but few are found in
fresh water habitats. Examples include hydra and obe-
lia.
Characteristics: excretory pore
i) The organisms are simple multicellular inverte-
brates. Fig.1.18 a) Liver fluke

rostellum
nematoblast
tentacle

scolex

mouth hook
testis sucker
neck

ovary young proglottis

mature
young bud proglottis

basal disc

Fig. 1.17 Hydra Fig. 1.18 (b) Tapeworm

14
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) vi) They are metamerically segmented (i.e. the body
iii) They are animals without coelom. is made up of repeating units or segments).
iv) They are dorso-ventrally flattered, and unsegment- vii) The body has a segmentally arranged chaetae.
ed. viii) The excretory organs are called nephridia.
v) The body has a single opening (the mouth) into ix) The body is covered with a thin cuticle.
the alimentary canal. x) The organism may be unisexual or hermaphro-
vi) Circulatory or respiratory systems are absent. dite.
vii) Excretion is by flame cells.
viii) They are usually hermaphrodites, with a complex Phylum: Arthropoda
life cycle. Characteristics:
i) They are metamerically segmented.
Phylum: Nematoda ii) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
Some are free living while others are parasitic. Exam- iii) They are coelomate.
ples include ascaris and hookworm.
Characteristics: position of
anus
i) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
ii) They are triploblastic.
iii) The body is elongated and pointed at both ends.
iv) They have no coelom.
v) The body has a thick covering of cuticle. mouth
vi) The sexes are separate.
chaetae
Phylum: Annelid (Segmented worms)
Some of these worms are aquatic (e.g. nereis) while
female
some are terrestrial (e.g. earthworm). opening
clitellum
mouth male
opening
excretory pore

Fig. 1.20 Earthworm

iv) They have an exoskeleton of chitin.

v) They have jointed appendages.
vi) Fertilisation is internal.
gonopore The members of this phylum are widely distributed
and very successful. The phylum consists of four class-
es: inseta, arachnida, crustacean, and myriapoda.

lateral line Class: Insecta

This class contains the insects, such as cockroach,
housefly, grasshopper, and butterfly. They are mainly
terrestrial.
Characteristics:
anus i) An insect has a pair of jointed antennae.
ii) It has a pair of compound eyes.
Fig. 1.19 Ascaris
iii) It has three distinct regions of the body: head, tho-
rax and abdomen.
Characteristics:
iv) It has three thoracic segments: prothorax, mesotho-
i) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
rax and metathorax.
ii) The body is elongated and cylindrical.
v) Each segment of the thorax has a pair of jointed
iii) The body has a coelom.
walking legs.
iv) The organisms are triploblastic.
vi) An insect may have wings.
v) The alimentary cannal has two openings: mouth
and anus.

15
vii) An insect respires by means of tracheae.
viii) An insect undergoes metamorphosis.
mouth feeler

cephalo-
compound eye
abdomen thorax
head
antenna
thorax
prothorax
position of
first pair spinerettes
of wings

abdomen

Fig. 1.22 a) Spider

cercus
claw
style

Fig. 1.21 a) Cockroach first abdominal

segment
cephalo-thorax sting

clubbed
antenna

position of
thorax mouth

walking
claw legs
abdomen

Fig. 1.22 b) Scorpion

Fig. 1.21 b) Butterfly Class: Crustacea

The members live in water, or both in water and on
land. Examples include prawns, shrimps, crabs, water
flea and barnacle.
Characteristics:
Class: Arachnida (Spiders and scorpions)
i) Crustaceans have two body regions:
Characteristics:
cephalothorax and abdomen.
i) Arachnids have two body divisions: prosoma and
ii) They have one pair of antennae for feelers and a
opisthosoma (or abdomen).
pair of antennules for smelling.
ii) They have chelicerae and pedipalps.
iii) Some have five pairs of walking legs.
iii) They have eight simple eyes.
iv) Each has a pair of compound eyes.
iv) They have eight walking legs.
v) They breathe by means of gills.
v) They respire by means of lung hooks.

16
cephalo-thorax ii) They are carnivorous.
abdomen
carapace
eye
antenna
antenna

swimmerets walking legs

poison claw
tail plates
walking legs Fig. 1.24 Centipede
pincers
b) Subclass: Diplopoda (Millipedes)
Fig. 1.23 a) Prawn
Characteristics:
i) Millipedes have two pairs of appendages on each
claws
body segment.
ii) They are herbivorous.

stalked eyes antenna

long, segmented body

two pairs of walking legs per segment

Fig. 1.25 Millipede

carapace Phylum: Mollusca (Snails, bivalves)

Some members are aquatic, while some are terrestrial.
Characteristics:
walking legs i) Molluscs are bilaterally symmetrical.
Fig. 1.23 b) Crab ii) They are triploblastic.
iii) The organism has a coelom.
iv) The body is unsegmented.
Class: Myriapoda (Centipedes and millipedes) v) The body consists of head, foot and visceral mass.
These are terrestrial arthropods. vi) The body has no cuticle; it is soft.
Characteristics: vii) The skin covering the visceral mass extends to
i) They have two body regions: head and fused form the mantle, which secretes the shell.
trunk and abdomen. viii) It breathes by means of the mantle cavity.
ii) The abdomen consists of many limb-bearing seg- ix) Molluscs are hermaphrodite.
ments.
iii) The head bears a pair of simple eyes, a pair of
jaws and a pair of short antennae. shell
iv) They breathe by means of tracheae.
The class myriapoda has two subclasses:
eye
a) Subclass: Chilopoda (Centipedes)
tentacle
Characteristics:
collar
i) Centipedes have a pair of appendages on each
body segment. foot

Fig. 1.26 Land snail

17
Phylum: Echinodermata (Star fish) form a large perforated pharynx which becomes a
Echinoderms are all aquatic and live in or near water. ciliary feeding organ.
Characteristics: ii) There is no coelom.
i) They are radially symmetrical. iii) Sexes are separate or combined. Asexual reprod-
ii) They are triploblastic. uction is by budding. Colony formation is com-
iii) They have a coelom. mon.
iv) They have exoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and Example: Ciona.
spines.
v) The organs for locomotion are suckers or tube feet. Class: Cephalochordata
vi) The sexes are separate. Characteristics:
i) The organisms are fish-like but small.
ii) They do not possess specialised head, limbs or heart.
iii) The notochord extends along the whole length
of the body.
iv) The pharynx is large, with gill slits between gill
bars which open into an atrium.
v) Excretion is by nephridia.
Example: Amphioxus.

Subphylum: Craniata or vertebrata

Characteristics:
i) The vertebrates are chordates with well-developed
Fig. 1.27 Star fish heads and brains.
ii) The internal skeleton is of bone or cartilage.
iii) Excretion is through the kidney.
Phylum: Chordate iv) The heart is ventral.
Characteristics: v) Visceral clefts are few and are lost in the adult.
i) A notochord is present, at least in the early stage
of the life history. The vertebrates are divided into five classes.
ii) The pharynx has visceral clefts.
iii) There is a dorsal, tubular, central nervous system. Class: Pisces (Fishes)
iv) Three is a post-anal, metamerically segmented Characteristics:
tail. i) The visceral clefts persist in the adult as gill clefts.
v) Limbs, where present, are formed from more than ii) The paired limbs are the pectoral and pelvic fins.
one body segment. iii) A lateral line system is well developed.
vi) There is a closed body circulatory system. iv) There is an endoskeleton of placoid or cycloid
scales.
Subphylum: Acrania v) Fertilisation is external.
These are chordates which have no true skull, brain, Example: Tilapia
heart or kidneys.

Class: Hemichordata
Characteristics:
i) The notochord is represented by a short portion
in the proboscis.
ii) The body is divided into three parts: a pre-oral
proboscis, a collar and a trunk.
Example: Balano-gloussus

Class: Urochordata
Characteristics:
i) Chordate features are most obvious in the larval
stage. During metamorphosis, the notochord is lost,
nerve cord degenerates, and gill slits multiply to Fig. 1.28 Tilapia fish

18
Class: Amphibia (Amphibians) iii) They have feathers on their skins.
Characteristics: iv) They have beaks; teeth are absent.
i) The amphibians have pentadactyl limbs. v) They have scales on their legs and feet.
ii) The skin is soft and has no scales. vi) The respiratory organs are lungs.
iii) Gills are present in the tadpole larva, but lungs vii) They lay eggs with much yolk.
are present in the adult. viii) There are no larval stages.
iv) There is no external ear, but there is a middle ear. ix) Fertilisation is internal.
Examples: Toad and frog. Examples: Domestic chicken, and pigeon.

head trunk nostril position of ear

wing coverts

secondary
upper and flight
lower feathers
mandibles
primary
flight
feathers

claw
under-tail
fore-limb coverts
hind-limb tail
web between toes feathers
metatarsus
Fig. 1.29 Toad Fig. 1.31 A weaver bird

Class: Reptilia (Reptiles) Class: Mammalia (Mammals)

Characteristics: Characteristics:
i) Reptiles have pentadactyl limbs. i) Mammals have pentadactyl limbs.
ii) The skin is dry, with scales. ii) They are warm-blooded animals.
iii) The respiratory organs are lungs. iii) They have hair and sweat glands in their skin.
iv) They lay eggs with much yolk, and there is no iv) They have mammary glands; young ones suck their
larval stage. mother’s milk.
v) Fertilisation is internal. v) They have four-chambered hearts.
Examples: lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and tortoise. vi) The eggs are small, and the young ones develop
within their mothers.
vii) Fertilisation is internal.
nostril viii) They are viviparous.
orange coloured head
ear drum
neck
head trunk

pinna or outer ear

gular fold eye

nose long hind-limb
claw scales

Fig. 1.30 Agama lizard

whiskers
Class: Aves (Birds) claw at furless
Characteristics: end of scaly
i) The birds have pentadactyl limbs; the first pair of digit fore-limb tail
limbs are modified into wings for flight.
ii) They are warm-blooded animals. Fig. 1.32 A rat

19
4 Which is the correct arrangement of groups used
Summary in classification of organisms in order of increas-
ing size?
This chapter has taught the following:
A Genus, family, species, order, phylum, class
• Living things have:
B Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum
– Physiological characteristics: They feed, re-
C Family, order, genus, species, class, phylum
spire, excrete, grow, perceive and respond to
D Phylum, order, family, class, species, genus
stimuli, move and reproduce.
E Class, family, phylum, species, order, genus
– Ecological characteristics: They adapt to their
5 Describe the characteristics of living things.
environments.
6 State the levels of organisation of life with one
– Genetic characteristics: They transmit their
named example for each level.
characteristics to their offspring.
7 Describe the differences between plants and
– Evolutionary characteristics: They change with
animals.
time.
8 a) What is classification?
– Structural characteristics: They all contain the
b) Why is it necessary to classify organisms?
living substance protoplasm, and consist of
c) List the characteristics of one named phylum.
one or more cells.
• Cells are organised into tissues, tissues into or-
gans, organs into organ systems, and organ sys-
tems into organisms. There are some organisms at
the cell, tissue, organ and organ system levels of
organisation.
Complexity of organisation of living things has
both advantages and disadvantages.
• Living things are classified in such a way that
organisms with the largest number of similarities
and which interbreed form a specie. From this
species, there is a hierarchy of groups of increas-
ing size, namely, genus, family, order, class and
phylum.

Revision questions
1 Which of the following is true of a living thing?
A It breathes.
B It transmits its characteristics to its offspring.
C It adapts to its environment.
D It consists of one or more cells.
E It does all of the above.
2 The lowest level of organisation of life is the
_____________.
A cell
B tissue
C organ
D organ system
E heart
3 Which of the following is present in both plant
cell and animal cell?
A Cell membrane
B Cell wall
C Cell vacuole
D Chloroplast
E Cell sap

20
Chapter 2 The cell

Introduction
The dictionary gives the meaning of cell as ‘a small
room in a prison for one or more persons‘ or as ‘a small
number of people.’ A person suspected of committing
a crime may be put by the police in a ‘cell’ while inves-
tigation is going on.
In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English scientist, who
discovered Hooke’s law, used a crude microscope to
observe thin slices of cork from an oak tree. What Rob-
ert Hooke saw were cell walls of dead cells. Since then,
more efficient microscopes have been developed and
more people have used them to look at living cells. It is
now realised that the spaces which Robert Hooke saw
contain living matter, in living cells.
This living matter, which Robert Hooke did not
see, is the most important part of the cell. The living
matter carries out the life processes in the cell. The liv-
Fig. 2.1 Hooke’s cork cells
ing matter, and the walls surrounding it form a unit, the
cell.
In biology, a cell is defined as the structural and Forms in which cells exist
functional unit of which organisms are composed. A Living cells exist in different forms. Some exist as in-
living thing is made up of cells in more or less the same dependent organisms, some as colonies, some as fila-
way as a building is made up of blocks or bricks. ments and some as parts of living organisms.

The cell as a living unit The cell as an independent organism

In some microscopic organisms, such as amoeba, parame-
A cell is a living unit because it displays the character-
cium, euglena, and chlamydomonas, the body consists of
istics of living things. The cell is the smallest unit that
one cell only. An organism that consists of one cell only
shows the characteristics of life.
is said to be unicellular. Unicellular organisms are also
described as acellular or non-cellular because their
bodies are not divided into cells.
Characteristics of living things
1 All living things have one common quality in their
structure. Each is made up of one or more cells. A
cell has this quality.
2 All living things show seven functional character-
istics: nutrition, respiration, movement, growth,
excretion, sensitivity and reproduction, A cell does
all these.

21
oral groove ectoplasm Paramecium
a) gullet Habitat
endoplasm micro anal pore
nucleus Paramecium is found in muddy ponds and stagnant or
food sluggish fresh water containing decaying organic mat-
vacuole
ter.

Structure
Paramecium is a unicellular organism, just visible to the
naked eyes. It is between 0.15mm and 0.3mm long. The
shape resembles that of the human foot or a slipper.
posterior
cilium contractile
anterior meganucleus vacuole Locomotion
contractile trichocyst
vacuole pellicle Paramecium moves by means of cilia, which occur on the
surface of the body. The cilia beat obliquely backwards,
causing the organism to rotate on its axis as it moves
b) psuedo- forward, with the blunt end leading.
food endoplasm
nucleus podium
vacuole
Feeding
It feeds on microscopic organisms, such as bacteria,
protozoa and algae. As the cilia in the oral groove beat,
food particles are carried toward the gullet. Cilia in the
gullet move in such a way that the food particles are
carried to the bottom of the gullet. There, at the mouth
pore, food particles, from time to time, enter the endo-
contractile plasm to form food vacuoles.
vacuole ectoplasm As a food vacuole circulates, the endoplasm se-
cretes digestive enzymes into it. The food is digested
Fig. 2.2 Unicellular organisms: (a) Paramecium and absorbed. The undigested or unabsorbed remains
(b) Amoeba. of the food are removed at a definite spot: the anal
pore.
Activity 2.1 Observing unicellular
Respiration
organisms Oxygen dissolved in the water in the habitat diffuses
through the entire body surface into the paramecium.
Materials required The paramecium uses the oxygen for respiration.
Microscope; microscope slides containing stained spec-
imens of paramecium, euglena and chlamydomonas Excretion
Carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste products are
Procedure passed out by diffusion through the entire body surface
1 Your teacher will mount (for you under a micro- of the paramecium into the surrounding water.
scope,) stained specimens of paramecium, euglena
and chlamydomonas. Osmoregulation
2 Your teacher will also mount (for you, under a dif- The protoplasm of paramecium contains a higher con-
ferent microscope,) living specimens of parame- centration of salts than the surrounding water in the
cium, euglena and chlamydomonas, one after the habitat. Water, therefore, passes from the surroundings
other. into the organism by osmosis. Paramecium has two con-
3 Draw and label each organism in your book. Note tractile vacuoles, one at each end. These act alternately.
the size, shape and main features of each. Each slowly enlarges, reaches its maximum size and
4 Observe the characteristics of living things shown then bursts, removing excess water from the proto-
by a living specimen of each of the organisms. plasm to the outside. This control of the water content
of the protoplasm is called osmoregulation.
Unicellular organisms exist as independent living
things in nature. Their activities show that cells
are living units.

22
1 Two mature individuals called conjugants
come together and lie side by side with their
oral grooves touching.

8 Further division produces

four paramecia from each 2 Meganuclei disintegrate
conjugant: one nucleus and micronuclei split
becomes the meganucleus into four

3 Three micronuclei of
each conjugant
disintegrate

7 Each ex-conjugant
divides into two

6 The conjugants separate and

each zygotic nucleus divides 4 Each remaining micronucleus
into eight divides into two: one of these
migrates into the other conjugant

5 Migratory and stationary

nuclei fuse to form zygotic
nucleus

Fig. 2.3 Conjugation in paramecium

Sensitivity ture individual dividing into two. This is called binary

Paramecium perceives changes in its environment and fission. During the binary fission, the meganucleus and
responds to them. It defends itself against its enemies micronucleus, each divides into two. The cytoplasm
by shooting out its trichocysts which may hurt or kill also divides transversely into two, each half containing
them. If it meets an obstacle while in motion, the cilia one meganucleus and one micronucleus.
temporarily stop beating. Then it reverses the ciliary Asexual reproduction by binary fission is rapid,
beat and moves back at a different angle. Then it re- and gives rise to a large number of individuals called
sumes the forward motion in a new direction. This is clones. However, it leads to a gradual weakening of the
called avoiding reaction. offspring. When this weakening goes on to a certain
degree, sexual reproduction takes place to make the
Reproduction young ones strong again.
There are two methods of reproduction: asexual and Sexual reproduction in paramecium takes place by
sexual. Asexual reproduction in paramecium is by a ma- a complicated process known as conjugation. Conju-

23
gation starts when two fully developed individuals, gellum. Waves pass along the flagellum from the base
called conjugatants, come together and lie side by side. to the tip. The organism rotates as it moves. Euglena
The two attach themselves together along their oral can also move by the contractions of fibrils in its body
grooves. The meganucleus of each individual breaks called myonemes. These contractions bring about a se-
down. The micronucleus of each individual divides quence of changes in the shape, and cause euglenoid
into four parts. Three of the four pieces in each breaks movement.
down. The remaining piece of the micronucleus divides
into two. One of the two pieces of the micronucleus in Nutrition
each individual migrates into the other individual and Euglena viridis is a green and photo-autotrophic organ-
fuses with the stationary piece of micronucleus to form ism. With carbon dioxide obtained from the water in
the zygotic nucleus (or fusion nucleus). The conjugants which it lives, and energy from sunlight, it photosyn-
now separate. The fusion nucleus in each ex-conjugant thesises. It makes up its nitrogen requirement by ab-
divides into eight parts. The cytoplasm divides into sorbing nitrogenous substances, such as amino acids
four parts by binary fission to form four young parame- from the water. In some species of euglena, the flagel-
cia each with meganucleus and micronucleus (see Fig. lum sets up a whirl pool, which carries small organ-
2.3). isms into the gullet. The small organisms are engulfed
through the gullet, which in these species, has no pel-
licle, and digested in the cytoplasm.
Euglena Some species of euglena lack chlorophyll and are
Euglena is a minute organism which has the character-
colourless. They nourish themselves by extracellular
istics of both plants and animals.
digestion, then absorption of organic materials. When
kept in the dark, green species of euglena lose chloro-
Habitat
phyll. They continue to live if supplied with organic
Euglena lives in stagnant fresh water, such as pools and
food materials.
ponds which contain decaying organic matter.

Structure
sphincter
Euglena is a microscopic organism about 0.125 mm flagellum
long. It has a definite shape, which is slender, and ta-
gullet
pers towards each end. The front end is blunt, while the eye spot
hind end is pointed. photorecetor
stigma
Euglena is green because it contains green chlo- contractile
vacuole
roplasts. In some species, these chloroplasts are rod-
shaped and are arranged in the form of a star in the
middle portion of the body. In other species, the chlo- paramylum
roplasts may be spherical and are scattered in the cyto- granules
plasm. The body surface is covered with a thin, tough
material called pellicle, which is flexible and allows chloroplasts
the organism to alter its shape for short periods of time
pellicle nucleus
during a form of movement known as euglenoid mo-
tion.
At the anterior end is a flask-shaped structure
called gullet. From the bottom of this gullet arises a
long filament known as flagellum. On one side of the
Fig. 2.4 Euglena
gullet is a red spot, which is sensitive to light, and
known as the eye spot. Near the gullet is a contractile
vacuole. The cytoplasm is differentiated into an outer
thick cytoplasm called ectoplasm and an inner liquid Respiration
cytoplasm known as endoplasm. In the endoplasm, Euglena absorbs oxygen from the water through its en-
there are granules of paramylum, a type of carbohy- tire body surface and uses it for respiration.
drate stored by this organism. The nucleus is located in
the endoplasm. Excretion
Carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste materials are re-
Locomotion moved from the body by diffusion through the external
Euglena moves by the whip-like action of a single fla- body surface.

24
Osmoregulation chlamydomonas-like
There is one contractile vacuole, with tributary canals, cells
mucilage
which collects excess water from the cytoplasm and
flagella
discharges it into the gullet.

Sensitivity
Euglena viridis moves towards a source of light. It reacts
to harmful chemicals by turning and moving away.

Reproduction
Euglena reproduces asexually only by binary fission. A
fully grown individual divides lengthwise beginning
from the anterior to the posterior end.

Chlamydomonas
Chlamydomonas is a microscopic, unicellular, green alga, (a) Colony of pandorina
which lives in fresh water ponds and ditches. Its struc-
ture is shown in Fig. 2.5. Chlamydomonas has a constant, daughter colony inside
a hollow sphere
oval shape, it has a cell wall which encloses the cyto-
plasm and nucleus. There are two flagella at the anteri-
or end. Within the cytoplasm, in the anterior part, is one
cup-shaped chloroplast, with a pyrenoid embedded in
it. The pyrenoid is a centre for the storage of food.

flagellum
contractile
vacuole

blepharoplast

cytoplasm

eye spot (b) Colony of volvox

nucleus Fig. 2.6

chloroplast
Pandorina, eudorina and volvox
Pandorina, eudorina and volvox are colonial algae, which
pyrenoid are made up of cells, each similar to chlamydomonas.
Each pandorina consists of a colony of 16 cells; each eu-
cell wall
dorina is a colony of 32 cells, while each volvox con-
tains hundreds or even thousands of cells in a colony.
Fig. 2.5 Chlamydomonas When a colonial organism consists of a constant
number of cells, and the cells are specifically arranged
into a definite form and integrated, the colony is called
a coenobium.
Living cells as a colony Volvox will be described below as an example of
an organism in which living cells form a colony.
The body of an organism may consist of separate liv-
ing cells held together by mucilage. All the cells move Habitat
together as a unit. The individual cells carry out some Volvox lives in fresh water ponds and ditches. Under
activities independently. A group of cells is called a favourable conditions, the organism is present in large
colony. numbers, causing the habitat to be green.

25
Structure Eventually, it is released, and it divides many times to
Volvox is a colonial green alga. The colony or coenobi- form a new coenobium.
um is a hollow sphere of cells arranged in a single layer
near the outer surface. The cells are separated from one
another by mucilage which also envelopes all the cells. Activity 2.2 Observing volvox
The mucilage is soft at the centre of the sphere and firm
near the external surface. Materials required
The number of cells in a colony varies from one Pond water containing volvox, microscope, microscope
species to another. It ranges from about 1 000 to 20 000. slide
A colony is readily visible to the naked eye. Each cell
has a chloroplast with pyrenoid, eye spot, two flagella, Procedure
contractile vacuoles and nucleus. The flagella protrude 1 Your teacher will mount a sample of water con-
through the mucilage. taining volvox under a microscope.
There are protoplasmic processes connecting the 2 Observe the organism, noting its structure and
cells. The cells in one coenobium are similar in struc- movement.
ture, and the entire colony has definite anterior and 3 Make a drawing of volvox in your notebook.
posterior ends.

Nutrition
Volvox moves by means of flagella, with the front end Living cells as a filament
leading. The coenobium rotates about the anterior- pos-
terior axis in an anticlockwise manner as it moves. Living cells may also exist as a filament.
Spirogyra, a common green filamentous alga, is a good
Sensitivity example.
The organism moves towards light.
Habitat
Reproduction Spirogyra is found in slow-flowing fresh water streams
It reproduces by both asexual and sexual methods. and ponds as floating green masses, near the surface of
the water.
Asexual reproduction
Most of the cells in a colony are body cells which do not Structure
reproduce. A few cells in the posterior part reproduce Many spirogyra filaments are held together by slimy
asexually. Each asexually reproductive cell enlarges in mucilage. When a small sample of spirogyra is exam-
comparison with other cells, and then divides many ined under the microscope, the filament is seen to be
times to produce a plate of cells. made up of individual cells joined end to end.
By further division and rearrangement, the cells
form a hollow sphere of cells, which is a young coeno-
bium. Young coenobia lie in the interior of the parent
until the parent eventually dies and disintegrates, and Activity 2.3 Observing spirogyra cells
then they are released.
Materials required
Sexual reproduction Sample of stream or pond water containing spirogyra,
Sexual reproduction is marked by the formation of microscope, microscope slide, watch glass
gametes and the occurrence of fertilisation. In some
species, such as Volvox globator, one individual forms Procedure
both male and female gametes. In other species, such as 1 Your teacher will mount under a microscope a
Volvox aureus, there are male or female gametes only. specimen of spirogyra, stained with iodine solu-
A cell that will form male gametes or authero- tion.
zoids divides to form many male gametes which are 2 Observe the specimen through the microscope.
released into the water. A cell that will form female 3 Draw one filament and one cell in your notebook.
gametes forms only one large female gamete. The male
gametes swim to the female gamete. One male gamete
fertilises the female gamete to form a resting oospore, Each spirogyra cell is cylindrical in shape. It has a cell
which remains in the parent coenobium for some time. wall, outside which is a layer of mucilage. Inside the

26
cell are a nucleus and cytoplasm. The cytoplasm does gen, nerve cells conduct impulses, spermatozoa fertilise
not fill the cell but leaves cell vacuoles filled with cell ova in reproduction, muscle cells bring about move-
sap. Within the cytoplasm is a spirally-shaped chloro- ment. All the cells of the body benefit from the different
plast which goes from one end of the cell to the other. actions of different cells. In a multicellular organism,
The cells in a filament are alike, but independent. therefore, the cells are interdependent.
When the filament is broken by wind or by water The cells which perform the same function may
movement, separate pieces reproduce vegetatively to occur as a group. A group of cells which are similar in
form new filaments. This type of reproduction is called structure and perform the same function is called tis-
fragmentation. sue. Cells in a tissue differ from a colony or filament of
cells. Cells in a tissue do not carry out all functions of
life in the organism, but only one or few functions. Each
The cell as a part of a living tis- cell in a colony or filament carries out functions of cells
sue in that organism. Cells in a filament are independent
in many functions- nutrition, respiration and excretion.
A unicellular organism consists of one cell only. Organ- Cells in such a colony are also independent in many
isms that consist of many cells, such as man or iroko functions. They cooperate in movement. Cells in a tis-
tree, are said to be multicellular. In a multicellular or- sue are clearly interdependent with other cells in the
ganism, there is usually specialisation of cells and divi- organism, because if a tissue carries out one function,
sion of labour. All the cells are not of the same kind. Dif- such as support by xylem tissue, that tissue depends on
ferent kinds of cells perform different functions. Each other tissues for nutrition, sensitivity, reproduction and
kind has a structure that enables it to perform its own so on.
function.
In the human body, white blood cells defend the
body against infection, red blood cells transport oxy-

mucilage
vacuole

pyrenoid cell wall chloroplast nucleus cytoplasmic cell wall of

strand neighbouring cell

Fig. 2.7 A spirogyra cell

27
red corpuscle

cilium
(a) red blood corpuscle nucleus

dendrite
white corpuscle

cell body
nucleus

(b) white blood corpuscle (c) epithelial cell

nucleus
acrosome
nucleus head axon

middle piece

axon sheath

flagellum

(d) spermatozoan small vacuole

nucleus

nerve ending

(f) Cheek cell

(e) neuron (nerve) cell

nucleus

(g) muscle cell

Fig. 2.8 A variety of cells in man

28
thickening at
corner of cell
cytoplasm

nucleus
nucleus

cell wall

(a) collenchyma cells

(b) parenchyma cell in pith

chloroplast

vacuole cell wall

nucleus nucleus

cytoplasm (d) epidermal cells of leaf

(side view)
cell membrane

(c) palisade cells

cell wall

thickening of
cell wall

space in
xylem vessel

(e) pericycle cells

(f) xylem vessel in stem

Fig. 2.9 A variety of plant cells

29
Cell theory
As you learnt earlier in this chapter, Robert Hooke was
the first, in 1665, to observe dead cork cells with a mi-
croscope. In 1834, a French biologist, Dujardin discov-
ered the living part of the cell. He called it sarcode. This
is known as protoplasm. In 1838 Matthias Schleidon, a
German botanist discovered that all plants are made up
of cells. In 1839 Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist
discovered that all animals are made up of cells.
In 1839, Matthias Schleidon and Theodor
Schwann jointly stated what is now known as the
cell theory, namely, that all living things are made up
of cells. After the statement of the cell theory, in 1846,
Hugo Von Mohl first applied the term protoplasm to
the living substance in the cell, the name by which it is Fig. 2.11 Human cheek cells
still known. In 1858, Rudolf Virchow stated that cells
come from pre-existing cells. Cells differ in shape. Cells of the human skin are
Other scientists made contributions to our knowl- flat, cells lining the intestine are cylindrical, liver cells
edge of the cell. are circular, nerve cells are elongated ending in fine pro-
In summary, the cell theory is stated as follows: cesses, white blood cells are amoeboid while red blood
1 All living things are composed of cells. cells are disc shaped and biconcave. All cells have some
2 Cells are the basic units of structure and structural properties in common. They are as follows:
functions of living things. 1 Most cells are microscopic.
3 All cells arise from pre-existing cells by 2 Every living cell has a cell membrane, cytoplasm
cell division. and nucleus. The protoplasm in the nucleus is
known as nucleoplasm.

Cell structure
Activity 2.4 Observing a plant cell
Cells differ in structure, from one type to another. Each
type has a structure that fits it for its particular func- Materials required
tion. Cells vary in size. Only a few kinds are visible to Onion bulb, razor blade, mounted needle, microscope,
the unaided human eye. The majority of cells are mi- microscope slide, water
croscopic, ranging from about 0.025 mm to about 0.25 Procedure
mm in diameter. However, there are exceptions. Eggs 1 Strip the epidermis from the inner side of the
are cells, and the largest cell is the egg of an ostrich. fleshy leaf of an onion bulb. You can use a razor
blade or a mounted needle to start the process.
2 Cut a small piece of the epidermal strip.
3 Stain the epidermal strip with iodine solution.
4 Examine the specimen under the low power of
cell wall a microscope.
5 Draw the cells as you see them.

Activity 2.5 Observing an animal cell

nucleus
Materials required
Mounted needle, microscope, microscope slide

Procedure
1 Use a mounted needle to clean out a finger nail.
2 Run the clean finger nail lightly over the inside of
your cheek.
Fig. 2.10 Epidermal cells of onion

30
3 Clean out the cheek cells scraped out by your fin- mitochondrion
ger nail unto a clean slide. cell membrane
4 Mount the cheek cells in a little saliva. Cover with
slip, and examine the cheek cells under the low
power and high power of a microscope.
5 Draw the cells as you see them. cytoplasm

nucleus
The structure of a generalised plant
cell
Since plant cells differ in structure from one type to an-
other, a generalised plant cell will be described. When
seen through a compound light microscope, a plant
cell consists of the following major parts: cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Fig. 2.13 A generalised animal cell
The outermost part of the plant cell is the cell wall.
In a young cell, this cell wall is made of cellulose and
is thin. As the cell grows older, the cell wall is thick- The cell membrane lies immediately below the cell
ened with cellulose. In addition, in some tissues, other walls. It is seen through a light microscope as a line. It is
chemicals may be deposited on the cellulose wall. For semipermeable, that is, it is selective in allowing small
instance, lignin is deposited on cell walls in xylem and molecules, but not large molecules to pass through. The
pericycle tissues, while suberin is deposited on cellu- cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm
lose cell walls in cork tissue. The deposition of lignin is a complex colourless, granular, colloidal liquid which
and suberin on the cell walls causes the protoplasm in contains water, mineral salts, enzymes, proteins and
these cells to die. Cellulose cell walls are permeable to other organic molecules. Sometimes, reserve food par-
water and oxygen. Suberin is not permeable; hence in ticles are present. A young plant cell is filled with cyto-
cork tissue, water and air diffuse through the lenticels. plasm. As the cell grows, the growth of the cytoplasm
is slower than the growth of the cell. As a result, spaces
occur in the cytoplasm called cell vacuoles, which are
filled with cell sap. The membrane that separates the
cellulose cell wall cell vacuoles from the cytoplasm is called tonoplast.
tonoplast In the cytoplasm also there are chloroplasts. In higher
plants, each cell in the green parts of the plants contains
many small, spherical chloroplasts. Chloroplasts con-
tain chlorophyll, and are the centres for photosynthesis.
The nucleus is roughly spherical in shape and is
chloroplast denser than the cytoplasm in which it is embedded. It
is surrounded by a double membrane, which together
mitochondrion
make up the nuclear envelope. At certain points, the
cytoplasm
two membranes come together, creating spaces, called
cell membrane nuclear pores, through which the nucleus commu-
nicates with the cytoplasm. In the nucleus, there are
nucleus
numerous very fine threads which form a network of
material called chromatin. Normally, these threads are
vacuole not visible when a cell is not dividing. In a dividing cell,
containing
cell sap the chromatin network condenses into chromosomes,
whose number is constant in each species. Chromo-
somes are visible through the compound light micro-
scope but only in dividing cells. The chromosomes
carry hereditary factors called genes. The nucleus is the
body that controls all the functional activities of a cell,
and also contains the chromosomes that transmit inher-
Fig. 2.12 A generalised plant cell itable characters.

31
The structure of an animal cell as seen screen. The electron microscope can magnify up to
500 000 times. With this instrument, the structures of
through a light microscope cell organelles which had been seen with the light mi-
A cheek cell is taken as an example. The animal cell croscope are now better understood, and organelles too
is similar in some respects to a plant cell. However, it small to be seen with the compound light microscope
lacks a cell wall, chloroplasts and cell vacuoles. The have been seen. Cell organelles which are seen through
cheek cell is roughly irregular in shape. The outermost electron microscope but not with light microscope in-
layer is the cell membrane which encloses the granular clude endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, mitochon-
cytoplasm. The nucleus is embedded in the cytoplasm. dria and ribosomes.
The compound light microscope is commonly
used in schools. It is compound because it uses a com- Endoplasmic reticulum
bination of lenses. It is a light microscope because light This is a system of membrane-bound spaces which form
rays pass through a thin specimen, then through the an extensive network in the cytoplasm. It extends from
lenses that produce a magnified image. A compound the nuclear envelope to the cell membrane and pro-
light microscope gives a maximum magnification of vides channels of communication within the cell. It is
about 2 000 times. considered that some materials may also pass through
In the last several decades, the electron micro- these channels from the nucleus to the cell membrane
scope was invented. Instead of light, a beam of elec- or the other way round.
trons passes through the specimen. The image is not
seen with the naked eye, but is produced on a sensitive

cell membrane

golgi body

centrosome
ribosome

nucleus

nucleolus
nuclear membrane

mitochondria

smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

cytoplasm

Fig. 2.14 A cell as seen through the electron microscope

32
phospholipid
molecule

phospholipid
bilayer

protein
molecule protein molecule forms
a channel or pore
through the membrane

Fig. 2.15 Singer and Nicholson’s model of the cell membrane

Golgi body are the centres for respiration. They secrete the enzymes
A Golgi body is a system of membrane-bound sacs, that bring about respiration. They are more numerous
packed together. Several Golgi bodies occur in the cy- in metabolically active cells than in other cells.
toplasm of a cell. The Golgi body is concerned with the
packaging of materials for removal out of the cell. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are very tiny particles, which may be at-
Mitochondrion tached to the endoplasmic reticulum or may occur free
A mitochondrion is rod-like or spherical in shape. Sev- in the cell. They synthesise proteins.
eral mitochondria (plural) are found in each cell. They

outer membrane

inner membrane

crista
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
ribosome
matrix

(b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(a) Mitochondrion
Fig. 2.16 Structures of cell organelles

33
secretory product
Smooth
endoplasmic secretory vessel
reticulum
goigi body
or apparatus
(c) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum cell
membrane
(d) Golgi body

outer membrane
inner
membrane
stroma
starch
grain
granum
(e) Chloroplast inter granum

Cell components and their functions

Table 2.1 Functions of cell organelles

Cell organelle Function

1 Cell wall (plant cell) It gives shape and firmness to the cell; allows gases and water to
pass through (except where substances, such as lignin or suberin are
deposited on the cell wall).

2 Cell membrane It forms the outer boundary of the protoplasm, being semipermeable; it
allows some substances to pass in and out of the cell and prevents others
from doing so.

3 Cytoplasm It contains cell organelles, such as chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum,

Golgi bodies, and mitochondria. It contains organic molecules, such as
enzymes, food substances which are used by the cell. Many metabolic
activities are carried out in it.

4 Cell vacuole (plant cell) It contains cell sap which helps to make the cell turgid. Some excretory
substances are stored in the cell sap.

5 Food vacuole (animal cell) It contains food in the process of being digested.

6 Chloroplast (plant cell) It is the site for the synthesis of sugar.

7 Nucleus It controls the shape, size and functions of the cell; it contains
chromosomes by which hereditary characters are transmitted.

8 Mitochondrion It is the organelle in which reactions in respiration take place.

34
Comparison of plant and animal cells
The differences between plant and animal cells are shown in Table 2.2

Table 2.2 Differences between plant and animal cells

Plants cells Animal cells

1 Chloroplasts are present in green plant 1 Chloroplasts are absent in animal cells.
cells.

2 Cell wall of cellulose is present. 2 Cell wall is absent.

3 A few large cell vacuoles are present in 3 Cell vacuoles are usually absent. Food
mature cells. or contractile vacuoles may be present.

4 Mature plant cells are not filled with 4 Mature animal cells contain plentiful
cytoplasm. cytoplasm, denser than in plant cells.

The similarities between plant and animal cells include Revision questions
the following:
1 Both have cell membranes. 1 The statement that all living things are made of
2 Both have cytoplasm. cells was first made by
3 Both have nucleus. A Dujardin.
4 Both have cell organelles. B Robert Hooke.
C Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
D Von-Mohl.
Summary E Rudolf Virchow.
2 The part of a cell that is responsible for protein
This chapter has taught the following: synthesis is called
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of which A endoplasmic reticulum.
living things are made up. B nuclear envelope.
• Each living thing is made up of one or more living C ribosome.
cells. D mitochondria.
• A cell shows the seven functional characteristics of E Golgi body.
all living things: nutrition, respiration, movement, 3 Which one of these is present in both plant cells
growth, excretion, sensitivity and reproduction. and animal cells?
• A cell may exist as an independent organism, a A Cell membrane
part of a colony, a part of a filament of cells or a part B Chloroplasts
of a multicellular organism. C Cellulose
• A cell has organelles which carry out specific func- D Large cell vacuoles
tions. E Cell sap
• A plant cell resembles an animal cell in some re- 4 Which of the following statements about cells is
spects but differs from it in other respects. true?
• An electron microscope makes the detailed study A All cells are alike in structure.
of cells possible. B Cells in a tissue perform different functions.

35
C In a multicellular organism, each cell is inde-
pendent.
D A part of a cell is called an organ.
E A cell can exist as an independent organism.
5 Differentiate between a colony of cells and a fila-
ment of cells, using named examples. What is the
relationship between the cells in each type of organ-
ism?
6 a) Describe the structure of a plant cell.
State
b) three similarities between plant and animal
cells.
c) three differences between plant and animal
cells.
7 Describe the functions of the following:
a) The cell membrane
b) The nucleus
c) The mitochondrion
d) The Golgi body in a cell.

36
Chapter 3 The cell and its environment

Introduction ments that demonstrate the diffusion of many mole-

cules from an area where they are in high concentration
In a living organism, there is constant movement of ma- to an area where they are in lower concentration.
terials. Within a cell, materials, such as oxygen, food,
enzymes, and carbon dioxide move from one part to
another. Between a cell and its external environment, Activity 3.1 Observing diffusion in
there is exchange of materials. The exchange of materi-
als between an organism and its external environment
liquids
is necessary for the life of the organism.
Materials required
A simple organism, such as spirogyra, that lives in
Measuring cylinder (minimum capacity 500 cm3), dis-
water, obtains water, mineral salts, oxygen and carbon
tilled water, pipette, concentrated copper (II) tetraoxo-
dioxide from the environment for its vital activities. In
sulphate (VI) (copper sulphate) solution
multicellular organisms, there is exchange of materials
between different parts of one cell, between cells and
Procedure
the tissue fluids that surround them, and between cells
1 Locate a spot in the laboratory where you can have
and their external environments.
the measuring cylinder standing undisturbed for
In this chapter, you will learn about some biophys-
weeks (a shaded window would be quite suit-
ical processes that bring about this exchange of materi-
able).
als. These include diffusion, imbibition and osmosis.
2 Pour into the measuring cylinder 200 cm3 of the
distilled water. Draw up copper sulphate solution
into the pipette. Carefully lower the tip of the
Diffusion pipette to the bottom of the measuring cylinder
and very slowly run in 100 cm3 of the copper
The molecules that make up matter are continually in
sulphate solution. If this is done correctly, there
motion. The speed with which they move varies. If you
should be a distinct ‘line’ between the clear dis-
were to open a bottle of petrol or ethanol for a few sec-
tilled water above and the blue copper sulphate
onds in one corner of the laboratory or classroom, ev-
solution below. Withdraw the empty pipette slowly,
eryone in the room would soon smell it. The petrol or
after delivery.
ethanol evaporates and the molecules somehow spread
3 Cover and leave the measuring cylinder to stand
from the bottle in your hand to other parts of the room.
undisturbed for about two weeks. Observe daily and
This spread of molecules happens much faster in gases
record your observations in your notebook. Pay
and vapours than in liquids. It is so slow as to be almost
particular attention to the boundary or face be-
non-existent in solids.
tween the water and copper sulphate solution.
The movement of molecules from a region where
4 After a few days, you should observe a mixing up
they are in higher concentration to a region where they
or shading-off in the colouring at the face, with
are in lower concentration is called diffusion. This
the blue colour below and the clear, colourless
movement (or flow or spread) continues until the mol-
water above. If you leave the cylinder long enough,
ecules are evenly dispersed throughout the space avail-
the colour will eventually become mixed all
able to them. Individual molecules are too small for the
through the liquid.
human eye to see. It is, however, possible to do experi-

37
Caution
Keep your face away from the ammonia bottle and
pipette avoid breathing in the ammonia fumes. What do you
observe in the test tube? How soon after placing the test
tube over the bottle of ammonia solution did you notice
measuring cylinder a change? Account for this observation.

You will have seen the contents of the test tube

change colour gradually from red to blue. The change
started at the mouth of the inverted test tube and pro-
copper sulphate solution gressed upwards all through the test tube. Molecules of
ammonia gas had diffused through the liquid mixture
and turned the original acid mixture alkaline. The lit-
mus solution indicated this by its colour change from
distilled water red to blue. The movement of molecules from one re-
gion to another region within a space, depends on the
relative concentrations of the molecules in different
parts of the space. Diffusion is responsible for much of
the transport of substances from area to area within the
cell.
copper sulphate solution

Fig. 3.1 Demonstrating diffusion in liquids

test tube

The molecules of the copper (II) tetraoxo sul-

phate (VI) (copper sulphate) have diffused evenly, dilute hydrochloric
acid
all through the water. The water molecules will
also have moved into the copper sulphate solution.
secured filter
paper
Activity 3.2 Observing diffusion in
gases
Materials required
Litmus solution, test tube, dilute hydrochloric acid,
bottle of ammonia solution, filter or tissue paper, rub- ammonia
ber band vapour

Procedure
1 Put water in the test tube to make it about three-
quarters full. Add a few drops of litmus solution. concentrated
To this mixture, add one to two drops of dilute ammonia solution
hydrochloric acid, just enough to turn the contents
of the test tube red.
2 Ensure that the test tube is completely full by
Fig. 3.2 Demonstrating diffusion in gases
adding more water. Place a filter paper or a piece
of tissue paper over the mouth of the test tube.
Secure the paper tightly over the test tube with a
rubber band. Activity 3.3 Observing diffusion of
3 Now invert the test tube, (the contents are now
slightly acidic) over an open bottle of ammonia
a perfume in air
solution. Hold the test tube in this position for a
few minutes.
Material required
A bottle of cheap perfume

38
Procedure and water molecules is called imbibition, which means
1 A student releases a puff of the cheap perfume at ‘drinking in’.
the back of the class. Imbibition is the explanation for wooden doors
2 Students are instructed to stand up and observe becoming difficult to shut or open in wet weather.
the time when each perceives the smell of the per- Imbibition makes the bean seed swell up when left in
fume. water for some time. Imbibition leads to a tremendous
building of pressure. There have been accounts of rice-
Observation laden ships which split when water got into the rice
One by one, the students stand up and also observe the and was imbibed by the grains.
time as each perceives the smell of the perfume. The
distance diffused by the perfume can be plotted on a The biological significance of diffusion
graph paper against the time taken to do so. Diffusion plays a very important part in the activities
of a cell. When molecules are unevenly distributed in
The rate of diffusion is controlled by these factors: a cell, diffusion tends to equalise the distribution. Ex-
1 State of matter: The diffusion of gases is much fast- change of substances between the cell and its environ-
er than that of liquids. This is explained by the fact ment may also be due to diffusion.
that gas molecules are much less tightly bound to
each other and can, therefore, move much faster
Processes in which diffusion occurs in plants
than liquid molecules.
1 Movement of carbon dioxide, for photosynthesis,
2 Temperature: Generally, a higher temperature in-
from the atmosphere, into the leaves through the
creases the speed at which molecules move. Thus,
stomata
the higher the temperature, the faster the diffu-
2 Movement of oxygen, produced during photosyn-
sion.
thesis from the leaves to the atmosphere through
3 Molecular size: The size of the molecules that make
the stomata
up a liquid or gas influences the rate of its diffu-
3 Movement of oxygen for respiration from the
sion. In general, larger molecules diffuse more
atmosphere into the plant through the stomata or
slowly than smaller molecules.
lenticels
4 Differential concentration: The relative concentra-
4 Movement of carbon dioxide produced during
tion of the molecules of a substance in different
respiration from the plant to the atmosphere
parts of a space, that is the concentration gradient,
through the stomata or lenticels
will influence the rate of diffusion of the mole-
5 Movement of manufactured food from the leaves
cules. The greater this gradient, the greater will be
to other parts of the plant
the rate of diffusion. This factor has been expressed
as a generalisation called Fick’s law. It states that
the amount of solute diffusing through a unit Processes in which diffusion occurs in animals
cross-section of area is directly proportional to 1 Gaseous exchanges in amoeba, skin of toad, alveoli
the concentration gradient across this section. of the lungs, and gills of fish
5 The nature of the medium: Molecules diffuse faster 2 Exchange of nutrients between a foetus and the
in a gaseous medium than in a liquid medium, mother through the placenta
and faster in a liquid medium than in a solid me- 3 Absorption of food from the small intestine
dium. through the villi into the blood stream

Osmosis
Imbibition and diffusion In Activity 3.1, you observed that the molecules of cop-
In a solid or a dense colloid, the molecules are very per sulphate diffused evenly throughout the solution
close together, and their movement is very limited while in Activity 3.2, you observed the diffusion of
indeed. However, when a thin piece of dry gelatin is molecules of ammonia through water containing one
placed in water, it swells, because water pushes apart or two drops of hydrochloric acid.
the molecules of the gelatin and diffuses into spaces In organisms, diffusion generally takes place
between them. Thus, the gelatin swells up, becoming across membranes. For example, the diffusion of water
bigger than the original, dry gelatin. This movement of molecules from the soil into the cells of the root hairs
water molecules into substances that swell or increase takes place across their cell membranes, the diffusion
in volume as a result of the interaction between them of carbon dioxide from the cytoplasm of amoeba occurs

39
through its cell membrane into the water in its external 2 If the medium is less concentrated than fluid in the
environment, the diffusion of water from one cell into cell, it is described as hypotonic. In this case, water
a neighbouring cell in the body of a person takes place molecules move into the living cell. The movement
across cell membranes: of water molecules into the living cell is called
When there is a membrane in the path of diffusion endosmosis.
of molecules, one of three possible results will occur 3 If the surrounding medium has the same concen-
depending on the type of membrane and the type of tration as the fluid in the cell, it is described as iso-
molecules diffusing: tonic. There is no net movement of water mole-
1 Some membranes will not allow the passage of the cules to either side.
molecules at all. For instance, a rubber membrane Osmosis can also be defined as the movement of water
will not allow the passage of the water molecules molecules from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic so-
or copper sulphate molecules. Membranes that lution through a semi-permeable membrane.
will not allow the passage of either solute or solvent
molecules through them are said to be imperme-
able.
2 Some membranes, such as filter paper, will allow Activity 3.4 Demonstrating osmosis
the passage of all molecules. Such membranes are
said to be fully permeable. Materials required
3 Some membranes will allow the passage of water 4 beakers of the same size, 4 thistle funnels, pieces of
molecules but not of solute molecules, such as cop- cellophane materials, rubber bands, candles, granulat-
per sulphate molecules. Such membranes, which ed sugar (or crushed sugar cubes), stirring rod, pipette,
allow the passage of one type of molecules but three retort stands
not other types, are called semi-permeable
membranes. Procedure
Examples of non-living semi-permeable mem- 1 Prepare in one of the beakers a concentrated sugar
branes (which are permeable to water but not to solution in the following way. To about 200 cm3
solutes like copper sulphate) include cellophane, of water, add the granulated or crushed sugar
parchment and visking tube. Living semi-perme- gradually and stir. On dissolving, add more sugar
able membranes include pig or sheep bladder, and stir. Repeat until no more sugar will dissolve.
unripe pawpaw, Irish potato, yam tuber, cell 2 Secure a piece of cellophane material over the end
membrane and tonoplast. of each of three thistle funnels. To make it air-
The passage of water molecules (or solvent tight, seal the edge with wax from the candle.
molecules) from pure water (or pure solvent) or This may not be necessary if the rubber band hold-
from a dilute solution into a more concentrated ing the cellophane material to the thistle funnel
solution, through a semi-permeable membrane, is made very tight.
is called osmosis. Osmosis is a special type of 3 Now, set up the apparatus as in Fig. 3.3. Label
diffusion: the diffusion of molecules of water (or the beakers A, B and C. Into beakers A and B,
molecules of other solvents) through a semi-perme- pour water, and into beaker C, pour some of the
able membrane. concentrated solution.
4 With the aid of the pipette, deliver into one of the
thistle funnels a quantity of the same water held
in beakers A and B. Stand this thistle funnel in
The osmotic process beaker A, held up by the retort stand.
Osmosis involves diffusion of molecules through a
5 Set up the other two funnels similarly, but in bea-
semi-permeable membrane. The semi-permeable mem-
kers B and C, in place of water, deliver the concen-
brane is very much more permeable to the water (or
trated sugar solution into the funnels. Ensure that
solvent) molecules than to the solute molecules. A liv-
the three thistle funnels are dipped into the liquid
ing cell is usually surrounded by a medium which can
in the beaker to the same level. The level of liquid
be described in three ways:
in each of the three thistle funnels should be the
1 If the medium is more concentrated than the cel-
same.
lular fluid, it is described as hypertonic. In this case,
6 Mark the position of the liquid in each funnel.
water molecules move out of the cell into the sur-
Allow the three beakers and funnels to stand for
rounding medium. The movement of water mol-
one hour. Then observe and record your observa-
ecules out of a living cell is called exosmosis.
tions.

40
7 Can you explain your observations in terms of beaker, and while it is not separated from water by a
osmosis? Why were experiments A and C includ- semi-permeable membrane, the solution is said to have
ed? an osmotic potential. This means it is capable of brin-
ging about osmosis, but it is not yet doing so.
You will recall that the diffusion of petrol from one
corner of a room continues until the petrol molecules
are equally distributed in all parts of the room. So, one
might expect that osmosis would continue until water
molecules are equally distributed on both sides of the
semi-permeable membrane. In fact this does not hap-
pen. As the level of the solution in the thistle funnel
thistle clamp in Activity 3.4 rises, the column of the solution in the
tunnel thistle funnel becomes a pressure pressing down on
concentrated the solution. This pressure on the solution increases the
sugar solution
water speed of water molecules in the solution and their rate
beaker of diffusion from the solution through the semi-perme-
able membrane into the water. When equal numbers of
water molecules move in both directions in unit time,
the rise in the column of the solution will stop. The ex-
cess pressure, represented by the column of the solu-
tion in the thistle funnel, over the solution in the beaker,
is a measure of the osmotic pressure of the solution.
A B C Following from the above, osmotic pressure is de-
semi-permeable fined as that amount of pressure which would need to
membrane be applied to just prevent the passage of water into a
solution when separated from it by a semi-permeable
Fig. 3.3 Demonstrating osmosis
membrane.

Osmotic pressure
When a solution is separated from water (or solvent) by
a semi-permeable membrane, osmosis occurs. Osmosis
is brought about in this way: on one side of the semi- semi-
permeable membrane, there are water molecules only. permeable
On the other side of the semi-permeable membrane, membrane
there are both water and solute molecules. Since there water
molecules
are more water molecules in the water than in the so- only
lution, more water molecules will diffuse from water
through the semi-permeable membrane into the solu-
tion than from the solution into the water in unit time.
As a result, there will be a net movement of water mole-
cules into the solution. You observed in Activity 3.4 that
the level of the solution rose in thistle funnel B owing to sugar
the net movement of water molecules into the solution. solution
The pressure which causes osmosis to take place
is called osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure is a prop- sugar
molecule
erty of the solution. The effect of the solute in the solu-
tion is to increase the concentration of water molecules
compared with pure water. Osmotic pressure increases Direction of diffusion of
with the concentration of the solution. A 30% solution water molecules
for example, has higher osmotic pressure than a 10%
solution of the same substance.
A solution of sugar in a beaker has the capacity to Fig. 3.4 How osmosis takes place
bring about osmosis, if and when it is separated from
water by a semi-permeable membrane. While in the

41
potato
tissue
container concentrated
water
sugar solution

Fig. 3.5 Demonstrating osmosis in living tissue

Activity 3.5 Demonstrating osmosis for the differences between your observations in A
and B, as well as in B and C.
in living tissues
There should be a rise of liquid level only in B
Materials required and not in A or C. In this experiment, the cells of
Two young, unripe, pawpaw fruits or four Irish potato the raw Irish potato or pawpaw act together as a
tubers, a knife, concentrated sugar solution, three bea- semi-permeable membrane allowing the passage of
kers, boiling water water but not sugar, the solute. In B, water diffuses
through the potato cell down a concentration gra-
Procedure dient of water molecules into the sugar solution.
1 Prepare a concentrated sugar solution, as in Acti- The level in B, therefore, rises. In C, you killed the
vity 3.4. potato or pawpaw cells by boiling them. Boiling
2 Cut each pawpaw fruit into two to produce four made the cells fully permeable to both water and
halves, of which only three will be used. If you are sugar allowing the concentration gradient to be
using Irish potatoes (not sweet potatoes), scoop removed by the movement of water molecules in
out a hole in each tuber, then peel the tuber and and sugar molecules out. As a result, no rise in
slice the bottom so that it can sit in the beaker. A level is seen in C.
piece of yam tuber may be used as substitute.
3 Peel the pawpaw fruit and slice the bottom off so
that it will sit in the beaker.
4 Into one pawpaw half (or scooped-out potato tu- Turgidity, plasmolysis and the
ber), A, pour some water. Mark its level and set living cell
aside. Into another half B, pour some of the con-
centrated sugar solution, and similarly mark the
level and set aside. The movement of water into and out of cells of an or-
5 Place the third pawpaw half in the boiling water ganism is brought about principally by osmosis. This
for one to two minutes (if using potato, treat the makes osmosis very vital to many biological processes.
tuber similarly). This treatment kills the cells of Dissolved substances are present in the cytoplasm
the pawpaw or potato. Then cool the pawpaw or of living animal cells, and in both the cytoplasm and
potato. cell sap of living plant cells. These dissolved substances
6 Pour some of the concentrated sugar solution into often inside the vacuoles make the osmotic potential
this treated pawpaw or potato tuber, which now of the cell normally higher than that of the surround-
becomes specimen C. Mark the level of liquid in ing water medium. For instance, for amoeba and spi-
specimen C. then place each specimen in a bea- rogyra, the surrounding medium is normally water in
ker of water, as in Fig. 3.5. Let them stand for two fresh water ponds, while for the red blood corpuscle or
or three hours. What do you observe? Account erythrocyte, the surrounding medium is the plasma.
When the osmotic potential of a cell is higher

42
than that of the surrounding water medium, water pond water, making sure that the preparation is
molecules pass into the cell by osmosis. As a plant cell well flooded with the pond water. View again.
absorbs water by osmosis, the vacuole and the proto-
plasm increase in volume. The cell is said to be turgid. You will observe a ‘recovery’ as osmosis takes places
The outward pressure acting on the cell wall as a result now, after the plasmolysis observed at (4) above. With
of the entry of water molecules by osmosis is known as the pond water surrounding the cell, water flows back
turgor pressure. Similarly, when an animal cell absorbs into the cell, as they have osmotic potential than the
water by osmosis, it becomes turgid, and the cell mem- water.
brane becomes firmer. The stems of non-woody plants are kept upright
However, when the osmotic potential of the sur- principally by the turgor pressure exerted by individ-
rounding water medium is higher than that of the cell, ual cells. On hot or dry days, the cells lose water more
water diffuses out of the cell, the cell loses its turgidity rapidly than the roots can take and transport the water
and becomes flaccid. A cell that is flaccid is not rigid or to the shoot. There is, therefore, a ‘net’ loss of water,
firm. In a living plant, when the cells become flaccid, and so there is partial plasmolysis in the cells and the
the plant wilts. If living cells (e.g. spirogyra) are put into result is that the plant wilts or droops.
concentrated salt solution, the series of changes in the
cell go beyond merely becoming flaccid. The vacuoles petri dish
collapse and the cytoplasm shrinks away from the cell-
wall. In this state, the cells are said to be plasmolysed.
If the outflow of water from the cell continues, plas-
molysis reaches its last stage in which the protoplasm
shrivels into a mass inside the cells. Mild plasmolysis epidermis
is reversible if the cell is again placed in water. Severe
plasmolysis damages the cell and may be irreversible.
Since water is the largest component of the protoplasm (a) strip of inflorescence
of the cell, plasmolysis is bound to have a great effect stalk of harmattan
lily
on all the life activities of the cell.

Activity 3.6 Plasmolysis in plant petri dish

cells
Materials required
Fresh, healthy filaments of spirogyra in its own pond
water, common salt solution, microscope, glass slide, distilled
water water

Procedure (b)
1 Mount two filaments of fresh spirogyra on a glass
slide in a drop of the pond water from which they
were collected.
2 Observe the cells under the microscope. What is
the state of the turgidity of the cells?
3 Prepare a fairly concentrated common salt solu-
tion and replace the pond water in your prepara-
tion with a drop of this. This is done by sucking
away the pond water from one end of the glass
slide, using a filter paper, whilst introducing the concentrated
salt solution
common salt solution from the opposite side with
a dropping pipette. (c)
4 Again, observe the cells of the filaments and de-
scribe your observation in your notebook.
5 Now, replace the common salt solution with the
Fig. 3.6 Demonstrating turgor pressure in plant tissues

43
Activity 3.7 Observing turgor pres- wool moistened with methylated spirit. Do not
touch this area until the blood sample has been
sure in plant tissues taken.
2 Sterilise a mounted needle by passing it several
Materials required times through the hot part of a Bunsen flame. A
Inflorescence stalk of harmattan lily, distilled water, pen sterile lancet may be used in place of the sterilised
knife, concentrated common salt solution, troughs mounted needle.
3 Swing your arms around two or three times to
Procedure increase the blood flow into your fingers. Now
1 Cut the lily stalk length wise into strips. Place one bend the top joint of the sterilised thumb upwards
strip in a dry trough. Observe that the strip tends and jab the sterilised needle or lancet firmly into
to curl outwards. This is caused by the turgor pres- the skin of the thumb.
sure in its cortical cells, i.e. cells of the inner layer 4 Take a couple of drops of blood from the needle
of the stalk. prick with the sterilised pipette. Wash the thumb
2 Place another strip in a trough of distilled water. in water and sterilise with alcohol. A little cotton
How does this strip behave? wool over the needle prick point will stop further
3 Transfer the strip in the distilled water very quick- bleeding.
ly, but carefully, into a concentrated common salt 5 From the pipette, place a drop of blood on each of
solution. What, do you observe? Why? In distilled two glass slides. Mix the blood on the first glass
water, the strip should have curled even further slide with a drop of concentrated salt solution. Using
outwards, because more water had gone into the the edge of a free glass slide, make a thin smear
cortical cells by osmosis and so there would have of the blood solution. Place a cover slip over the
been an increase in turgor pressure in the cortical top.
cells. Placed in the salt solution, the cells lost water 6 View the preparation under the microscope both
to the salt solution and underwent plasmolysis. under the low and high-power magnification, iden-
Turgidity in the cells was lost and so the strip stra- tify and draw the red blood cells.
ightened out. This would have been seen as a dro- 7 To the second drop of blood, add a drop of dis-
oping effect in the full plant. tilled water. Make a thin smear also of this blood
solution. View under the microscope and draw
So far, our demonstration of osmosis has been the red blood cells. You should have observed that
with plant cells only. The phenomenon can also be while the red blood cells in the first preparation
shown to take place in animal cells. became plasmolysed, those in the second prepara-
tion gained water (by osmosis), swelled up and, in
some cases, actually burst. Such bursting of blood
Activity 3.8 Observing osmosis and cells is called haemolysis.

plasmolysis in animal
cells The implication of the result of our observation in Ac-
tivity 3.8 is clear. If there is any change in the osmotic
Materials required potential of plasma in which the blood cells float, harm
Methylated spirit, mounted needle (or sterile lancet), may come to the blood and to the organism. Indeed, in
Bunsen burner, microscope slides, cover clips, distilled the healthy body, both the fluid and the red cells main-
water, cotton wool, concentrated salt solution, fine ste- tain a constant osmotic potential. The human body, by
rile pipette, two drops of blood (from your own thumb) osmo-regulation, keeps the osmotic potential of the
body cells and fluids constant.
Note
You must only handle your own blood. Your teacher
will provide you with special containers into which you Processes in which osmosis is involved in
can place needles and lancets after the experiment.
plants
Procedure The following are ways by which osmosis occurs in
1 To obtain the blood, first sterilise the skin on the plants:
inside surface of your left thumb (if you are right- 1 Absorption of water from the soil by root hairs.
handed) just below the nail, using a piece of cotton 2 Movement of water from one living cell into
another.

44
3 Movement of water into and out of guard cells of ids, such as its movement through the intestinal epi-
stomata, leading to opening and closing of the sto- thelium and the kidney tubules. It has been found that
mata. there are distinct systems of transport for at least four
4 Maintenance of turgor. different amino acids.
The selective re-absorption of substances back
into the blood stream during the excretory process in
Processes in which osmosis is involved in the kidney is another example of active transport. The
animals cells lining the tubules expend energy, to move this sub-
The following are ways by which osmosis occurs in ani- stance, by active transport, back into the blood from the
mals: urine. This is usually against a concentration gradient.
1 Reabsorption of water from glomerular filtrate in It has been found that a given amount of kidney tissue
the kidney tubules. consumes more oxygen per hour than an equivalent
2 Absorption of water by the colon. weight of heart muscle, indicating how ‘hard-working’
3 Movement of water from one living cell into the kidneys are. When deprived of oxygen, re-absorp-
another. tion is the first function to cease in the kidney. The sub-
4 Maintenance of turgor in animal cells. stance reabsorbed in greatest amount by the kidney is
5 Loss of water through sweating. sodium chloride. Sodium ions are actively reabsorbed
by sodium pump in the kidney tubules. Glucose and
amino acids are also reabsorbed by the selective active
Active transport transport of the membranes.

There are instances during which the general laws

governing the directions of flow of materials, as dis-
cussed so far in this chapter, may not be obeyed. In cer-
Examples of active absorption in plants and
tain processes, solute may pass through a membrane animals
from a region of lower concentration to a region of high- 1 Absorption of high concentration of salt or ions
er concentration, i.e. against the concentration gradient. in some plants.
Such a movement is described as active transport. 2 Reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, and sodium
Active transport is not simply a physical process. ions in the kidney tubules.
Rather, it seems that there are molecules or groups of 3 Movement of sodium ions out of the axon during
molecules which actively carry other specific molecules the transmission of nerve impulse.
across the membrane i.e. into or out of the cell, using
up energy in the process. Active transport of sodium
ions, potassium ions and calcium ions in particular is Summary
an essential part of the process by which nerves and im-
pulses are propagated along the length of a nerve and This chapter has taught the following:
by which muscles are induced to contract. Experiments • There is exchange of materials between cells and
have shown, for example, that cells and tissues contain their environments.
much less sodium than there is in the extra-cellular • Diffusion is a movement of materials from a region
fluid. This means that there must be a kind of sodium of higher to a region of lower concentration of
pump or mechanism by which the plasma membrane the molecules.
selectively drives ions from inside the cell to the out- • Diffusion occurs in a number of processes in plants
side. and animals; it accounts for exchange of gases and
If there were no such selective mechanism, the materials between unicellular organisms and their
physical process of diffusion would cause sodium ions environments.
to enter the cells through the cell membrane until the • Osmosis is the movement of solvent or water
sodium concentration was the same inside and outside molecules from a dilute solution (or pure water)
the cells. It seems that there are other selective ion- into a more concentrated solution through a semi-
pumps in some cells, which are specific for potassium, permeable membrane.
hydrogen and chloride ions. • Osmosis is involved in the absorption of water by
The transportation of sodium and potassium ions plants.
across the red cell membrane has been observed and • Osmotic processes are involved in animals, such
found to involve the expenditure of energy. Cells also as in absorption of water by the colon, reabsorption
have a mechanism for the active transport of amino ac- of water by the kidney tubules and so on.

45
• Elements, such as sodium, and potassium may be
taken up against the concentration gradient by ac-
tive transport.

Revision questions
1 The diffusion rates of gases are generally higher
than those of liquids because ________________.
A atmospheric air is much lighter than water.
B gas molecules move faster than those of
liquids.
C the proportion of the atmosphere which is
gaseous is very high.
D liquids tend to cool down more quickly than
gases do.
E of none of the above.
2 Haemolysis is an example of ________________.
A osmosis.
B plasmolysis.
C active transport.
D hydrolysis.
E absorption.
3 The toad does not normally drink water. Placed in
a dish of salt water, however, a toad may drink
the water. This is because the toad ____________.
A is absorbing molecules of salt through its skin.
B is losing salt too rapidly to its salty surround-
ing.
C requires salt from its surroundings for its bone
formation.
D is losing water from its body to its salty
surroundings.
E requires water from the surroundings for a
balanced diet as an amphibian.
4 Under what conditions is it essential to water your
vegetable or flower bed? Give reasons for your
answer.
5 Leave a leaf of lettuce (or any such common, soft
vegetable) in a dish of concentrated salt solution
for three to five minutes. Lift it up, observe it and
note your observation. Then, quickly drop it into
a dish of tap (or well) water. Leave for four to five
minutes, then take it out and observe. What has
happened? Explain your observations.

46
Chapter 4 Properties and functions of the cell

Introduction a food vacuole is formed, inside which digestion takes

place, with the aid of digestive enzymes produced by
So far in this book, we have attempted to show the cell the protozoan.
as the unit of life. Thus, the cell, as the unit of life, ought
to be capable of showing the seven characteristics of liv-
ing things. First, we studied the unicellular organism,
and then we learned that physical laws are in control of
the exchange of materials between cells.
In this chapter, our attention will remain focused
on the cell, as both a whole organism and part of the prey
body of a multicellular organism. We will also investi- amoeba
gate how cells demonstrate the characteristics of living extending
things, such as feeding, respiration, excretion, growth, pseudopodium
response to the environment and reproduction.
pseudopodia
encircling prey

Feeding
This is the process by which an organism obtains the
nourishment which provides it with the energy for life
activities as well as materials for growth and mainte-
nance of good health. The food needed by the plant is prey enclosed
manufactured by the plant itself from raw materials ex- in food vacuole
tracted from its environment. Fungi extract their food
from the decaying organic matter on which they grow.
Animals are unable to manufacture their own food;
they feed on substances made by other organisms. Fig. 4.1 Engulfing feeding action in amoeba
What does a unicellular organism like amoeba feed
on? It does not have a mouth, so how does it feed? An-
swers to these questions will be found in the demon- The digested food is diffusible, and is absorbed
stration which your teacher will set up for you. Amoeba, into the surrounding protoplasm. Undigested and in-
as you will find out, feeds on both animal and plant digestible portions of the food are left behind by the
materials. The method of feeding in amoeba is de- cell, which simply ‘flow’ away from it. This is a reverse
scribed as engulfing. The animal sends out fingers of its of the engulfing action. Amoeba has no definite mouth
cytoplasm (called pseudopodia) to engulf the particles or anus, and its mode of feeding is typical of animals
of food. The pseudopodia flow round the food particle with a very simple cell organisation.
and gradually enclose (engulf) the food, along with a
drop of water, into the body of the animal. In this way,

47
The food of paramecium, another protozoan, con- Calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI)
sists mainly of bacteria. It will, however, ingest any (Calcium sulphate) 0.24 g
small organic particle. Paramecium has an oral groove Calcium tetraoxophosphate (V)
which is lined with fine beating hairs called cilia. Food (Calcium phosphate) 0.25 g
from the surrounding water is drawn in a cone of water Magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI)
into the gullet by the beating of the cilia. (Magnesium sulphate) 0.25 g
Large particles are prevented from going into the Potassium trioxonitrate (V)
gullet by a crossed arrangement of cilia at the base of (Potassium nitrate) 0.7 g
the gullet. The food particle enters the cytoplasm at the Iron (III) chloride 0.005 g
cytostome and a food vacuole begins to move along a Enough trace elements are usually present as im-
characteristic path round the body. Digestion and ab- purities in these compounds and supply the needs
sorption in paramecium are continuous and similar to of plants.
that in amoeba. However, undigested food is expelled 2 Place a few filamemnts of spirogyra in a beaker of
from the cell at a specific point, the anal pore. the complete culture solution and label the beaker.
The content of the food vacuole initially is acidic In another beaker, place a few filaments of the
(about pH⁷) but becomes alkaline (over pH⁴) in the spirogyra and add the pond water from which
course of digestion. Paramecium can store up excess car- the alga was collected. A third beaker of spirogyra
bohydrate in the form of glycogen. In a class demon- will contain only distilled water. Seven other bea-
stration, you will observe paramecium feeding. kers will contain the culture solution but with each
The term nutrient in biology means a substance lacking only one element. No two beakers should
which the cell (and by implication, the organism) re- lack the same element. Follow Table 4.1 in the
quires for normal growth and development. preparation of the culture solution. This experiment
Recall that nutrients are required by organisms for has one control, namely, spirogyra in a beakers of
providing energy, as well as providing materials need- complete culture solution.
ed for growth and repair. In chemical terms, the main 3 Label each beaker properly, so as to be able to tell
nutrients needed by plants are made up of the elements exactly what element it lacks. Place a few filaments
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phos- of spirogyra in each beaker. Observe the beakers for
phorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. These are about 4 to 6 weeks. Ensure that none dries up.
required in relatively substantial quantities by the cell. Record your observations accurately. Compare
They are known as macronutrients. Some other nutri- the results in each of the ten beakers. In which
ents, e.g. manganese, zinc, copper, boron and molyb- culture solution are the filaments most healthy?
denum, are required in much smaller quantities. They In which culture solution have the spirogyra fila-
are the micronutrients. Iron is an essential element for ments lost most of their colour?
plants. The quantity of iron taken up by a plant is less
than that of a macronutrient, but more than that of a
micronutrient. Precautions
A unicellular organism in an aquatic environ- 1 The beakers must be washed thoroughly, and rinsed
ment obtains all its nutrients from the water which sur- several times with distilled water, so as to keep out
rounds it. Higher plants obtain their nutrients, except impurities which may supply elements that can
the gaseous ones, from soil in the form of mineral salts. affect the results of the experiment.
2 The outside of each beaker should be covered with
black paper to cut off sunlight that will encourage
Activity 4.1 Effects of different the growth of other photosynthetic algae in the
nutrients on spirogyra culture solution.
3 Air should be blown into the culture solution from
(whole class project) time to time to provide adequate supply of oxygen
for the plant. An organism only requires a certain
Materials required quantity of each nutrient. Too much of a particular
10 beakers, a fresh supply of spirogyra in pond water, nutrient may be harmful to the organism. In agri-
glass slide, hand lens, complete culture. Sach’s solution. culture, for example, great care must be taken not
to apply too much fertilizer to a crop.
Procedure
1 Make a complete Sach’s culture solution,
by dissolving the following in 1000 cm3 of distilled
water:

48
Table 4.1 Recommendation for the preparation of a culture solution

Element lacking Preparation

Magnesium Substitute potassium tetraoxosulphate (VI) for magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI)

Sulphur Substitute calcium chloride for calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI) and magnesium chloride
for magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI)

Potassium Substitute calcium trioxonitrate (V) for potassium trioxonitrate (V)

Phosphorus Substitute calcium trioxonitrate (V) for calcium tetraoxophosphate (V)

Nitrogen Substitute potassium chloride for potassium trioxonitrate (V)

Calcium Substitute potassium tetraoxosulphate (VI) for calcium tetraoxosulphate (V) and
sodium tetraoxophosphate (V) for calcium tetraoxophosphate (V)

Iron Leave out iron (III) chloride (ferric chloride).

Activity 4.2 Observing the effect of experimented with. The same is true for any other
plant.
a high concentration of
fertiliser on vegetables
Anabolism
Materials required Anabolism is the synthesis, by living things, of com-
Hoes, maize grains or the seeds of any vegetable, e.g. plex compounds from simple substances. Living things
okro, fertiliser require food (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, mineral
salts, vitamins and water) for:
Procedure 1 the production of new protoplasm,
1 Prepare three vegetable beds. Let each be about 1m 2 growth,
wide and 3 m long. The beds should be at least 3 repair, and
15 cm high. Pick a good garden soil for this project. 4 production of energy for life activities,
2 Sow the seeds singly in two rows, along the length
of each bed, 50 cm apart, between the rows, and Types of feeding
50 cm apart, each row. Water the beds as neces- There are two main types of feeding or nutrition: auto-
sary. Label the beds A, B, C. trophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
3 12 to 14 days after germination, apply 15 g of mixed
fertiliser to each seedling in bed A, by making a Autotrophic nutrition or feeding
shallow round furrow, with 15 cm radius away Autotrophic nutrition or feeding is one in which the or-
from the seedling putting the fertiliser in the fur- ganism makes its own complex organic food molecules
row and covering it up. In the same manner, apply from simple inorganic substances. Autotrophic organ-
5 g of mixed fertiliser to each seedling in bed B. isms are ‘self-feeding’. Some autotrophic organisms are
The seedlings in bed C are the control. photosynthetic while others are chemosynthetic. Au-
4 Make a close and regular observation of the three totrophic organisms are also called autotrophs.
vegetable beds. Record the growth and state the
conditions of the plants on the two experimental Photosynthetic autotrophs
beds and control bed. Photosynthetic autotrophs are organisms which use
Which treatment gave the better result? What is the ef- chlorophyll to absorb the energy of sunlight. With car-
fect of high concentration of fertiliser on the plant? We bon dioxide and water as raw materials, they make glu-
can thus conclude that there is an optimum, i.e. best cose. From glucose, they can synthesise starch and other
quantity of fertiliser for optimum growth of the plant carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and other compounds.

49
Photosynthetic autotrophs include green plants, blue- 2 Sucking method of feeding
green algae and bacteria that contain chlorophylls. Some animals suck liquid food. For instance,
aphids suck the juices of plants, while mosquitoes
Chemosynthetic autotrophs suck the blood of man and other vertebrates.
Chemosynthesis is the synthesis of complex organic
food molecules from simple inorganic substances, us- 3 Chewing and biting methods of feeding
ing energy obtained from exergonic inorganic oxida- Locusts, grasshoppers, rats, goats, sheep and cattle
tion reactions. Examples of chemosynthetic autotrophs bite and chew their food.
include:
1 Nitrosomonas - a nitrifying bacterium that con- The role of enzymes in digestion
verts ammonium compounds to nitrates. This
reaction releases energy which the bacterium uses An enzyme is an organic catalyst produced in living
for making its food. tissues, which speeds up and controls the rate of meta-
2 Nitrobacteria - a nitrifying bacterium that converts bolic reactions. Food substances eaten by animals are
nitrites to nitrates. This reaction releases energy usually complex organic substances. The breakdown of
used for synthesis of food. these complex molecules, which can be absorbed by the
3 A group of chemosynthetic sulphur bacteria oxi- organisms is digestion.
dise sulphur to tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid Digestion is brought about by enzymes. The en-
2S + 2H2O + 3O2 → 2H2SO4 + Energy zymes split the bonds in complex molecules and this
4 Another group of sulphur bacteria obtains energy changes starch to glucose, lipids to glycerol and fatty
by oxidising hydrogen sulphide. acids, and proteins to amino acids.

Heterotrophic nutrition or feeding Activity 4.3 Demonstrate the action

Animals and non-green plants cannot make their own of ptyalin in saliva on
food. They depend on plants or other animals for their cooked starch
food. Organisms which obtain complex food molecules
from plants or animals are said to show heterotrophic Materials required
nutrition. They take these complex food materials and Two test tubes, iodine solution, Benedict’s solutions,
the foods are digested, that is, they are converted to white tile, a beaker of water, 1% cooked starch solution,
simple sugars, glycerol and fatty acids and amino ac- 2 glass rods
ids. These are then absorbed and utilised to provide
energy, or to synthesise new prototoplasm for growth Procedure
or repair of worn-out cells and tissues. 1 Label the test tubes A, and B.
There are different types of heterotrophic feeding, 2 Put about 1cm3 of saliva in each test tube.
such as holozoic, saprophytic, parasitic and symbiotic 3 Boil the saliva in test tube B to destroy the enzyme
feeding. ptyalin in it. This set-up will serve as control.
4 Add 3 cm3 of 1% cooked starch to each test tube,
after warming the saliva in it to about 370C in a
Methods of collecting and taking in food water bath.
Some of the methods by which heterotrophic animals
5 Immediately after mixing the saliva and the 1%
collect and take in food include filter feeding, sucking
starch solution in each test tube, use a separate
as well as biting and chewing.
glass rod to take a drop from each test tube. Place
1 Filter feeding the drop on a white tile. Add a drop of iodine solu-
A filter feeder strains small particles of food from tion.
the water in which it lives. For example, some fish 6 Repeat this at intervals of about 5 minutes for 30
are filter feeders, e.g. herring. Such a fish takes in minutes. What colour changes did you observe?
water through the mouth and passes it out through Give an explanation for your observations.
the gill slits. This process used for breathing is also
used for feeding. As the water passes through the
gill slits, structures known as gill rackers strain
out particles of food from the water, and the
Respiration
animal feeds on these particles. Some whales are Respiration is the process by which complex food sub-
filter feeders. stances are broken down in a stepwise series of reac-

50
tions, in cells to produce energy with carbon dioxide glycogen (animals)
and water as waste products. Respiration occurs in all or
living cells. starch (in or from plants)
The energy produced during respiration is used
by the organism for such activities as synthesis of pro-
teins, lipids and protoplasm; germination; cell division digestion
and enlargement leading to growth; movement; trans-
mission of nerve impulses; active transport and main-
tenance of body temperature.
Organisms vary in the amounts of energy they use. glucose
(C6)
A very active organism, such as the horse, uses much
more energy than a sluggish one, such as the snail.

glycolysis
Types of respiration
There are two types of respiration. Respiration that oc-
curs in the absence of oxygen is described as anaerobic
while that which occurs in the presence of oxygen is pyruvic acid
aerobic. Respiration occurs in cells, and for that reason, (C3)
it is called cellular or tissue respiration.
oxygen oxygen
absent present
Chemical process in cellular respiration
The reactions that occur in cellular or tissue respiration
are usually represented by the following equation:
anaerobic Kreb’s
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy respiration cycle
Glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide Fig. 4.2 Pathway of glucose breakdown in tissue respiration
This equation represents only a summary of the
raw materials and the end products of tissue respira-
tion. The details of respiration are far more complicated
Examples of specific enzymes in glycolysis are
than the equation indicates. The pathway for the break-
given below.
down of glucose in tissue respiration is shown in Fig.
1 The conversion of glucose to glucose -6- phos-
4.2.
phate is catalysed by the enzyme hexokinase.
Tissue respiration is divided into two main parts.
Lexokinase
The first is known as glycolysis. Glycolysis is the step
Glucose + ATP Glucose -6- Suiphate + ADP
- wise series of reactions which leads to the breakdown
of glucose to pyruvic acid. The process occurs in the
2 Glucose -6- phosphate is converted to fructose -6-
cytoplasm inside cells. It consists of step-wise reactions,
phosphate by the action of the enzyme glucose
each brought about by a specific enzyme. Glycolysis is
phosphate isomerase.
common to, and occurs in, the same general manner in
In the series of reactions involved in glycoly-
all organisms.
sis, 2 molecules of ATP are used to convert glucose
Oxygen is not required for glycolysis, that is, the
into glucose -6- phosphate, and fructose -6- phos-
process is anaerobic. In this series of reactions, glyco-
phate into fructose -1-6- diphosphate. In other
gen (in animals) or starch (in plants) is converted to
reactions in glycolysis, 4 molecules of ATP are
glucose. Then glucose, is converted through ten steps
formed, resulting in a net gain of 2 molecules of
to pyruvic acid. The steps in glycolysis are shown in
ATP.
Fig. 4.3.
After the formation of pyruvic acid, the path
of further reaction depends on whether the respi-
ration is aerobic or anaerobic.

51
Aerobic tissue respiration
glucose
Aerobic respiration is one that occurs in the presence
ATP
of oxygen. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid is
converted into acetyl-coenzyme A, which is fed into a
cyclic series of enzyme-controlled oxidation reactions
ADP known as the Kreb’s cycle (after the discoverer) or the
tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). These reactions take
glucose-6-phosphate
place in the mitochondria within the cells. The Kreb’s
cycle is shown in Fig. 4.4.
Oxygen is not actually involved in the Kreb’s
cycle. The oxidation reactions that occur in the Kreb’s
cycle involve the removal of hydrogen ions. These
fructose-6-phosphate hydrogen ions are accepted by compounds known as
hydrogen ion acceptors, such as nicotinamide adenine
ATP
dinucleotide (NAD) to form reduced nicotinamide ad-
enine dinucleotide (NADH2). The hydrogen ions are
ADP
passed through a series of reactions in what is called
electron transport chain. In these reactions, hydrogen
fructose-1-6-diphosphate is oxidised to water. Energy is released in the form of
ATP. This is how oxygen taken in for respiration is used
at the tail end of the reactions.
A simple outline description of the Kreb’s cycle is
this:
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 1 Pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon carboxylic acid) is decar-
NAD
boxylated (i.e. carbon dioxide is removed). The
remaining 2–carbon fragment is combined with
+P a compound called co-enzyme A to form acety
NADH₂ co-enzyme A.
2 Oxaloacetic acid, (a 4-carbon acid,) combines with
1,3-diphospholglyceric acid acetyl co-enzyme A(a 2-carbon compound) to
ADP form citric acid (a 6-carbon acid).
3 Citric acid loses carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions
to form α-ketoglutaric acid (a 5-carbon acid). The
ATP hydrogen ions are oxidised in the electron transport
system to produce ATP.
3-phosphoglyceric acid
4 α-ketoglutaric acid loses carbon dioxide and hy-
drogen ions to become oxaloacetic acid (a 4-car-
bon acid).
The cycle of reactions starts all over again.

2-phosphoglyceric acid

phosphoenol pyruvic acid

ADP

ATP
pyruvic acid

Fig. 4.3 Glycosis

52
pyruvic
acid
(C3)

CO2

2H
acetyl
co-enzyme A (C2)

citric
oxaloacetic acid
acid (C6)
(C3)

2H
2H

malic isocitric
acid acid
(C4) (C4)

H2O
fumaric
acid 2H
(C4)

2H
succinic
acid CO2
(C4) α-ketoglutaric
acid
(C5)

CO2
Fig. 4.4 Kreb’s cycle

tic acid formation is represented by the equation

Anaerobic respiration C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + Energy
When oxygen is not present, the path of reactions de- glucose lactic acid
pends on whether respiration is in a plant or an animal
In a plant cell, the products of anaerobic respira-
cell (see Fig. 4.5).
tion are ethanol and carbon dioxide. Formation of alco-
In an animal cell or bacterium, lactic acid is formed
hol is represented by the equation:
by anaerobic respiration. The formation of lactic acid
occurs for instance, in the skeletal muscles of athletes, C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy
when the rate of use of oxygen during a race exceeds glucose ethanol carbon
dioxide
the rate of oxygen supply. The vigorous exercise creates
an anaerobic condition in which lactate accumulates. Fermentation is a special case of anaerobic respira-
The athlete may experience muscle pain. The body is tion by micro-organisms such as yeast. Yeast fermenta-
said to have an oxygen debt. At the end of the exercise, tion results in the formation of ethanol with production
the individual continues to breathe rapidly for some of bubbles of carbon dioxide. Lactic acid bacteria fer-
time, supplying much oxygen to the muscles until the ment glucose and lactose to lactic acid.
lactic acid is oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. Lac-

53
pyruvic acid
CH3
C= O

COOH

in animals in plants

acetaldehyde
2H CH3

lactic acid C= O
fermentation
H

2H

lactic acid alcoholic

CH3 fermentation

CHOH ethanol

COOH CH3

CH2OH

Fig. 4.5 Pathways of anaerobic respiration in animal and plant cells

Energy release during respiration sterilised in dilute formalin solution beforehand,

In aerobic respiration, one molecule of glucose yields to prevent decay or growth of microorganisms.
38 molecules of ATP which represent a large amount 2 Leave to stand for 24 hours. The advantages of
of energy. In alcoholic fermentation, only 2 molecules turning the vaccum flasks upside down are;
of glucose ferment. This represents a small amount of
thermometer
energy compared to that of aerobic respiration.
cotton wool

dead seeds
Activity 4.4 Demonstrating that treated with
antiseptic
energy is produced chemical

during respiration
Materials required
Soaked cowpea seeds, cotton wool, two vacuum flasks,
two thermometers, two clamps and two retort stands
per group vacuum
flask
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 4.6. The
cowpea seeds in flask A were soaked in water for
2 hours beforehand. Equal number of cowpea A: living seeds B: dead seeds
seeds in flask B (control) were boiled, cooled and
Fig. 4.6 Demonstration of heat production by respiring seeds

54
a) The thermometer records the temperature of It is usually observed that the lime water in the
the seeds, not that of the air in the flask. apparatus with active yeast turns milky. The residue
b) Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, so when in flask A has a smell of ethanol. Lime water in
the flask is upside down, it diffuses out easily control does not turn milky. This leads to the infer-
through the cotton wool. If the flask is upright, ence that yeast breaks down sucrose solution to
carbon dioxide accumulates around the seeds produce carbon dioxide and ethanol.
and reduces availability of oxygen to the
seeds.
3 Read the temperature shown by the thermometer
in each flask. Activity 4.6 Demonstrating respira-
tion by a rat
It is normally observed that the thermometer in flask A
gives a higher reading than that in flask B. This shows Materials required
that live, respiring seeds in flask A produce heat energy, Four containers, rat, lime water, caustic soda solu-
while the boiled, non-respiring seeds in flask B do not. tion, tap

Procedure
Activity 4.5 Demonstrating fermenta- 1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 4.7. Set up
a control experiment without the rat.
tion by yeast 2 Start the tap running, so that air will be drawn
through the apparatus in the direction indicated
Materials required by the arrows.
Two test tubes, cork carrying bent delivery tube, active Note that carbon dioxide in incoming air will be ab-
yeast, lime water, 5% sucrose solution sorbed by the caustic soda solution. This is confirmed
by the lime water in the next vessel remaining clear.
Procedure What do you observe? Does the lime water in con-
1 Put 5 cm3 of 5% sucrose solution in a test tube and tainer D turn milky? What is your inference? What do
add half a teaspoonful of active baker’s yeast. you observe in the control experiment? You may have
2 Quickly place the tube in the apparatus as shown observed that the lime water in container D turned
in Fig. 4.6. Set up control without yeast in the other milky. This indicates that the rat produced carbon diox-
test tube. ide which turned lime water milky. The rat, therefore,
3 Observe for 30 minutes. respired.

air enters

lime lime
water water
A B C D E
caustic soda
solution

Fig. 4.7 Apparatus for demostrating that a rat respires

55
that, among most animals, the excretory organ is gener-
Excretion ally the organ of osmoregulation as well.
Later on in our study of biology, we will learn that
Excretion is the process by which an organism gets rid
excretion in many organisms can be very complex. In
of the waste products of metabolism in its cells. Note
marine fishes, excess salt is excreted through the gills,
that the undigested food remaining in the food vacuole
even against the direction of osmotic pressure. What
of the protozoan is not excretory waste, and the process
process do you think these fishes must be using?
of getting rid of it is not excretion, but rather, egestion.
By osmosis, water flows into the bodies of the
Undigested food egested by higher animals is referred
freshwater fishes because there is a concentration gra-
to as faeces.
dient between the fishes’ body fluids and the surround-
Organisms, no matter how primitive or simple,
ing water. To control the water content of the body,
must get rid of their metabolic waste, otherwise these
freshwater fishes drink little or no water, but excrete a
will accumulate and interfere with normal body me-
great quantity of urine, thereby getting rid of much wa-
tabolism. These waste are actually harmful to the body.
ter.
In protists, excretion occurs mainly by diffusion. The
Mammals have a very complicated excretory sys-
waste materials simply pass out of the cell by diffusion
tem which involves various organs- lungs for gaseous
through the entire cell membrane. Some unicellular
excretion of carbon dioxide, the kidney: for getting rid
organisms have a contractile vacuole in addition as a
of urine, and the skin for excreting water and salts in
specialised organelle of excretion.
the form of sweat.
You should have observed the contractile vacuole
of amoeba in earlier lessons. Paramecium has a pair of
contractile vacuoles which are both easy to observe.
Forms of excretory waste
Carbon dioxide produced by tissue respiration is one of
the major excretory products. It is eliminated by diffu-
Activity 4.7 Observing excretion by sion through the whole body surface or via specialised
means of contractile respiratory organs such as gills or lungs.
Nitrogenous waste constitutes another major
vacuole group of excretory substances. These arise from the
metabolism of nitrogenous compounds, such as pro-
Materials required teins, the breakdown of protoplasm, the conversion of
Fresh water sample or culture rich in paramecium, amino acids to carbohydrates for storage (deamination)
microscope, glass slide, cover slips, dropping pipette, or the use of amino acids in tissue respiration. Nitrog-
boiled starch solution enous waste substances are excreted in various forms
which have some relationship with the environment
Procedure of the organisms. Almost all aquatic organisms excrete
1 Viewed under the microscope, protozoans tend to nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia, a poison-
be very mobile. You can slow them down so that ous gas, which is readily soluble in water, and is readily
they can be more carefully observed. To do this, excreted by aquatic organisms. Terrestrial organisms
put a few drops of boiled starch solution on the which have limited access to water, and indeed need
glass slide. On this, place a drop of your culture. to conserve water, excrete nitrogenous waste in other
2 Locate some protozoans. View each, first under the forms.
low power, then under higher power magnifica- Birds, reptiles and insects excrete nitrogenous
tion. Locate a paramecium and bring its contrac- waste as uric acid, which is almost insoluble in water
tile vacuoles into focus. Patiently observe both of and leaves the body as solid crystals. Uric acid can be
them. stored for a long time without being absorbed into the
body to cause harm. Mammals excrete nitrogenous
The contractile vacuole is basically a structure for waste as urea, which is soluble in water in the urine.
osmoregulation. It removes extra water that enters the
unicellular aquatic organism either by osmosis or with
food. As the contractile vacuole removes the extra wa- Growth
ter, some soluble metabolic waste may also be collected
by it and passed out. In this way, the contractile vacuole Growth is an irreversible increase in size and or dry
functions also as an excretory organelle. mass. Cell division by mitosis, cell enlargement and cell
Much of the excretion in paramecium occurs by differentiation form the basis for growth. Growth in an
diffusion through the cell membrane. It is interesting

56
organism may be recognised in several ways. In a uni-
cellular organism, growth is recognised by an increase
Mitosis
in size and mass of the cell. Further, when the unicel-
Mitosis is the division of a somatic cell (i.e. a body cell
lular organism reproduces, such as by binary fission,
as distinct from a reproductive cell) into two daughter
there is an increase in the number of individuals. This
cells. This type of cell division may occur in connection
is an evidence of growth.
with growth, or in connection with repair of wear and
In a multicellular organism, growth is recognised
tear. In unicellular organisms usually, each cell can di-
by an increase in the number of cells. When the cells as-
vide. In multicellular organisms all cells cannot divide.
similate nutrients, enlarge and differentiate into issues,
In plants, mitosis occurs normally only in cells located
there is increase in size, length and mass as evidence of
at the tips of shoots and roots in the cambium or in the
growth.
other specific parts.
True growth is usually not reversible. Increase in
These cells which can divide are said to be meri-
size or mass due to uptake of water is not true growth.
stematics, and a group of meristematic cells, such as
A good way of telling whether the in size or mass of or-
that found at the tip of a stem is called a meristem. Ma-
ganism is true growth or simply due to uptake of water
ture plant cells do not normally divide but a wound
is to compare the dry weight of representative samples
may cause mature plant cells to become meristematic,
of the organisms over a period of time. If the number
such as when a hedge is cut. In animals, cells which can
of cells making up an organism increase without there
divide are not located at the tips of the body, but are in
being any accompanying increase in size or mass, this
various tissues all over the body.
is still true growth. An example of this is shown in
Mitosis consists of a division of the nucleus fol-
Fig. 4.8 below.
lowed by a division of the cytoplasm. The division of
In the early development of the fertilised frog egg,
the nucleus is a continuous process, but for convenience
numerous cell divisions or cleavages by mitosis result
of description, it is considered to be made up of steps
in more and more cells, but there is, at least initially, no
called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
increase in the size or mass of the embryo.
The process of mitosis in an animal cell will now be de-
Aspects of growth include:
scribed.
1 Increase in number of cells
2 Increase in number in size (height, length, breath,
girth)
3 Increase in dry mass
Prophase
In early prophase, fine threads known as chromosomes
4 Differentiation of cells into tissues and organs
appear in the nucleus. These chromosomes can now
5 Synthesis of new body material
be stained and seen under the microscope, whereas in
an undividing cell, they cannot be seen. The number
of chromosomes is constant in each cell of a species.
For example, in the maize plant, the number of chro-
mosomes in the nucleus of a body cell is 20, while in
the body cell of a human being, the number of chromo-
a) one-cell stage b) two-cell stage somes is 46.
Early in prophase, the two centrosomes, located
just outside the nucleus of the cell, separate. Each moves
to one of the two opposite poles. When the centrosomes
arrive at the opposite poles, fine filaments called aster
fibers form around them. Meanwhile changes continue
in the nucleus. The nucleolus disappears. The nuclear
membrane disintegrates and the chromosomes lie free
c) four-cell stage in the cytoplasm. Filaments are formed which run from
the middle of each cell to the poles. These filaments join
with the aster fibres to form a structure known as the
spindle.
In late prophase, the chromosomes are seen to be
composed of two strands each. The two strands, called
chromatids, are held together at a point called the cen-
d) eight-cell stage e) many-cell stage
tromere.

Fig. 4.8 Early cleavage stages in the frog embryo

57
Metaphase ber of chromatids equal to the number of chromosomes
In the next stage called the metaphase, the chromo- in the parent cell. A new nucleus is formed. While this
somes, each made of two chromatids, come to lie at the is going on, the spindle gradually breaks down.
equator of the cell. Each chromosome is attached to a
spindle fibre at the centromere.
Summary of mitosis
1 Interphase
Anaphase • Cell is not dividing.
The two chromatids in each chromosome separate at • No chromosomes is visible.
the centromere and begin to move toward opposite 2 Early prophase
poles attached to spindle fibres. • Centriole pairs separate and move to opposite
poles.
• Aster rays form around centriole pairs.
Telophase • Spindle fibres develop between the centriole
The chromatids arrive at the poles. At each pole, a new pairs to form a spindle.
daughter nucleus is reconstituted containing the num- • Chromosomes become visible in nucleus, then

cell
centriole membrane
pairs cytoplasm
nuclear
envelope
nucleolus

1 interphase 8 two daughter cells formed

centrtiole
pair
chromosome
nuclear
envelope
cell
membrane
2 early prophase 7 cytoplasmic division

chromatid
spindle
centromere disappearing

3 late prophase 6 telophase

pole of cell

spindle chromatid
equator of
cell
spindle

4 metaphase 5 anaphase

Fig. 4.9 Stages of mitosis

58
shorten and thicken. Each chromosome can 2 cytoplasmic division is not by constriction of the
be seen to be made up of two chromatids cytoplasmic but by the lying down of a cell wall
joined at the contromere. between the two daughter nuclei.
3 Late prophase
• Nucleus membrane disappears.
• Choromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm.
Cell enlargement and differentiation
Cell division is usually followed by cell enlargement
4 Metaphase
and cell differentiation. For instance, of the cells formed
• Choromosomes come to lie around the equator
by the cambium in a plant, some specialise into xylem,
of the cell.
and some into phloem cells. Again, all the cells in hu-
5 Anaphase
man body come from one original cell: the zygote.
• The two chromatids in each choromosome
However, as cell division continues, some cells differ-
separate at the centrome, and are moved
entiate into nerve cells, others into bone cells, others
towards opposite poles, along the spindle
into skin cells, muscle cells and so on.
fibres.
6 Telophase
• Chromatids arrive at the poles.
• Spindle gradually disappears. Activity 4.8 Observing cell division
• A nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromatids Materials required
• Chromatids gradually become invisible. A variety of prepared slides of root tips, microscope
This is the end of nuclear division (mitosis)
proper. It is followed by the division of the Procedure
cytoplasm. 1 Examine under the microscope, each of the slides
provided.
2 Make a high power magnification drawing of as
Cytoplasmic division many of the cells as you require to give you a com-
plete story of the process of cell division or mitosis.
After the division of the nucleus into two daughter
nuclei, the cytoplasm now divides into two, along the
equator of the cell. In an animal’s cell, the cytoplasmic Growth curves
division starts by a constriction forming around the There is a pattern to growth which, by and large, is
middle of the cell. This constriction continues to deep- shared by both plants and animals. Perennial plants
en until the division is complete. Two daughter cells are have more open growth than animals. They grow
formed, each with the same number of chromatids as for relatively much longer periods. Even after what is
the number of chromosomes in the parent cell. called maturation, the pattern of growth is still very
similar to that in animals.

Interphase
The interphase follows the completion of one cell di- Activity 4.9 Growth curves of height
vision. The interphase was formerly thought to be a
resting period for the cell, but it is now known to be a of plants
period of synthesis of body materials and preparation
for the next division. Materials required
During the interphase, each chromatid synthesis- Seedlings of common fast growing annuals (e.g. bal-
es its opposite half to make a chromosome. New proto- sam, sunflower, Okro plant) in pots, metre rules, graph
plasm is synthesised and endoplasmic reticulum, mito- paper
chondria, centrosomes and other cell organelles which
broke down during mitosis are formed. The cell grows Procedure
to a suitable size so that it can divide again. 1 Maintain the pot of seedlings assigned to you by
The stages of mitosis in a plant cell are similar to watering it and ensuring that it obtains adequate
those in an animal cell except that, in a plant cell, air and sunlight. Record the height of two or three
1 there are no centrosomes, and the formation of seedlings at weekly intervals. Record the heights in
spindle fibres goes ahead without the movement centimetres.
of centrosomes of the poles; 2 Plot the average height of the plants over 8 to 10

59
weeks on a height/time graph. If you now con- This is the weekly increment in height. Plot the weekly
tinue for long enough, you will obtain a graph not increment against time. What shape of curve do you
too different from Fig. 4.10. A growth curve is a get? Discuss the shape of curve with your teacher.
graph which shows the patten of growth of an You have observed and recorded the growth of a
organism or a part of it, with time. Calculate from plant by way of its height. Growth of guinea pigs may
your average height figures how much the plants also be measured by an increase in body weight.
grew each week. Do this by subtracting from each
week’s average height, the average height of the
plants the week before.

Table 4.2 Heights of seedlings over eight weeks

Height (cm) Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8
seedlings

Average
height

200

150
height
(cm)

100

50

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
time (weeks)

Fig. 4.10 Growth curve of plant stem

60
Activity 4.10 Measuring increase in rate is highest at the beginning of the life of the
organism, and then steadily falls until growth
mass of guinea pigs stops or the organism dies.
The increase in growth, expressed as a per-
Materials required centage of the existing mass or size, is a better in-
Guinea pigs (about 1 week old), suitable animal feed, dex of growth than the absolute growth. The 10 kg
weighing scale, labels, suitable bag for weighing the baby who gains 2 kg in a year is growing faster
guinea pigs than the 50 kg man who gains 5 kg in one year. The
baby’s increase in growth is a 20 percent gain
whereas the 5kg increase in growth of the man is
only 10 per cent.
Growth in insects is especially interesting, be-
cause insects’ bodies are protected and supported
by a hard outer shell called an exoskeleton. The
exoskeleton of the insect limits its growth and con-
fines the body tissues.
weekly increment (cm)

35 Growth is, therefore, in spurts, and is accom-

30
panied by the moulting of the old exoskeleton and
the growth of a new and larger one. Growth ceases
25
after the last moulting, when the insect is consid-
20 ered to have achieved adult-hood. For this reason, it
15 is safe (and scientific) to talk of the ‘adult size’ of an
10 insect, as this size is more or less fixed for each giv-
5 en insect.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Regions of fastest growth
time (weeks) Do the different parts of a root or stem grow at the same
pace? You will now find out by yourself through a prac-
Fig. 4.11 Graph of weekly increment in length of stem
tical investigation.

Procedure
1 Mark the animal assigned to your group for easy Activity 4.11 Determining the region
identification. of fastest growth in a
2 Feed the animal and provide it with regular and
adequate water supply as your teacher will direct. root
Use the weighing balance provided to weigh the
guinea pig. Record this weight and repeat every Materials required
Five cowpea seeds, blotting paper, water, gas jar, mark-
week. After 8 to 10 weeks, plot the weights (in kg)
ing ink, pen
against time (in weeks).
3 Describe the shape of your graph and compare
your graphs for Activity 4.9 and Activity 4.10. When
Procedure
1 Place five cowpea seeds between the wall of a gas
the weekly increment in growth is plotted against
jar and a layer of blotting paper that lines the inner
time, it is observed that increase in mass is rather
surface of the gas jar.
slow initially, and then becomes rapid. With in-
2 Put some water into the gas jar to a level well
creasing age, the increase tapers off. In most healthy
below the cowpea seeds, so that the blotting paper
humans, increases in height and weight usually
draws the water up to the seeds.
stop in the early 20s. Cessation of growth is a
3 In about four days, the cowpea seeds germinate.
characteristic of mammals and birds.
Select three seedlings with straight radicles. Bring
out the seedlings and lay them flat on wet blot-
Generally, in other vertebrates, most inverte-
ting paper.
brates and many plants, growth may continue
4 Mark the last 2 cm of each radicle with marking
throughout life. In these living things, growth
ink into 2 mm portions.
tends to become very slow with age. The growth

61
2 When the seedlings grow up to about 4 cm, use
5 marking ink to mark the shoot apex of two cowpea
seedlings into 1 mm spaces. Leave the seedlings for
48 hours.
3 Observe the marks. Are the divisions still equal in
4 length? In which part of the stem are the divisions
longer than in other parts?

You should have observed that the greatest elon-

3 gation occurred within a few mm behind the shoot
apex.
length
(cm)

2 Environmental factors that affect

growth
Several environmental factors affect growth. You may
have observed that many plants grow faster in rainy
1 season when water is available in adequate amounts
than in the dry seasons, e.g. mango plant. In the dry
season the shoot of some plants die, and the plants sur-
vive the dry season by means of seeds e.g. cowpea and
1 2 3 4 5
maize, or underground part, e.g. yam and cocoyam.
Growth requires synthesis of new protoplasm and
time (weeks)
other body materials, such as cellulose (in plants). Food
is necessary for synthesis of protoplasm and body ma-
Fig. 4.12 Growth curve of insects terials. Energy obtained through respiration is also nec-
essary for synthesis of body materials. Warmth is nec-
essary for reactions that are brought about by enzymes
5 Replace the seedlings in the gas jar wall. Place the
during respiration or synthesis of body materials.
gas jar in the dark for 48 hours.
Therefore, the environmental factors necessary for
6 Observe the division on the radicle which were ini-
the growth of plants include the following:
tially equal. Are some divisions longer than the
1 Adequate sunlight, water and carbon dioxide (for pho-
other after 48 hours? In which part of the radicle
tosynthesis)
are the divisions longer than before?
2 Mineral salts (for synthesis of proteins, enzymes
and other essential substances in the body)
It is normally observed that some spaces have elongat-
3 Warm temperature (for enzymes to catalyse reac-
ed more than others. The region of greater elongation is
tions at a suitable speed), e.g. optimum tempera-
a few mm behind the apex of the root. This region is the
ture for man is 37oC
region of cell elongation.
4 Oxygen for respiration
Environmental factors necessary for the growth of ani-
mals include the following:
Activity 4.12 Determining the region 1 Balanced diet (adequate amounts of carbohydrates,
of fastest growth in lipids, proteins, mineral salts, vitamins and
water)
length of stems 2 Oxygen
3 Warmth (or suitable temperature)
Materials required
Five cowpea seeds, a small plastic pot for planting,
seeds, water, garden soil, marking ink, pen
Regulation of growth by hormones
Procedure Regulation of growth means co-ordination and control
1 Plant five cowpea seeds in garden soil in a plastic of growth, so that different parts of an organism grow
pot. Water the soil to keep it moist. Leave the pot in proportion and in a balanced manner to one another.
in a secure place, with adequate sunlight.

62
For instance, in a plant, as the shoot system grows, the 1 Stem elongation
root system grows to match it. Auxin produced by cells at the shoot tip diffuses
Growth is regulated by hormones. In animals, a downwards in the stem and brings about that
hormone is a substance secreted by an endocrine gland aspect of growth represented by cell elongation.
or a tissue, which is transported by the blood stream to This elongation of cells behind the stem tip makes
other parts of the body, and which causes a response the stem increase in length.
in a specific organ or tissue. In plants, a hormone is a
chemical substance produced in one part of a plant, in 2 Suppression of lateral buds
small quantities, which is capable of producing effect in The auxin, which is produced by cells at the shoot
other parts of the plant. In plants and animals, there are tip, and which diffuses downwards in the stem,
hormones that regulate growth. inhibits the development of lateral buds. This is
because different concentrations of auxin stimu-
late the stem, root or lateral buds. Auxin concentra-
Hormones that regulate growth in tion which stimulates cell elongation in the stem
plants is too high for, and inhibits the growth of lateral
Hormones that regulate growth in plants include aux- buds. In this way, the apical bud continues to
ins, cytokinins, gibberelins, abscissic acid and eth- grow while the lateral buds are suppressed. This
ylene. These hormones influence different aspects of is called apical dominance. When a hedge is cut,
growth as described below: the apical buds are cut, then apical dominance is
removed, and lateral buds grow.
Auxins
Our knowledge about auxins has been built up gradu- 3 Root elongation
ally over many years. In plants of the grass family, e.g. Auxin produced by cells at the root tip stimulates
wheat, oat and maize, there is a sheath called the cele- cell elongation behind the root tip, and brings about
optile, which covers and protects the plumule as the growth in length of the root. The concentration of
seed germinates. The celeoptile pushes through the auxin that stimulates cell elongation in the root is
soil and then the plumule bursts through the celeop- smaller than the concentration of auxin which
tile. Growth in celeoptile is mainly by cell elongation. stimulates cell elongation in the stem.
Seedlings bend towards light coming from one side.
Charles Darwin studied this response of seedlings to 4 Root initiation
light in 1880, using celeoptile, and found that if the tip Auxin stimulates root initiation. When a stem cut-
of the celeoptile was cut off or covered with metal foil, ting is planted, such as the stem cutting of a cas-
the bending did not occur. This showed that the tip re- sava, buds appear on the stem. The buds on the
ceived the stimulus of light coming from one side, but stem produce auxin, which diffuses downwards in
the response occurred at a little distance behind the tip. the stem, and stimulates root formation.
In 1928, F. W. Went found that if the tip of oat cele-
optile was cut off and removed, growth of the celeop- 5 Phototropic response
tile stopped. If the cut tip was later replaced, growth Auxin makes stem bend towards light that
started again. If the cut tip was placed with the cut sur- comes to a plant from one side. When light rays
face in contact with a small block of agar for some time, reach a stem from one side, the unilateral light
then the agar block was placed on the cut celeoptile, causes unequal concentration of auxin on different
the agar stimulated growth. This indicated that the tip sides of the stem. The shaded side has a higher con-
of the celeoptile produced a substance, which diffused centration of auxin and grows than the lit side,
downwards in the stem and stimulated that aspect of hence the bending towards the source of light.
growth represented by cell elongation.
This natural chemical substance has been isolated 6 Geotropic response
and named auxin. Its scientific name is indole acetic When a root is placed horizontally, more auxin
acid (IAA). Several other substances with similar action accumulates on the lower side than on the upper
are now known, such as indole butyric acid. Some of side. In the root, the high concentration of auxin
these have been synthesised artificially. All of such sub- on the lower side inhibits cell elongation, while the
stances are called auxins. Auxin has several actions in low concentration of auxin on the upper side pro-
plants, including the following: motes cell elongation. Hence the root bends to-
wards gravity.

63
7 Leaf fall before flowering. In a rosette, the leaves develop
Auxin formed by young leaves diffuses down- and remain clustered together because the stem
wards through the petioles into the stem, and pre- does not elongate. These plants can be induced to
vents the leaves from falling off. When a leaf grows flower by exposure to long days or a period of cold
olds and its ability to produce auxin drops or stops, (in the temperate countries). Application of gibber-
the leaf falls off. Leaf fall is preceded by the death ellins causes the plants to grow tall (bolt) and
of a layer of cells at the base of the petiole called flower.
the abscision layer. This is a layer of parenchy- 4 In germinating grass seeds, the embryo secretes
ma cells. When the leaf becomes old, auxin pro- gibberellin, which stimulates the aleuron layer to
duction stops, the parenchyma cells in the abscis- produce enzymes, such as alphamylase, which
sion layer die and dry up. The leaf can then fall. hydrolises the starch in the endosperm.

8 Renewal of cambium activity

In the dry season, many trees become dormant
Abscissic acid or dormin
Abscissic acid is produced in many parts of the plant,
and shed their leaves. At the beginning of the rainy
such as stem, leaf, seed and fruit.
season, new shoot buds are formed. These produce
auxin which diffuses into the stem and stimulates
cambium cells to become active. Functions of abscissic acid
1 Abscissic acid inhibits bud development and
growth.
Cytokinins 2 It inhibits mitosis in meristematic cells, such as
Cytokinins are a kind of plant hormones that are pro- vascular cambium.
duced in actively growing tissues, such as embryos, de- 3 It causes dormancy of seeds.
veloping roots and fruits. 4 It stimulates the formation of the abscission layer
which leads to fruit, leaf and flower fall.
Functions of cytokinins
1 Cytokinins stimulate cell division.
2
Ethylene (ethene)
They stimulate the development of shoot buds.
Ethylene is a gaseous growth regulator produced by
3 They promote the growth of lateral buds.
various parts of plants.
4 They retard ageing of plant organs.
5 They break dormancy in some seeds.
6 They include flowering in some plants. Functions of ethylene
7 They stimulate growth in leaves. 1 Ethene (ethylene) inhibits stem elongation.
8 Cytokinins and auxins interact to produce cell 2 It accelerates the abscission of leaves, flowers and
division and cell enlargement. In cells growing in fruits.
the laboratory in tissue culture, an auxin with a 3 It causes the changes that take place during ripen-
low concentration of cytokinin produces rapid ing of fruits.
cell enlargement leading to the formation of a few 4 It hastens the ripening of fruits.
large cells. On the other hand, a cytokinin with a 5 It is associated with the process of ageing of plant
low concentration of auxin, results in rapid cell organs.
division forming a large umber of small cells. Nor
mal growth depends on a balance between the
two hormones. Hormones that regulate growth in
animals
Gibberellins Pituitary gland
Gibberellins are plant hormones which stimulate both
The pituitary gland has a very important effect on
cell division and cell elongation. Some of the observed
growth. If the pituitary gland is removed from a young
effects of gibberellins on growth of plants are as fol-
animal, it ceases to grow, and fails to develop sexually.
lows:
1 When gibberellins are applied to genetic dwarf
plants, they grow to normal size. Thyroid gland
2 Gibberellins cause stem elongation in normal non- The thyroid gland also has a strong effect on growth,
dwarf plants. some of which are as follows:
3 Some plants, such as cabbage form leaf rosettes 1 If an animal does not produce enough thyroxin, it

64
does not grow to a normal size. shows that sensitivity is a property of protoplasm.
2 Thyroxin stimulates mental growth and develop-
ment.
3 In frogs, if tadpoles do not produce enough thy-
Chlamydomonas
Chlamydomonas relies on photosynthesis to make its
roxine, they will not metamorphose into adult
food. It has an eye spot with which it locates areas of
frogs. If they produce too much thyroxine, meta-
suitable light intensity. The organism swims with its
morphosis is quicker than normal.
flagella to such areas. Chlamydomonas, therefore, shows
4 Too much thyroxin causes hyperactivity. The indi-
positive phototaxis. Phototaxis is defined as the move-
vidual eats too much, is too active and loses
ment of a whole organism in response to an external
weight.
stimulus of light.

Cell reactions to its environment Euglena viridis

Euglena viridis is a protista which makes its own food
One of the characteristics of living things is that they by photosynthesis. It responds to the stimulus of light
can respond to stimuli. A stimulus is an environmental by swimming parallel to light rays towards the source
change which induces or brings about a response in a of light. Euglena is positively phototactic.
cell or organism.
If you mistakenly place your hand on a hot ob-
ject, you will quickly withdraw your hand. The heat of
Amoeba
Amoeba prefers dim diffuse light to bright light. It, there-
the object is a stimulus, to which you respond by with-
fore, shows negative phototaxis to bright light. Amoeba
drawing your hand. If someone pricks your body with
also displays other kinds of taxis. When it comes in con-
pin, you will withdraw from the pin. The prick of the
tact with a strong chemical, such as an acid, it stops and
pin is a stimulus to which you respond by withdrawing
reverses its movement. This is a negative taxis. When
your body. Examples of stimuli include light intensity,
an amoeba is given an electric shock, it withdraws all its
temperature, hydrogen ion concentration, presence of
pseudopodia and assumes a spherical shape.
chemicals and concentration of oxygen or carbon diox-
ide.
The ability of a living organism to respond to stim- Paramecium
uli is called irritability. Organisms show irritability or Paramecium is sensitive to dissolved chemicals, oxygen,
sensitivity in variety of ways. In this chapter, you will and carbon dioxide concentrations, light, touch and
learn about three types of responses to stimuli, namely temperature all over the body surface. Apart from a
taxism, tropism and nastism. Responses of organisms few long tactile cilia at the posterior end, it has no spe-
to stimuli are usually advantageous to them. cial sense organelles.
Paramecium has cilia in the oral groove which beat
strongly, drawing water towards the organism. This
Taxism helps the organism to sample water that lies ahead of
If you step on a cat’s foot by chance, the cat will quickly
it. It reacts to unfavourable conditions by stopping the
withdraw the foot and move away from you. If you
beat of the cilia for a few seconds, then the cilia beat
present food to the cat, the cat will move towards the
in the reverse direction causing the organism to move
food. In each case, the cat is responding to a stimulus of
back, and the organism resumes forward movement
pain or gain. In one case, the response is a movement
at a different angle. This behaviour has been called
away from the stimulus (this is described as a negative
‘avoiding reaction’ or avoidance behaviour. It enables
response) while in the other case, response is a move-
the paramecium to avoid the unfavourable stimulus.
ment towards the stimulus (this is described as a posi-
Paramecium also avoids obstacles through the avoiding
tive response).
reaction.
Taxism is the movement of a whole organism or a
In plants and animals, motile gametes show tax-
freely moving part of it, towards or away from a stimu-
ism. Usually, the male gamete moves towards the fe-
lus. A tactic movement bears a relationship with the di-
male gamete in a liquid medium.
rection of the stimulus, i.e. it is a directional movement.

Taxis in prostista Tropism

Most plants are fixed in their positions. They do not
In the prostista, an organism consists of only one cell.
move from place to place. Nevertheless, parts of plants
Even these organisms display sensitivity which clearly
can carry out limited movements. For instance, when

65
obstacle

paramecium

obstacle

Fig. 4.13 Avoiding reaction by paramecium

a pot containing seedlings of maize, beans or other Activity 4.13 Observing the response
plants, is placed near a window, the seedlings bend
towards light coming in through the window. Such of the stem to the force
bending of seedlings occurs because one side of the of gravity
stem grows faster than the other side. The bending of
seedlings towards light coming from one direction is an Materials required
example of a tropism. Seeds of common plants, e.g. beans or balsam, two pots,
Tropism is a bending growth movement, by a a dark cupboard (large enough to take the two pots)
plant organ, in response to a stimulus from one direc-
tion, by which the plant organ assumes a particular Procedure
posture or orientation, which bears a relationship to 1 Allow the seeds to germinate in the pots which are
the direction from which the stimulus is received. The filled with good garden soil. You need only two
stimuli to which plants respond in this way include seedlings in each pot. Ensure that the shoots of
light, gravity, touch, water and chemical substances. the seedlings are upright and straight as they
A tropic movement is described as positive or nega- grow by regularly turning the pots around.
tive depending on whether the bending movement is 2 When the shoots are about 3 cm tall, place both pots
towards or away from the direction of the stimulus re- in the dark cupboard, one on its side and the other
spectively. Various tropic responses made by plants are upright.
shown in Table 4.3. 3 After two days, observe both pots of seedlings. Note
what has happened. Which seedling shows a cu-
Table 4.3 Tropic responses made by plants rve on their stems? In what direction is the curve?
Compare this to the seedlings in the pot that was
Stimulus Name of tropic kept standing upright.
movement You should have found that the stems of the plants
in the pot laid on its side grew upwards. The force of
1 Gravitational force Geotropism gravity pulls downwards so the stems may be said to
2 Unidirectional light Phototropism show negative geotropism because they are bending
3 Concentration of chemicals Chemotropism away from the stimulus. Stems are nearly always nega-
4 Water Hydrotropism tively geotropic.
5 Heat Thermotropism
6 Water current Rheotropism
7 Electric current Galvanotropism

66
Activity 4.14 Observing the response You should have found out that no matter in
what direction the radicles were pointing at the start
of the roots to the force of the experiment, by the end, all were pointing down-
of gravity wards. Your radicles are showing positive geotropism.
You should not be surprised by this finding as roots of
Materials required plants always grow downwards no matter in what po-
A large beaker (500 cm3), black paper (or sheets of car- sition the seeds are planted.
bon paper), blotting papers, cellotape, two petridishes, Study your teacher’s demonstration very care-
cotton wool, seeds (e.g. beans, balsam), a cupboard, fully. The teacher has fixed the seedlings to an instru-
wooden blocks. (or plasticine) to support petridishes. ment called a klinostat. This instrument keeps the
For this experiment you need seedlings with straight seedlings with their roots in continuous rotation. This
roots. These can be obtained by proper germination of way, the force of gravity acts equally on all sides of the
the seeds roots of the seedlings. This is kept going for a couple
of days. You will observe that the radicles continue to
Procedure grow and elongate, without bending either way – up or
1 Select three seeds. Position them on the bottom of down. This shows clearly that when the force of grav-
a petridish so that the radicles lie flat and are at ity is eliminated or neutralised; the root does not grow
right angles to each other. downwards.
2 Hold them in place with moist cotton wool and
cover with a second petridish.
3 Mark an arrow on the top dish pointing in the Activity 4.15 Observing the response
same direction as any one of the three radicles.
Tape the two dishes together. of stems to light that
4 Stand your taped-together petridishes on their edges comes from one side
in the cupboard so that the arrow marked on the
top dish points vertically downwards. Hold the
To observe this response clearly, more light rays must
dishes in place with wooden blocks or plasticine.
strike the plant from one direction than any other.
Cover the standing dishes with the beaker you
covered in black paper.
Materials required
Two pots of growing seedlings, a large cardboard box
electric motor perspex cover
Procedure
1 Place one of the pots, with its growing seedlings,
near a window in the laboratory. Ensure that more
light comes in from the window than from the op-
posite direction. In about two or three days, the
shoots bend. In what direction do they bend? Turn
the pot round through 1800 so that the bent shoots
now point away from the window. In another few
days, what do you observe? Towards what direc-
tion do the shoots now bend? You should find that
the shoots bend again towards the brighter light
from the window.
water 2 Now, cut a hole about 10 cm by 10 cm from one side
of the cardboard box. Place the box at a window
such that the cut surface is away from the window.
Place the second pot with its growing seedlings
Fig. 4.14 A klinostat
in the box. Ensure that the only light available to
the seedlings is that from the cut on the box. Leave
After two days take out the petridishes, with the indica- it to stand for two or three days. Examine the seed-
tor arrow pointing downward. Where does each radicle lings. Are the stems bent? In which direction are
now point? Which of the radicles is now bent? In what they bent? Phototropism is more marked here
direction is this radicle bent? compared to what you saw in (1). Why is this?

67
Your shoots are thus positively phototropic
and this is generally true of shoots.
Movement
Movement is an activity which results in a change of
shape, form or position. It is one of the characteristics of
Activity 4.16 Observing the response living things. There are several kinds of movement and
of roots to water methods of bringing about movement.

Materials required
Two porous pots (i.e. clay pots), two large troughs, a
Protoplasmic streaming or cyclosis
In some living cells, such as the cells of the plant elo-
small quantity of garden soil, some healthy seeds, such
dea, or the protist paramecium, it is possible to observe
as beans or balsam
under the microscope cytoplasm flowing from one part
of the cell to othe other. This is known as protoplasmic
Procedure
streaming or cyclosis. Protoplasmic streaming helps
1 Set up two sets of apparatus, such that in each, the
to circulate materials within a cell. The circulation of a
porous pot is held in the middle of the trough of
food vacuole in paramecium through a definite path is
garden soil.
thought to be brought about by protoplasmic stream-
2 Moisten the soil. Sow four to six of the seeds, each
ing.
about 5 cm away from the clay pot. As soon as the
Protoplasmic streaming is brought about by two
plumule appears above the soil, stop wetting the
actions.
soil. Now fill up the pot in one set of apparatus
1 Cytoplasm can exist in a fairly liquid form, called
with water. Leave the porous pot in the other set-
plasmasol, or in a fairly solid form, called plasma-
up dry, i.e. without water.
gel. The first action in protoplasmic streaming is
Table 4.4

Plant part Stimulus Response Inference

1 Root Force of gravity Grows/bends towards force Roots are positively geotropic
of gravity

2 Root

3 Stem/shoot

4 Stem/shoot

3 Leave both to stand for two or three days. Then that cytoplasm changes from plasmagel to plas-
very carefully uncover the roots of the seedlings masol progressively, from the anterior end to the
in each trough. In which trough have the roots posterior end of the stream.
begun to bend? What is the direction of the bend-
ing of the roots? Carefully compare your observa- 2 The cytoplasm exerts pressure at the posterior end
tions of the roots of the seedlings in the two tro- on the plasmasol as it is formed, causing it to flow
ughs. forward. At the anterior end of the streaming, plas-
The roots of the seedlings in the trough with a pot of masol is again converted to plasmagel.
water will have bent towards the porous pot. In the
second trough, the roots grow straight down. Roots are
sensitive to water and will bend towards it. Roots are
thus positively hydrotropic.
Make a summary of your findings from Activities
4.13 to 4.16. Complete Table 4.4 by following the exam-
ple.

68
Cilia and flagella are long, thin structures which
plasmagel hyaline extend from the surfaces of many kinds of cells. They
forming layer advancing
tube pseudopodium occur widely in living things. Flagella occur in such or-
region of ganisms as euglena, chlamydomonas and volvox. Cilia oc-
solation cur in ciliates, including paramecium and some inverte-
region of
gelation brates. Cells that line the respiratory tract of man have
cilia. However, the cilia do not bring about movement
of the cells. They lash in such a way that they cause the
B movement of particles (such as dust and soot) towards
the back of the mouth where they are removed by spit-
ting out or swallowing. Spermatozoa in man and in
some other animals move by means of flagella.
hyaline Cilia and flagella are similar in structure. They
A plasmalemma cap
plasmalemma plasmasol differ only in length, the flagellum being longer than
sheet
the cilium. The cilium or flagellum is made up of nine
pairs of microtubules arranged in a circle. These sur-
round two solitary microtubules in the centre of the
B cilium or flagellum. A flagellum or cilium arises from a
basal body which has the same diameter as the cilium
or flagellum. The basal body consists of microtubules
A arranged in nine triplets around the periphery, and un-
like the cilium or flagellum, has no microtubules in the
plasmagel
plasmalemma solates centre.
hyaline Cilia and flagella move in definite ways. A cilium
layer beats downwards from an upright position. Then it re-
turns in a relaxed condition to the upright position. It
Fig. 4.15 Amoeboid movement then beats again. The cilia in an organism do not beat
all at the same time. They beat in a coordinated manner
Amoeboid movement from one end of the body to the other. In doing so, they
The manner in which amoeba moves is called amoeboid continuously provide the force that moves the organ-
movement. This type of movement occurs also in white ism, such as paramecium, through the water.
blood corpuscles of man.
Amoeboid movement is related to protoplasmic Growth movement
streaming. It involves the change of state of the cyto- You have already learnt that plants carry out growth
plasm from gel to sol, and back again to the gel state. At movements in response to stimuli, such as light, grav-
the point where a new pseudopodium is to be formed, ity, water and touch. These movements called tropisms,
the plasmagel softens. Plasmasol flows towards this do not result in movement from one place to another,
point from the rest of the cytoplasm where plasmagel but in bending or curvature of plant organs (stem, root,
is being changed to plasmasol. This flow is maintained etc). The bending bears a relationship with the direc-
by pressure at the posterior end relative to where the tion from which the stimulus is received.
pseudopodium is forming. As the plasmasol flows
into the forming pseudopodium, the pseudopodium
steadily elongates. Near the tip of the pseudopodium, Reproduction
the plasmasol fans out in all directions and changes to
plasmagel which forms a tube in which there is a core Reproduction is the process by which living organisms
of streaming plasmasol. give rise to new individuals of the same species. This
process leads to an increase in the population of the
Movement of cilia and flagella species, and ensures the continued existence of the spe-
You already know from the activities earlier in this cies. Without reproduction, every species would sooner
chapter that unicellular organisms move, often very or later die out and become extinct.
quickly. The movements you observed involved move-
ments of the whole body. Unicellular organisms may
have specialised organelles to help them move, such as
cilia or flagella.

69
Forms of reproduction germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium.
Sometimes, under adverse conditions, amoeba en-
cysts (surrounds itself with a tough coat). Within the
There are two forms of reproduction, known as asexual cyst, the protoplasm divides into many parts, each sur-
and sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is char- rounded by a resistant coat to form a spore. When con-
acterised by the fusion of sex cells of gametes, while in ditions become suitable again, the cyst bursts and each
asexual reproduction, no gametes are formed. The dif- spore develops into a new individual.
ferences between sexual and asexual reproduction are
summarised in Table 4.5:

Table 4.5 Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

1 Gametes are formed No gametes are formed

2 Involves fusion of male and female gametes No fusion of gametes occurs

3 Zygote is formed No zygote is formed

4 Usually involves two individuals, male and female, Involves one individual
but occasionally one hermaphrodite (an organism
with both male and female organs)

Asexual reproduction
In asexual reproduction, one or more cells of a single
parent give rise to a new organism. Method of asexual
reproduction includes binary fission, budding, spore
formation and vegetative reproduction.

Binary fission
This is a form of asexual reproduction in which the par-
ent organism divides by mitosis into two halves. Each
half develops into a new individual. Binary fission is
common in unicellular organisms, such as bacteria,
amoeba, paramecium, and chlamydomonas.
Fig. 4.16 Budding in yeast
Budding spore
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which the mature and burst
parent organism forms outgrowth (bud), which then sporangium
grows into a new organism and separates from the par-
sporangium
ent. This occurs commonly in yeast and hydra.

sporangiophore
Spore formation
Spores are asexual reproductive bodies formed by cer- stolon
tain lower organisms, such as fungi. The bread mould,
rhizopus, produces numerous spores in structure
called sporangia which are borne at the ends of upright rhizoid
hyphae called sporangiophores. When the sporangia
become mature, they burst and the spores are dispersed
by the wind. If a spore falls on a suitable substance, it
Fig. 4.17 Rhizopus: asexual reproduction

70
Activity 4.17 Observing asexual rep- Natural vegetative reproduction
1Underground stems
roduction in unicellular Underground stems, such as rhizomes, suckers,
organisms corms, bulbs and tubers reproduce vegetatively
in nature.
Materials required Buds formed at the nodes of the stems give rise
A tin of baker’s yeast, dilute sugar solution, prepared to new shoots which may become separated from
slides of binary fission in amoeba, microscope, glass the parent plants (by death of the parent under-
slide, palm wine, dropping pipette ground stem) and develop into new individuals.
Procedure
1 Heat the dilute sugar solution provided until it is 2 Runners
just warm to touch. Turn off the flame, suspend a Runners are creeping stems which grow on the
little quantity of baker’s yeast in this warm solu- surface of the soil. Examples of runners include
tion for two hours. Place a drop of the resulting bahama grass and sweet potato. Runners produce
milky liquid on a glass slide. Examine under the adventitious roots wherever their nodes touch
microscope. Make drawings of the cells that you the ground. If the internodes die, the buds develop
observe. (note that budding in yeast can be so fast into new independent plants.
that a bud on a parent cell can itself begin to bud
before it is fully detached from the parent cell). 3 Roots
2 Examine under the microscope a drop of the The roots of some plants, such as the ice plant and
palm wine provided. You should find yeast cells allamanda spread just below the surface of the soil
in it if you look carefully. Record your observa- and give rise to new shoots which grow up at inter-
tion. Are the cells budding? vals around the parent plant. If the root that con-
3 Examine the prepared slides under the micro- nects the parent shoot to the daughter shoot is cut
scope. Make large, clear drawings of what you by any agent, an independent shoot results.
see. What process in the life of amoeba do you
observe? How is this different from sporulation? 4 Leaves
The leaf of the live plant, bryophyllum can repro-
duce vegetatively. If a healthy leaf is broken off, it
Activity 4.18 Observing spores of produces one or more buds, each with roots. If
the roots come in contact with good soil, the buds
rhizopus can develop into new plants. Vegetative reproduc-
tion by means of leaves, as in bryophyllum, is said
Materials required to be by adventitious buds.
Microscope, temporary mounts of sporangia of rizo- 5 Bulbils
phus showing spores Bulbils are detachable buds. They grow on parts
of some plants, such as the inflorescence of sisal,
Procedure the stems of some wild yams and the leaves of ka-
Look at the slide mounted by the teacher under a mi- lanchoe. When mature, the bulbils drop to the
croscope. Make clear drawings of what you see. ground, take root and grow into new plants.

Vegetative reproduction Artificial vegetative reproduction

The production of new individuals from the vegetative Man propagates plants artificially by vegetative meth-
parts of plants is known as vegetative reproduction. ods. Some artifical methods of vegetative propagation
The vegetative parts are stems, roots and leaves, which include cutting, grafting, budding and layering.
are not normally concerned with reproduction as op- 1 Cutting
posed to the flowers that are normally concerned with A cutting is a short piece of the parent plant which,
reproduction. when planted, gives rise to a new plant. Cassava
Vegetative reproduction may be classified as either is normally planted in the form of cuttings.
natural vegetative reproduction or artificial vegetable 2 Grafting
reproduction. Grafting involves bringing together the piece of
young shoot known as the scion and the rooted
stump of a mature individual of a related species

71
known as the stock, so that both of them grow and 4 Layering
develop into one plant. Layering involves bending a branch of an estab-
lished plant so that it touches the soil; then the
branch is held in that position with pegs and cov-
scion ered with soil. After some time, the portion of the
scion
stem that has been covered with soil develops roots.
When this happens, the portion of the branch con-
necting the parent plant to the rooted part is cut.
The rooted branch then becomes an independent
twine plant. This process is readily carried out with
tomatoes or bougainvillea.

parent plant

stock stock
pegs

Fig. 4.18 Grafting soil

Grafting is a way of combining the good qualities

of two related species or of two varieties of one species
into one plant. For instance, the sweet orange produces
sweet fruit but is not very resistant to citrus diseases. adventitious
The rough lemon is resistant to citrus diseases, but the root
fruit has unpleasant taste. If the scion of a sweet orange
is grafted on to the stock of a rough lemon, the result-
Fig. 4.20 Layering
ing plant produces sweet fruit (derived from the scion),
and at the same time, the plant has the disease resis-
tance of the rough lemon stock. Advantages of vegetative reproduction
3 Budding 1 Vegetative reproduction is fast. A hedge planted
In this procedure, a bud is obtained from a desired from cutting grows quicker than one planted from
species or variety of plant, and is inserted in a seeds. Budded fruit trees, such as oranges, may
t-shaped cut in the bark of a plant of a closely re- produce fruits in three years or less, while those
lated species. The bud is tied securely in place grown from seeds take a longer time to fruit.
with a thread. For instance, the bud from a grape- 2 While becoming established, plants grown veg-
fruit plant may be budded on to a rough lemon etatively require less care than seedlings.
stock. When the bud becomes established, the 3 Vegetative reproduction is independent of agents
stem of the stock is cut immediately above the of pollination.
bud. The bud now grows into the main shoot. 4 Plants formed by vegetative reproduction are sim-
The fruits of resulting plant are, therefore, charac- ilar to the parents. This is an advantage where it
teristic of the species of variety from which the is desired to retain specific qualities of the parent,
bud was obtained. such as large or sweet fruits.
5 Some plants have no seeds and can only repro-
scion or bud duce vegetatively, e.g. banana.
6 In natural vegetative reproduction, offspring ob-
tain food from their parents.
7 New plants are produced when conditions are
already favourable to the parents.

Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction

t - shaped 1 Natural vegetative reproduction may lead to over-
cut in stock crowding of plants, e.g. allamanda.
2 At fertilisation, the characteristics of two individu-
als are brought together. Good qualities in the two
Fig. 4.19 Budding

72
individuals may come together in the offspring. One of the two gametes, regarded as the male, mi-
In vegetative reproduction, there is no opportu- grates through the conjugation tube into the other cell.
nity for variation and introduction of new desir- The cytoplasms of the two cells fuse, the nuclei also
able qualities. fuse and a zygote is formed.
3 Plants that grow from seeds after cross-fertilisation In rhizopus, a fungus, the process of conjugation
have what is called hybrid vigour. The plants are is comparable to that of spirogyra but conjugation nor-
healthy and strong. There is no hybrid vigour in mally takes place between two different kinds of hy-
plants reproduced vegetatively. phae known as + and – strains. That is, conjugation
4 Any defects in the parent plant are passed on to the never occurs between hyphae of the same strain.
offspring unaltered in vegetative reproduction. Conjugation in paramecium involves two indi-
viduals, the conjugants, which come to lie side by side
with their oral grooves touching. The meganuclenus of
Sexual reproduction each organism disintegrates. The micronucleus of each
The distinctive feature of sexual reproduction is the
organism divides into four micronuclei, three of which
fussion of two gametes. Generally, one is the male gam-
disintegrate. The remaining micronucleus of each or-
ete, which is motile, while the other is the female gam-
ganism again divides into two. One micronucleus from
ete, which is not motile. When the two gametes come
each individual migrates into the other paramecium.
together, their nuclei fuse, and this is called fertilisa-
In this way, there is exchange of nuclear material. The
tion. The fusion of the nuclei is followed by the fusion
micronucleus that migrates (migratory nucleus) fuses
of their cytoplasms. Then a zygote is formed, which de-
with the one that stayed (stationary nucleus) to form
velops into an embryo.
the fusion nucleus. The two individuals separate; they
are now exconjugants. The fusion nucleus in each in-
Conjugation dividual then divides into eight, while the cytoplasm
The process in protozoans, certain algae and fungi, by divides into four, so that four individuals are produced,
which nuclear material is passed from one cell to an- each with a new meganucleus and a new micronucleus.
other, is called conjugation. It is a form of sexual repro-
duction.
In spirogyra, for instance, conjugation starts with
two filaments lying side by side. Projections start to Activity 4.19 Observing conjugation
develop opposite each other from opposite cells in the
two filaments. The projections meet, and the separating
in paramecium and spi-
walls dissolve so that a continuous channel or conjuga- rogyra
tion tube is formed. Meanwhile, the cytoplasm of each
shrinks away from the cell walls and rounds up to form Materials required
a gamete. Microscopes, microscope slides showing conjugation in
paramecium and in spirogyra

Procedure
1 The teacher sets up two microscopes. One micro-
scope shows conjugation in paramecium and the
other shows conjugation in spirogyra. Observe the
two slides through the eyepiece of the microscope.
2 Make drawings of your observations in your note-
book. In higher plants and animals, sexual repro-
duction normally occurs by the fusion of gametes.
The process of gamete formation is called game-
gamete conjugation
tube togenesis. Gametes differ from somatic or body
cells in one important respect: gametes are haploid,
that is, each gamete has half the number of chro-
mosomes in a somatic or body cell of the animal
or plant so that when two gametes fuse, the diploid
number of chromosomes, which exists in the so-
zygote zygospore matic cell, is restored. A special cell division occurs
Fig. 4.21 Conjugation in spirogyra during gametogenesis, and this results in the

73
halving of chromosomes in the gametes. This ing cell. The cytoplasm divides so that two daughter
cell division is called reduction division or meio- cells are formed, each with half the number of chromo-
sis. somes in the cell that divided. New nuclear membrane
may or may not reform in each daughter cell, and the
Cell division is a continuous process but for conve- chromosomes do not disappear from view by the time
nience may be considered to consist of stages called the daughter cells are already in the prophase of the
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. A cell second meiotic division.
that is not dividing is said to be in the interphase.
A cell in the interphase, however, is not dormant. Second meiotic prophase
It is growing and synthesising protoplasm preparatory The chromosomes are visible, each consisting of two
to another cell division. chromatids joined at the centromere. The single centri-
ole divides into two, and as before, each migrates to a
Meiosis different pole of the cell, laying down the spindle fibres
for the second meiotic division as they go.

Meiosis may be thought of as consisting of two divi-

sions of cell. The first halves the number of chromo- Second meiotic metaphase
somes per nucleus, and is a reduction division. The The chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator
second is similar to mitosis, and the two chromatids of of the cell with their centromeres attached to spindle
each chromosome separate. The main events of meiosis fibres. Each centromere divides into two.
are summarised as follows:
Second meiotic anaphase
First meiotic prophase The chromatids separate and are pulled by the spindle
The chromosomes become visible in the nucleus as long fibres towards opposite poles of the cell.
threads. Homologous chromosomes come to lie side by
side. Each chromosome divides into two chromatids, Second meiotic telophase
joined at the centromere. The centrosome which con- The chromatids arrive at the two poles of the cells. A
sists of paired centrioles, split with one centriole pair nuclear envelope surrounds each group of chromatids,
migrating towards a different end or pole of the cell. and the spindle disappears. The cytoplasm divides into
Centrioles produce a system of spindle fibres which ra- two; each daughter cell now contains a number of chro-
diate from the two poles towards the middle or equator matids equal to the number of chromosomes in the cell
of the cell. as it was at the end of the first division.
As the homologous chromosomes lie close to- At the end of meiosis, four cells are formed from
gether the chromatids may become joined at points the original one cell. The number of chromosomes in
called chiasmata. When they separate again, portions the original cell is described as diploid or 2n, while
of chromatids may have been swapped. The exchange the number of chromosomes in each of the four cells
of genetic materials is called crossing over. The nuclear formed at the end of meiosis is described as haploid
membrane breaks down. or n. This is the way nature keeps the number of chro-
mosomes in the cells of a species of organism constant
First meiotic metaphase from generation to generation.
The chromosomes line up in homologous pairs at the If meiosis did not occur, then the gametes would
equator of the cell in such a way that the centromeres have the same number of chromosomes as the somatic
of homologous pairs of chromosomes lie on opposite cells. When two gametes fuse, the number of chromo-
sides of the equator. The centromeres are attached to somes would become 4n; in other words, the chromo-
the spindle equator. somes number would double in each generation. This
would have serious implications.

First meiotic anaphase

The spindle fibres attaching the chromosomes begin to
shorten, dragging each member of each pair of homolo-
gous chromosomes towards opposite poles of the cell.

First meiotic telophase

The chromosomes arrive at the two poles of the divid-

74
centriole
pole
pair

spindle
equator
homologous cell membrane
pair of chromatid
chromosomes centromere chromosome

centriole
pair
pole
1 late prophase I aster ray 2 metaphase I

3 anaphase I 4 telophase I

5 prophase II 6 metaphase II

7 anaphase II 8 telophase II

Fig.4.22 Stages of meiosis

75
Activity 4.20 Identifying the parts of Pollination
The flower is said to be pollinated when a pollen grain
a flower lands on the mature stigma of a flower of the same spe-
Materials required cies. The pollen grain absorbs liquid from the stigma
Several flowers of hibiscus or any other large flower, and germinates. It produces a pollen tube which grows
such as flame of the forest, razor blade down through the style towards the ovule in the ovary.
Procedure The nucleus of the pollen grain moves into the pollen
1 The teacher will cut each flower longitudinally tube and divides into two, forming the tube nucleus
into two halves. and the generative nucleus. The tube nucleus is at the
2 Look at the longitudinal section of one flower. tip of the pollen tube. Later, the generative nucleus di-
Identify the sepals, petals, filament, anther, pol- vides into two male nuclei, which are the male gametes.
len grains, ovary, ovule, style, stigma, pistil, sta- The pollen tube grows into an ovule through an
men. opening in the ovule known as the micropyle. Inside
the ovule, the pollen tube bursts. One male nucleus
stigma fuses with the female nucleus to form a zygote. The
fused carpels
zygote develops into an embryo and later into a plant.
or pistil The ovule develops into a seed, while the ovary devel-
style ops into a fruit. As the fruit develops, the sepals, petals,
stamens, style and stigma wither away.
anther
stamen pollen
filament grain
stigma
petal
style
ovary pollen tube

sepal

pollen tubes
receptacle approaching
ovary wall ovules

pedicel placenta

Fig.4.23 Longitudinal section of a flower

(a) Pistil
3 Make a large labelled drawing of the longitudinal
placenta secondary
section of the flower. nucleus
The essential parts of the flower for the purposes of pol-
protective
lination and fertilisation are: coats
1 The androecium or male part of the flower which
consists of stamens. Each stamen is made up of
a) a filament male
b) an anther which bears the pollen grains nuclei
2 The gynoecium (pistil) or female part of the flower
which consists of
pollen tube
a) the stigma nucleus
b) the ovary which contains the ovules embryo
c) the ovary style which connects the stigma to micropyle sac
the ovary ovum
The pistil may be made up of units which are called
carpels. (b) Mature ovule

Fig. 4.24 Fertilisation in a flower

76
produces the effects recognised as secondary sexual
The structure and functions of characteristics (e.g. pubic hair; broken voice; hair or
male and female gonads face; masculine muscular development) and stimulates
sperm production.
Gonads are the male and female reproductive organs in
animals. The gonads in male and female human being Human female reproductive system
will now be described. The human female gonads are the two ovaries which
are located on the dorsal surface of the abdominal cav-
Human male reproductive organs ity, one on each side of the vertebral column. In human
The human male gonads are two spherical organs beings, each ovary produces one egg every alternate
called testes, enclosed in a sac, known as scrotum, month. The eggs released by the ovary pass into the
which is attached to the pubic region. Each testis (sin- oviducts or fallopian tubes, which are two tubes that
gular) contains many tubules known as seminiferous lead from near the ovary to the uterus.
tubules in which sperms are formed by cells that line Each fallopian tube has a funnel-shaped opening
the inside of the tubules. close to its ovary in the abdominal cavity.
From the testis on each side, a coiled tube, the
epidydimis, leads into the sperm duct or vas defer- Functions of the human female gonads
ens, which carries sperm to the seminal vesicle where The female gonads produce eggs, which pass down
sperms are stored until ejaculated. The prostate gland into the uterus through the fallopian tubes. The eggs
secretes a liquid in which sperms are suspended. The are usually fertilised in the fallopian tube. The ovaries
sperms pass to the outside through the urethra. An in- are also endocrine glands which secrete the female sex
dividual sperm is microscopic about 0.5 mm long, with hormones known as oestrogens and progesterone.
a pointed ‘head’ and a ‘tail’. The oestrogens produce and maintain female sex char-

Functions of the male gonads

The testes produce sperms which are the male gametes.
Some endocrine glands in men secrete the hormone,
kidney
testosterone, which makes the testes develop and de-
scend to a position below the abdomen where the tem-
perature is lower than the body temperature. uterus
Testes only function properly under a tempera-
ture lower than the body temperature. Testosterone ureter
oviduct
ovary

kidney vagina

ureter bladder

bladder
Fig. 4.26 Human female reproductive system
sperm duct
Seminal acteristics, such as development of breasts, pubic hair
vesicle and deposition of fat around the hips. They also stimu-
urethra late the growth of the lining of the uterus.
Cyclical increases in levels of progesterone cause
penis growth of the lining of the uterus in preparation for im-
plantation of an embryo. If fertilisation does not hap-
testis
pen, the thick lining of the uterus breaks down, produc-
ing the monthly menstruation.
scrotum

Fig. 4.25 Human male reproductive system

77
D light reduces growth of plant cells.
Summary E light is essential for photosynthesis.
5 The three end products of anaerobic respiration
This chapter has taught the following:
in mammals are ____________________________.
• A cell as a living thing can show all the character-
A water, energy and carbon dioxide.
istics of living things.
B ethyl alcohol, energy and carbon dioxide.
• Some unicellular organisms which cannot manu-
C glucose, ethyl alcohol and energy.
facture their own food feed by engulfing food.
D carbon dioxide, glucose and ethyl alcohol.
• Plants require specific nutrients for optimum
E ethyl alcohol, glucose and water.
growth.
6 Compare the methods of reproduction in amoeba
• Metabolic waste must be removed from the body
and spirogyra.
or else the organism will be harmed. A variety of
7 Describe in detail how you would measure the
ways exist by which this removal is done.
growth of a common animal.
• Growth is an irreversible increase in size or dry
mass accompanied by differentiation of cells.
• A number of factors control growth.
• Cells are sensitive to stimuli and will respond to
them.
• Organisms move from place to place by means of
some special organelles or organs.
• Energy is released through tissue respiration.
More energy is released from aerobic than from
anaerobic respiration.
• Organisms give rise to young ones of their respec-
tive types in various ways.

Revision questions
1 Excretion is that process by which all organisms
_____________________________.
A remove undigested food from the body.
B collect all the metabolic waste.
C get rid of metabolic wastes.
D get rid of unwanted water.
E produce and collect sweat.
2 Increase in the height of a plant is _____________.
A greatest at the flowering stage.
B greater when it is young than when it is old.
C easier to measure when it is well nourished.
D an indication that it has potassium ions.
E only obvious between the nodes.
3 The cell division which is responsible for growth
is _____________________.
A meiosis.
B binary fission.
C reduction division.
D mitosis.
E fragmentation.
4 The shoot of a plant bends towards the source of
light because ______________________________.
A the shoot is positively phototropic.
B the shoot is negatively phototropic.
C it responds to the higher temperature.

78
Theme 2
The organism at work

Chapter 5 Tissue and supporting systems

All living things exhibit seven life processes namely movement, nutrition, respiration,
excretion, growth, sensitivity or irritability and reproduction. These are the seven physi-
ological (functional) characteristics of living things.
The various things a living thing does are all forms of work. This theme highlights
the fact that keeping alive involves work. Different areas of work will be examined in this
theme.

Introduction Procedure
1 Divide your plasticine into four pieces and shape
each one into a tall cone. Flatten the wider base
Have you ever thought of what you would look like or
so that each will stand on its own.
what you would not be able to do without the support
2 Use one of your cones to support each end of the
of your bones and cartilage? You would not be able to
ruler.
sit or stand upright; you would not be able to move
3 One by one, place weights or stones on top of the
your limbs or any part of your body; a mistaken pres-
ruler. How many stones or weights does it take
sure on your head would squeeze out your brain tissue;
before the cones collapse?
walking, crawling or sprawling would be impossible
4 Now, push a piece of straight stick, from top to
and there could be no way of playing football or ten-
bottom, into the remaining two cones, cut off any
nis! Nearly all organisms have some form of support
visible part of the sticks and then balance a ruler
system.
on them as in (2) above. How many small weights
or stones would you put on the ruler before the
What is a skeleton? cones give way?

Every organism has a peculiar shape of its own. This

shape often depends on the shape of the supporting The sticks make the cones stronger. The skeleton
system of the organism. The body of an organism may of an organism acts in a similar way. Your experiment
be supported by a frame on the inside or outside. This illustrates one of the important functions of skeletons of
frame is called a skeleton. A skeleton can, therefore, be animals or the supporting tissues in plants. You should,
defined as a rigid framework which gives support and however, note that some organisms, like bacteria, virus-
shape to an organism. es and some protozoa, are so small in size that they do
not require such support.
Are you aware that you have a skeleton? Try to
Activity 5.1 Demonstrating the use find it in your arms, for instance. The skeleton forms
the central core of the human body, and is covered up
of a skeleton by muscles, blood vessels, nerves and skin. It is inter-
nal, and is, therefore, described as an endoskeleton
Materials required (endo = within). In contrast, animals, such as crabs,
Plasticine or clay, a ruler, pieces of straight stick, millipedes, spiders and insects, have their skeletons
weights, or stones on the outside of their skin. Such skeletons are called

79
exoskeletons. In an insect, the skeleton is a hard cuticle Look at Fig. 5.1, taking particular note of the fol-
containing mainly chitin and some hardening mineral lowing important parts:
salts like phosphates and carbonates of calcium. Its out- 1 The skull, which covers the most important and
ermost layer is covered with a thin layer of wax which most delicate organ of the body, the brain, together,
makes it waterproof. It performs the same functions as with other very vulnerable sense organs like the
the endoskeleton. eyes and ears.
The greater part is made up of non-living mate- 2 The girdle of the forelimbs called pectoral girdle
rials. It, therefore, cannot grow, and must be shed oc- consists of two halves, each of which is made up
casionally, during moulting or ecdysis, to enable the of the shoulder blade or scapula fused with the
animal to grow. The shells of molluscs, e.g. that of the coracoid, and a separate bone, called the clavicle,
giant land snail are protective exoskeletons. or collar bone which connects the scapula with the
sternum in the middle of the thorax.
skull 3 The forelimb attached to the pectoral girdle. This
orbit is made up of the long, strong bone of the upper
nose
lower jaw arm called the humerus; the two bones of the
cervical vertebra forearm, the radius and ulna, the multiple bones
clavicle
scapula of the wrist and palm called the carpals and the
humerus metacarpals respectively, and finally the finger
bones, the phalanges.
thoracic rib
vertebra 4 The hindlimb girdle or pelvic girdle is also made
lumbar up of two halves, each of which is made up of three
vertebra bones: the ilium, ischium and pubis, all three
ulna contributing to the socket or acetabulum in which
the round head of the thigh bone or femur fits.
meta 5 The hindlimb is similar to the forelimb in com-
carpals
sacrum ponents and structure. The single, strong bone of
carpals pelvis the lower limb is the femur, followed by the tibia
coccyx
and fibula of the foreleg. The tarsals, metatarsals
phalanges femur and phalanges occupy similar positions on the
patella hindlimb bones as the carpals, metacarpals and
fibula phalanges of the forelimb.
The fore and hind limbs are described as pentadactyl
tibia limbs (penta meaning five and dactylus meaning dig-
its); both limbs end in five digits.
tarsals
metatarsals
The vertebral column
phalanges
The vertebral column forms the backbone of vertebrate
Fig. 5.1 The human skeleton
animals, and its main function is to protect the spinal
cord. It is, however, made up of very many individual
Location and arrangement of bones or vertebrae which are held one to the other by
strong ligaments, with compressible cartilage pads,
skeletal tissues in animals called intervertebral discs, between consecutive ver-
tebrae.
In mammals, five different types of vertebrae are
The skeletons of vertebrate animals like fishes, frogs,
known. These are the:
toads, snakes, lizards, birds and mammals are internal,
1 cervical vertebrae, in the neck region;
and are made up of bones and cartilage. You can think
2 thoracic vertebrae, in the chest;
of the mammalian skeleton as divided into two. The
3 lumbar vertebrae, in the upper abdominal region;
bones lying along the length of the body, namely the
4 sacral vertebrae, in the lower abdominal region;
skull and the spinal column make up the axial skel-
and
eton. The bones joined to the axial skeleton, for exam-
5 caudal vertebrae, in the tail region.
ple the bone of the limbs and the pelvic and pectoral
The number of vertebrae in these various regions
girdles make up the appendicular skeleton.
of the vertebral column vary in different mammals as
shown in Table 5.1.
80
Table 5.1 Distribution of vertebrae in man, rabbit and rat.

Man Rabbit Rat

Cervical 7 7 7
Thoracic 12 12 13
Lumbar 5 7 6
Sacral 5 3-4 4
Caudal 4 16 27-30
Total 33 45 - 46 57 - 60

Typical vertebra the nodding or ‘yes’ movement, of the head is made. Its
posterior surface also bears two postzygapophyses for
Every bone in the vertebral column is built on a basic
plan which we may describe as the typical vertebra. A the axis behind it.
prominent part is the piece of solid bone in the middle The second neck vertebra, the axis has a peculiar
of each vertebra called the centrum. The centre of the shape.
entire column forms a strong supporting body along 1 It has acquired the centrum of the atlas during de-
the longitudinal axis of the animal. velopment and so has, protruding into the atlas,
Above the centrum is the neural canal, which is a what is known as the odontoid process. This and
space for the spinal cord. It is surrounded by the neural its two broad prezygapophyses allow for rotatory
arch. The neural spine arises centrally and points up- movement, or shaking of the head, possible in man.
ward from the arch and a pair of transverse processes 2 Vertebraterial canals are present.
extend sideways from the arch. Both transverse pro- 3 Its cervical ribs are flat.
cesses provide surfaces for muscle attachments. 4 Its neural spine is more prominent than that of
Each individual vertebra touches the one on its the atlas.
anterior side by a pair of articulatory surfaces called
the prezygapophyses. These surfaces face inward Thoracic vertebra
and upwards, while the articulatory surfaces at the Thoracic vertebrae can be distinguished by a number
back, called the postzygapophyses, face outwards and of characteristics, most prominent among which are the
downwards. following:
1 Its long neural spine which points upwards and
Cervical vertebra 2
backwards;
A large neural canal surrounded by a large neural
By virtue of the position of the cervical vertebra in the
body (i.e. the neck region), it possesses a (very) short arch, and also
neural spine, but two other characteristics distinguish 3 A large centrum;
it further: 4 It also has a pair each of zygopophyses of the front
1 There is a pair of canals through its neural arch. and back, for articulating with other vertebrae.
These are known as vertebraterial canals, and are 5 Each thoracic vertebra supports two ribs, one on
spaces through which the blood vessels of the neck either side. Each rib articulates with a vertebra at
pass; two points, the upper one being the tubercular
2 There is an additional transverse process on each facet on the ventral surface of the transverse pro-
side, termed a cervical rib. cess, and the other the capitular facet which
The first two cervical vertebrae are, however, dif- touches two adjacent centra together, thus anterior
ferent because of their nearness to the skull. The verte- of one centrum and the other on the posterior of
bra immediately next to the skull is called the atlas. It the centrum of the vertebra in front.
is a ring of bone with a large neural canal and a very
small centrum, having lost its centrum to the vertebra Lumbar vertebra
behind it. Its neural spine is greatly reduced, but its cer- Each lumbar vertebra can be recognised by the follow-
vical ribs or transverse processes are prominent. Its an- ing:
terior surface bears two prezygapophyses with which 1 Its stout centrum;

81
2 Its large neural canal; 2 Learn the names of the vertebrae of the following
3 Its long neural spine which projects upward and for- parts of the body:
ward, and a) neck,
4 Its transverse processes which point forward. b) thorax,
It has, however, some unique processes: c) trunk or lumbar,
a) One pair of these, called the metapophyses, d) hip, and
arise above the prezygapophyses and neural e) tail.
arch, while 3 Look at individual bones of the first three re­gions
b) Another pair, known as anapophyses, also arise and compare their centra, transverse proc­ esses,
below the postzygapophyses. spines, articular surfaces and the sizes of their neu-
c) In certain mammals, a centrally-placed pro- ral canals. Note the attachments to ribs and other
cess, called hypapophysis, may arise on the special characteristics that distinguish each one.
lower side of centrum. 4 Also note the shape, length and position of the
vertebral column in the body, Compare the fore
and hind girdles.
Sacral vertebra a) Learn the names of the three bones in each and
Each sacral vertebra has a large centrum but a narrow
how one half of each is attached to the other
neural canal. The neural spine is reduced to a small
half.
notch and its transverse processes serve for the at­
b) Learn how and by which bones, the front and
tachment of the hip muscles. Sacral vertebrae are gen-
hindlimbs are attached to their girdles and look
erally few in most mammals, numbering three to five,
at, how they form ball-and-socket joints.
and are all fused into a single, rigid sacrum which sup-
c) Note the relative sizes of the two girdles and
ports the pelvic girdle.
relate these to their function of support for the
limbs and muscles.
Caudal vertebra 5 Compare the corresponding bones of the fore and
The caudal vertebrae nearest the sacrum have small hind limbs and learn their names. Which bones
transverse processes, neural spines and articulating of the hindlimb are not at all represented in the
processes, but all these become progressively reduced, forelimb?
until they disappear in the more distal ones where 6 From the real bones, carefully make large la­belled
they occur as small rods of solid bone. drawings of:
Man has only four fused caudal vertebrae, called a) anterior/posterior view of a cervical verte­bra
the coccyx, which does not protrude as a tail, whereas b) laterial view of a thoracic vertebra
the rat has as many as thirty caudal vertebrae, the num- c) anterior/ posterior view of a lumbar verte­bra.
ber depend­ing on the length of the tail and on the indi- Label each drawing fully.
vidual rat species.
i) Your teacher will also give you some or all
of the following: millipede (preferably the
Activity 5.2 Studying the skeleton lulus species) crab, and cockroach.
of a mammal Note the protective function of the exo-
skeleton.
Your teacher will supply you with either the entire ii) Confirm that every part of the body, in-
skeleton of a rabbit, guinea-pig, or rat, or a model of the cluding the eye, is covered by exoskeleton.
entire human skeleton. It is important in the study of iii) Open up the exoskeleton of the cockroach,
bones to note how the size, shape and thickness of each longi­tudinally, to prove that:
bone is related to its function. a) there is no endoskeleton, and
b) muscles are attached to the insides of the exo-
Procedure skeleton (look at the thoracic part of cock
1 Learn the names of the two bones of the upper jaw, roach in particular). Use a hand lens to see
and the only bone of the lower jaw in which the better.
teeth are inserted. Note also the bones of the skull
that articulate with the atlas of the vertebral col-
umn and see practically how these joints al­low the
skull to be moved from side to side, as well as for-
ward and backward.

82
a) Cervical (nos. 3 to 7) ii) The centrum projects in front as the odontoid pro-
i cess. This fits into the ventral part of the neutral
ii canal of the atlas. The joint thus formed is used in
twisting movements.

iii
d) Thoracic
i

centrum ii
facet which
articulates
i) The neural spine is short.
with capitulum
ii) Each transverse process is pierced by a hole
which forms part of the vertebraterial canal centrum
(the canals carry the vertebral arteries).
anterior view side view
iii) The outer part of each transverse process is
divided into two.
i) The neural spine is prominent and of a dis-
The first two cervical vertebrae, called the atlas and tinctive shape.
axis respectively differ from the rest. They are specially ii) The transverse processes are well developed.
shaped to allow the skull to move freely on the verte- They articulate with the ribs.
bral column.
e) Lumbar
b) Atlas
i neural spine

iii iii

i
ii iii
ii

anterior view side view

i) The neural canal is very large.
ii) The transverse processes are broad and flat. Fig 5.2 Types of vertebrae
iii) Two large facets at the front articulate with
knobs on the base of the skull. The joint thus
i) The centrum is large and thick.
formed is used in nodding movements.
ii) The transverse processes are well developed.
c) Axis iii) A number of projections from the centrum pro-
vide attachments for muscles of the abdominal
i neural spine
ii odontoid region.
process
Joints
A joint is the point where two or more bones meet.
centrum
ventral view side view Structure of a joint
The surfaces of bones which touch at a joint are called ar-
i) The neural spine is prominent and projects ticular surfaces. Such surfaces are covered by a layer
forward. of articular cartilage which prevents the wear and tear

83
of the bone surfaces. The bone ends are held together by 2 Fused joints as in the sacral vertebrae.
tough, slightly elastic tissue called ligaments. A mem- 3 Bones bound tightly by ligaments as in the two
brane called synovial membrane lines the inside of the halves of the pubic symphysis.
joint space and secretes a viscous synovial fluid which
lubricates the joints and acts as shock absorber.
Movement of a joint
Movement of a joint is brought about by the muscles at-
Types of joints tached to its bones. Muscles are attached to bones by
Joints all over the body are either moveable or im- the very strong, narrow tendons at their ends. A pair or
moveable. There are four types of moveable joints. more of muscles bring about the movements of a joint.
1 Ball and socket joints in which the rounded They work in opposing or antagonistic pairs, e.g. the
head of one bone fits into a hollow cavity or biceps which bends the elbow when it contracts and
socket of another or other bones. the triceps which straightens or un­bends the elbow
This device allows free movements in almost again when it contracts.
all directions. Such is found between the head of As one contracts, the other relaxes. The one that
the upper arm bone and the pectoral girdle, and be- causes a limb to bend like the biceps is called a flexor,
tween the head of the thigh bone and the pelvic gir- while the one that causes the limb to straighten out like
dle. the triceps, is called an extensor.
And so, in order to make the fore limb bend, the
pelvis biceps whose upper ends are attached to the scapula
and lower end to the radius contracts while the triceps
cartilage relaxes and in so doing, the radius is raised, i.e. the arm
is bent; while in order to straighten the arm, the triceps
synovial fluid whose upper ends are also attached to the scapula and
lower end to the radius, contracts while the biceps re-
laxes.

synovial
membrane
ligament
biceps contracted

triceps relaxed
femur

Fig. 5.3 Ball and socket joint of human hip

2 Hinge joint allows movement in only one plane. Ex- Fig. 5.4 Upper arm muscles of human showing biceps and
amples are found in the elbows and knees in par- triceps
ticular, but also at the fingers.
3 Pivot joint allows a rotating movement as is
found between the atlas and axis in the neck
Supporting tissues in plants
where the odontoid process of the axis fits into
the ventral part of the neural canal of the atlas. Plants also need support, particularly trees and shrubs
4 Gliding joint allows the rubbing of two or more which may stand metres high.
bones against each other as we have in the wrist or 1 Immediately below the epidermis is the cortex,
ankle. the outermost layer of which is called the hypoder-
mis, containing collenchyma cells. This layer may
The immovable joints are of three types. They are: be four to five cells thick in dicotyledonous stems.
1 Sutured joints of the skull whose serrated edges fit All the cells which are living cells are clearly thick-
perfectly together. ened at their corners. Collenchyma is, therefore, a

84
strengthening tissue, which enables plants to with- Activity 5.3 Studying the cells of
stand bending and twisting when affected by
wind, water, etc. the supporting tissues
2 Another type of strengthening tissue is found on in a plant
the outer edge of the vascular bundles of flowering
plants. These cells make up the sclerenchyma. Your teacher will supply prepared slides of the trans­
There are two types of sclerenchyma cells: the verse sections of sunflower, or any other dicotyle-
stone cells, which are short and irregular in donous stem.
shape, and the sclerenchyma fibres, which are
long and thickwalled. Stone cells give stiffness
Procedure
to the cortex and, when they form a continuous
1 Mount it under the low power of a microscope.
layer, sometimes replace the epidermis. Each
Make a large diagram of the plan of the stem and
sclerenchymatous cell is thickened by the depo­ -
label the following parts: epidermis, cortex, vas-
sition of lignin, the main component of wood.
cular bundle, pith.
The lignified cells provide the strength and ri­-
2 Now take a look at this section under the higher
gidity of stems. In old stems, sclerenchymatous
power of your microscope. Take particular note
cells lose their protoplasm and are, therefore, dead.
of the cells immediately next to the epidermis.
3 Further strengthening tissue is found amongst the
3 Comment on the
dead water-conducting cells of the xylem. Xylem
a) size
vessels are themselves thickened by lignin, the main
b) shape
component of wood, but in addition, extra woody
c) thickness of the walls, and
fibres are present in xylem, giving the stem further
d) thickness of the corners of each cell.
strength.
4 When the unthickened cells of the parenchyma are
turgid, the outward pressure of their proto­plasm
also helps strengthen the plant. All the cells are living
and have thin cellulose walls.

multicellular hair

epidermis
collenchyma
cortex

parenchyma
endodermis
sclerenchyma
vascular bundle

phloem
cambium
xylem

medullary ray

pith

Fig. 5.5 Parts of a dicotyledonous stem

85
4 Draw two or three of these collenchyma cells, port them, the soft internal organs would pile up on
5 Now see if you can identify some sclerenchyma top of each other and be unable to function.
and xylem cells. Draw these two. Make sure you note
their thickened walls. 2 Protection
The skull forms the strong protective box for the soft
tissues of the brain and such sense organs as the
eyeballs and inner ear. In the same way, the vertebral
Mechanism of support in column protects the spinal cord. Many vital organs
plants like the heart, the blood vessels close to it, as well as
the lungs are all hidden within the rib cage of the
thoracic region. The pelvic girdle protects important
How would you go about breaking the trunk of a tree organs in the lower trunk, such as the urinary blad-
in your school compound? Would it be easy? What der and reproductive organs, especially those of the
tools would you need? Some trees, like the iroko or fe­male.
mahogany, have trunks almost as hard as stone. This
hardness is the result of possessing such supporting 3 Movement
tissues as sclerenchyma, xylem (wood) vessels, tra- All movements, including locomotive movements in
cheids and fibres as well as phloem fibres. animals are the results of muscle contractions mov­ing
Plants are often able to resist strong winds, such the bones to which they are attached. The skeleton is,
that when the wind bends them, they still do not therefore, very important for body movement. The
break. Water plants are able to resist water movement skeleton consists of very many bones joined to one
in a similar way. These capabilities are due to the ef- another, in such a way as to allow the muscles to pull
fects of the various supporting tissues of plants. on them to produce controlled movement. Joints may
act as hinges, for example, the knee or elbow joints, or
may allow a larger range of movements, for example
Uses of fibres to plants the ball and socket joint of the shoulder.
Fibres provide flexibility and strengthening - two of
the special functions of the supporting tissues in 4 Respiration
plants. They are thus major contributors to the mecha­ The rib cage of the thoracic region contributes signifi­
nism of support and the characteristic hardiness of cantly to the breathing mechanism of mammals by
plants in which they abound. Plants, such as Hibiscus intermittently moving out and in, thus increasing
spp, jute and sisal contain some of the strongest plant and decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity for
fibres. the intake or output of air.

5 Production of red blood cells

The bone marrow is a site for the production of red blood
Functions of the skeleton in cells which are of vital importance in respira­tion. Red
blood cells are produced in the marrows of long bones.
animals
The following are the reasons why animals have
skeletons:
Functions of supporting
tissues in plants
1 Support
The skeleton of an animal forms a framework for the
shape of the animal’s body. The total weight of the The following are functions of supporting tissues in
animal is also borne by the skeleton of the animal. plants.
Notably, the pectoral girdle supports the shoulder
and the forelimbs, while the pelvic girdle supports 1 Strengthening
the back and hindlimbs of the animal. Both girdles Four kinds of plant tissues have been named as
and ribs are also supported by the vertebral column supporting tissues in stems (and roots) of plants,
along the longitudinal axis of the body. namely:
The skeleton is also the frame upon which the a) turgid parenchyma cells (in herbaceous plants),
internal organs are hung. Without the skeleton to sup- b) collenchyma cells,

86
c) sclerenchyma cells, and Activity 5.4 Observing the use of
d) xylem vessels, tracheids and fibres.
The walls of collenchyma cells are relatively a snail’s shell
thickened, but in particular, their walls have thick-
ened corners which provide strength (rigidity) to the Your teacher will bring a live snail to the class. Give the
stem. The walls of sclerenchyma cells are thickened and snail a few minutes to stretch out its head, foot and ten-
lignified. Lignin is the main constituent of wood. The lig- tacles, and crawl along the top of your desk.
nified cells, therefore, provide support to stems and roots.
When cells are lignified, the protoplasm dies as the cell Procedure
grows leaving walls which remain to give strength to 1 Attempt to disturb its movement by touching its
the stem. Some sclerencyma cells, the sclerenchyma fi- tentacles or head with the tip of your finger. How
bres make stems and roots flexible. Short sclerenchyma does it react?
(stone) cells make stems rigid. 2 Hold it by its shell and lift its foot off the desk.
Xylem tissue contains xylem vessels, xylem tra- What do you observe?
cheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. Xy­lem 3 Allow it to settle and crawl on your desk again;
vessels, tracheids and fibres have walls thick­ened then merely touch its shell. What is its reaction
with lignin, and the protoplasm dies as the cells are this time?
thickened with this substance. Xylem vessels are long
tubes concerned with conduction of water and with Can you tell how this animal preserves itself
strengthening. Xylem tracheids are concerned mainly throughout the dry season, when it would find it dif-
with strengthening. Xylem parenchyma has strengthen- ficult to live comfortably? Ask your teacher to show you
ing function. Xylem parenchyma are liv­ing cells which how important its shell is for this purpose.
transport food, water, and oxygen within the plant. The
fact that trees are able to stand very many metres high Activity 5.5 Showing how bones
without collapsing, and resist winds and objects that
strike them can readily be attributed to the strength of aid movement in a
the supporting tissues. toad
2 Rigidity Your teacher will show you the hindlimb of a toad
It is essential that the stem of a plant be rigid enough to whose skin has been removed, to demonstrate the at-
hold the leaves up, and to provide support for the flow- tachment of muscles to bones. Take particular note of:
ers and fruits. It is also important that plants be able 1 the various bone joints that make the leg move­ment
to withstand blows from things in the environ­ment, for possible;
example, passing animals. The supporting tissues give 2 the total size of the calf muscle and its bulk in the
plants the rigidity they need. middle;
3 the tendons that attach the muscle to bone on ei-
3 Resilience and flexibility ther side, noting to which bone each tendon is at-
Plants on land must constantly sway in the direction of tached;
breezes and winds, and then, regain their former po- What joint is flexed when the calf muscle con­tracts
sitions. Those in seas and rivers are also carried in di- and what happens when it is brought back to its earlier
rections dictated by the water flow. The position­ing of position? Can you represent this set-up in a diagram?
most of the supporting tissues of the stem in bundles Note that the muscle which makes the leg bend is
around the edge means that the stem can bend with- the flexor and the one which makes it stretch is the exten-
out snapping; it is flexible. When the wind dies down, sor. They are called opposing muscles because they have
the plant will unbend and return to its original straight opposite effects on the same joint.
position. The ability to regain its original position after
being bent by wind or water is called the resilience of the
plant. Resilience is also due to the strengthening tissues. Activity 5.6 Demonstrating limb
movements, us­ing a
wooden model
Your teacher will supply you with some pieces of wood
to represent the bones of the arm and some cords to
represent the muscles. Try to construct a model of an

87
arm of man, to show how alternately one muscle makes 4 The supporting tissue for plants that is found in
the arm bend and the other makes it stretch. the hypodermis of the cortex is the ____________.
A collenchyma.
B wood fibre.
C parenchyma.
Summary D sclerenchyma.
E reticulate vessels.
This chapter has taught the following: 5 One of the distinguishing characteristics of a
• Both plants and animals need supporting tissues. thoracic vertebra is __________________________.
• In animals, support is provided by the skeleton. A a broad and short neural spine projecting for-
• The skeleton of an animal may be made up of ward.
bone, cartilage or chitin or other materials. B a hypapophysis projecting ventrally from the
• The skeleton of an animal may be internal or centrum.
external. C an odontoid process acquired from an ante­rior
• The skeleton of an animal provides support and vertebra.
protection for delicate parts; it helps in move­- D a vertebrarterial canal for blood vessels.
ment. E a long neural spine projecting upwards and
• The axial skeleton of a mammal contains verte­- backwards.
brae. 6 One of the advantages of rigidity in plants is that
• The vertebrae of different parts of the body have A they can no more bend to winds.
special features. B no physical force is able to uproot them.
• Joints make movement possible. C it enables them to carry their leaves, flowers and
• Supporting tissues of plants include collenchyma, fruits.
xylem and parenchyma. D they would rather be hewn down than bend
• The arrangement of supporting tissues in plants when touched by animals.
provides both rigidity and resilience. E it loses its flexibility and resilience once it is
made rigid.
7 a) Make a low power diagram of the transverse
section of the stem of a dicotyledonous herba-
Revision questions ceous plant, and label the tissues that provide
support to the plant.
1 The mammalian cervical vertebrae invariably b) Make a high power diagram of the cells of any
number __________. two of the supporting tissues and briefly de-
A 4 scribe the supporting features of both cells.
B 7 8 a) What are the uses of the skeleton to mam-
C 12 mals?
D 5 b) Make a large diagram of a typical mammalian
E 16 vertebra and label it fully.
2 The various processes arising out of the centrum of c) What are the differences between a cervical
a vertebra are designed to ____________________. vertebra and a lumbar vertebra?
A protect the animal from its enemies. 9 Explain how flexibility and resilience are
B protect the spinal cord from dangers. achieved by plants. How do animals achieve
C provide points for muscle attachment. movement and support by means of their skel­-
D provide facets for articulation to other bones. etons?
E provide enough room for the vertebra. 10 Describe an experiment to show that the skel­eton
3 One of the functions of supporting tissues in strengthens the animal body. Name five different
plants is to _______________________________. vertebrae in a mammal’s body. De­scribe two func-
A lengthen the life span of the plant. tions of the mammalian verte­brae.
B allow it to provide homes for birds and other
animals.
C make it capable of secondary thickening.
D give it strength and rigidity against the attack
of enemies.
E make it possible to have more vascular bun­
dles.

88
Chapter 6 Nutrition in animals

Introduction Nutrition in animals differs from that in plants.

The differences are shown in Table 6.1.
You will recall that nutrition is one of the seven func-
tional characteristics of living things. All living things
feed; they require nutrients. Green plants make their
own food from simple inorganic materials, namely car-
Food
bon dioxide, water and mineral salts. The process by
which green plants manufacture their food is called Food is any substance which, when eaten, serves as a
photosynthesis. source of energy, or is used to build the body for growth
In contrast, animals cannot make their own food. or in repair of body tissues.
They, therefore, depend directly or indirectly on plants
for their food. Some bacteria too are known to manu-
facture their food from simple inorganic raw materials.
Uses of food to animals
Animal nutrition 1 Food is oxidised in the body during respiration to
produce energy for physiological processes, for
Nutrition in animals means the sum total of the pro- maintaining body temperature and for doing
cesses involved in intake, digestion, absorption and work.
utilisation of food.

Table 6.1 Difference between nutrition in plants and animals

Nutrition in green plants Nutrition in animals

1 Green plants make their own food. 1 Animals do not make their own food but feed
They are, therefore, said to be autotrophic. on plant and animal material. They, are therefore,
said to be heterotrophic.

2 Plants use simple inorganic molecules 2 Animals use complex organic molecules as food.
to make organic molecules as food.

3 Plants have no mouths. 3 Animals have mouths (though there are

exceptions).

4 Plants absorb raw materials (water, carbon 4 Many animals take in solid food which they
dioxide, mineral salts), for making food then digest, absorb, and remove undigested
either in solution or as gas. matter.

89
2 Food substances are used to make new proto- n in the general formular for starch. Cellulose is a struc-
plasm, new body materials and new cells for tural material in plant cell walls. It is a major compo-
growth. nent of cotton or paper.
3 Food substances are used to make new body ma-
terials for the repair of damaged parts of the body, Glycogen
that is, replacement of wear or tear. One molecule of glycogen is formed from many mol-
ecules of glucose. Glycogen is called animal starch,
and is the form in which starch is stored in the liver or
Food substances or classes of food muscles of man.
On the basis of chemical composition, food is classified
into several kinds of chemical substances which are
called food substances. These are carbohydrates, lipids Uses of carbohydrates to animals
(fats and oils), proteins, vitamins, mineral salts and wa- The uses of carbohydrates to animals are as follows:
ter. These are described in detail below. 1 During digestion, complex carbohydrates are bro-
ken down to simple sugars, such as glucose. The
simple sugars are oxidised during respiration to
Carbohydrates produce energy for physiological activities and
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and heat for maintaining body temperature.
oxygen atoms only. The ratio of the number of atoms of 2 Excess sugars, not immediately required for the
hydrogen to the number of atoms of oxygen in a mol- production of energy, are stored as glycogen.
ecule is 2:1 (e.g. C6H12O6, a molecule of glucose). 3 Sugars are used to synthesise lipids and proteins.
There are several kinds of carbohydrates which
include sugars, starch, cellulose and glycogen.
Lipids (Fats and oils)
Fats and oils consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Sugar
atoms only, but the proportion of oxygen to hydrogen
There are several kinds of sugars, however. They are all
atoms in lipid molecules is less than that in a carbo-
soluble in water, and have a sweet taste.
hydrate molecules. Consequently, fats and oils require
more oxygen for oxidation, and yield more energy per
Simple sugars or monasaccharides
unit mass oxidised than carbohydrates.
The general formula for simple sugar is C6H12O6, e.g.
Fats and oils are similar in composition, but fats
glucose (grape sugar), fructose (fruit sugar) and galac-
are solid while oils are liquid at room temperature.
tose. Food sources of simple sugars are fruits, such as
Food sources of oils include palm oil, groundnut oil,
oranges, grapes, bananas, and pineapples.
cod liver oil, corn oil, soya beans oil, and melon oil.
Food sources of fats include butter, margarine,
Disaccharides
animal fat, cocoa fats, milk.
The general formula for disaccharides is C11H22O11. The
disaccharides include sucrose (cane sugar), maltose
(malt sugar) and lactose (milk sugar). Uses of fats to animals
Fats are useful to animals. Some of these uses are as
Starch follows:
The formula for starch is (C6H10O5).nOne molecule of 1 Fat is oxidised during respiration to produce en-
starch consists of a number of glucose molecules joined ergy and heat.
together with loss of water. 2 Fat is stored under the skin and around organs,
Starch is white, and insoluble in water. When heat- such as kidneys.
ed in hot water, it forms a colloidal liquid. Starch can be 3 Fat stored under the skin acts as a heat insulator,
hydrolysed to simple sugar by boiling with dilute hy- which reduces heat loss from the skin.
drochloric acid. Sources of starch include cassava, rice,
yam, maize, millet, potato, bread and plantain. Proteins
A molecule of protein contains carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
Cellulose gen, nitrogen atoms, sometimes sulphur and rarely
Cellulose, like starch, is a complex carbohydrate. One phosphorus atoms as well. Proteins are complex sub-
molecule of cellulose is formed from many molecules stances formed by combinations of amino acid mol-
of glucose joined together with loss of water (a poly- ecules.
mer). The general formula for cellulose is (C6H10O5)n. There are about 20 amino acids which combine in
but n in the general formula for cellulose is larger than a large variety of ways to form different proteins. Food

90
sources of proteins include meat, fish, eggs, milk, but- ecule (deamination). This results in the formation
ter, cheese, beans, groundnut and soya beans. of ammonium waste compounds, which are con-
verted by the liver into urea and excreted through
Uses of proteins to animals urine.
The uses of proteins to animals are explained below:
1 Proteins are body-building food substances. They Vitamins
are used to synthesise protoplasm for growth and Vitamins are food substances which are required by the
repair of wear and tear. body in very small amounts. They are obtained from
2 Proteins may be oxidised during respiration to pro- foods, and certain foods are rich in specific vitamins,
duce energy for vital activities and heat to main- The functions of vitamins in animals are as follows:
tain body temperature. 1 Some vitamins are parts of compounds called co-
3 Excess proteins in the body cannot be stored, as enzymes, which help enzymes to bring about
such. They are broken down in the liver to amino chemical reactions in the body.
acids, which are further broken down to carbohy- 2 Vitamins protect the body from diseases, and
drates and stored as glycogen. The conversion when a particular vitamin is deficient, a particular
of amino acids to carbohydrates involves the re- deficiency disease results.
moval of the amino group in the amino acid mol-

Table 6.2 Vitamins and their roles

Vitamin Function Sources Deficiency diseases/

symptoms

A Normal growth, Cod liver oil, Eye defects (e.g. night

A1 and A2 smooth and healthy lettuce, spinach, blindness),reduced
skin, healthy eyes, peas, carrot, butter, resistance to diseases, dry
good night vision and cheese, egg yolk, liver, skin, and nerve degeneration.
strong resistance to milk and palm oil.
diseases.

B1 Carbohydrate Yeast, palm wine, Beri-beri, slow heart beat,

Aneurin or metabolism, cell whole grain, lean meat, gastro-intestinal disorder
Thiamine respiration, normal egg white, spinach,
functioning of heart potato, groundnuts,
and nervous system. beans.

B2 As for B1 and healthy As for B1 and yeast Scaly flaking skin, cracking
Riboflavin mucous membrane and extract. of corners of lips, abnormal
skin. redness of lips and lesions of
the eye.

B6 Metabolism Yeast, whole grain, As for B2.

Pyridoxine liver and milk.

B12 Important in red As for B6. As for B6.

Cobalamin blood cell formation
(treatment of pernicious
anaemia medically).

91
B3, Niacin Carbohydrate Liver, kidney, yeast, Pellagra (rough skin),
(Nicotinic acid) reduction milk, whole grain, egg. inflammation of tongues
and intestine, nervous
disorder, which may lead to
putalysis dermatitis and
thicknening of skin.

C Concerned in oxido- Blackcurrant, fruits, Scurvy, dental disorder and

Ascorbic acid reduction reaction, green leaves, liver and slow inefficient healing of
wound repairs, milk. wounds.
production of collagen
fibres and protein
metabolism.

Citrin Cures capillary In many fruits, e.g.

haemorrhage. lemon, orange.

D Regulation of Ultra-violet radiation, Rickets – incomplete

calcium and liver oils of fishes, calcification of bones, dental
phosphate butter, egg yolk and caries.
absorption from seed fat, e.g. of cocoa.
the intestine.

E Needed for Lettuce, oil, wheat, Interference with

fertility. embryo and whole placental functions
grain. in females and
gametogenessis in
males; sterility and
abortion.

H Enzyme system Yeast and seeds Dermatitis, lassitude and

Biotin in metabolism of loss of appetite.
pyruvic acid.

K and K2 Production of pro- Green vegetables, Anaemia, increased

thrombin in blood tomatoes. haemorrhage and failure of
coagulation. blood clotting.

92
Mineral Salts also obtain mineral salts through drinking water which
Mineral salts are present in food. They enter plants usually contains small amounts of mineral salts. Sodi-
through mineral salts absorbed by the plants for their um chloride is deliberately added to food because it is
nutrition. From plants, the mineral salts enter the bod- required by the body in large amounts. Some times ed-
ies of animals that feed on the plant materials. Animals ible common salt contains iodine, deliberately added.

Table 6.3 Functions of mineral elements in the human body

Element Source Function

Calcium Bones, milk, cheese, green Constituent of bones and teeth,

vegetables, fish, grains and helps maintain correct acid-base
fruits. balance of blood fluid and helps in
blood clotting and normal
functioning of cell membranes.

Potassium In general diet. Plays a part in conduction

of nerve impulses.

Sodium Common salt Maintains osmotic pressure of

blood plasma and plays a
part in condition of nerve
impulses.

Magnesium Vegetables Present in teeth and bones and co-

factor to some enzymatic reactions.

Iron Various foods e.g. plantain. Constituent of haemoglobin while

deficiency of iron causes
anaemia.

Copper In general diet. Catalyses use of iron.

Cobalt In general diet. Catalyses use of copper

and iron, constituent of
vitamin B12 .

Manganese In general diet. Activates some enzymes.

Molybdenum In general diet Activates some enzymes.

Zinc In general diet. Necessary for proper growth of

hair, and proper functioning of
some enzymes and insulin.

Nitrogen Meat, milk, egg and Component of amino acids, proteins

vegetables. and protoplasm, enzymes.

93
Phosphorus Bones, fruits and seeds. Constituent of bones and teeth, and
of ATP; necessary for respiration in
which glucose is changed into
various compounds as phosphates.

Sulphur In general diet. Constituent of some

proteins, amino acids,
vitamin B.
Iodine General diet water and common Constituent of thyroxine, a hormone
salt. that controls metabolic rate and
growth. Deficiency may lead to
cretinism and other growth defects.

Chlorine Common salt and water Maintains osmotic pressure of

blood plasma and tissue fluid.

Fluorine Common salt and water Necessary for healthy teeth.

Water dissolve and carry carbon dioxide and excretory

A man can live for about five minutes without oxygen, substances such as salts.
about one week without water and a few weeks without
food. Water is considered as a food substances. While it
does not by itself produce energy, it is a body-building
Diet
material, and many physiological and biochemical pro-
cesses in the body cannot go on without water. Diet is a collective name for all the foods that a per-
son normally eats. All human beings do not have the
Use of water to animals same diet. If you write down what you have eaten in
1 Water constitutes about 90 per cent of protoplasm, the morning, afternoon and night for one week or two,
and is, therefore, essential for body building and that may give an idea of what your diet is.
growth.
2 Water makes up 50 per cent of the blood, and
about 90 per cent of plasma. Activity 6.1 Preparing a table of
3 Water is essential for digestion. It mixes with the
food, and enables enzymes to hydrolyse complex
food eaten in a week
food substances.
Procedure
4 Water helps in the absorption of digested food sub-
Fill in the table provided, the kinds of food you ate at
stances. It acts as a solvent for sugars, amino acids,
breakfast, lunch and supper for the last week.
mineral salts and water-soluble vitamins, which
Diet varies with factors such as:
then diffuse into the blood vessels in the wall of
1 The foods available in the part of the world where
the alimentary canal.
you live,
5 Glands secrete their products in aqueous medium,
2 The foods you can afford,
e.g. tears, sweat, enzymes, and bile.
3 The foods you like to eat.
6 Excretion of some waste products such as sweat,
urine, is made possible when they are in aqueous
solution. Water is a major component of these so-
lutions.
7 Water is a major component of the liquids in the
eye (aqueous and vitreous humours).
8 Evaporation of sweat (containing water) from the
skin cools the skin and helps to regulate body tem-
perature.
9 Water in the blood enables the blood to flow, to

94
Day of the week Breakfast Lunch Supper

Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday

Saturday

Table 6.4 Effects of unbalanced diet

Deficiency Effects

1 Carbohydrates Weakness, low capacity for work

2 Lipids Weakness, low capacity for work

3 Proteins Low energy, stunted growth, leanness, in

extreme cases kwashiorkor, serious protein
deficiency in children impairs both physical
and mental development.

4 Vitamins Deficiency diseases such as night blindness, scurvy, beri-beri.

5 Mineral salts Deficiency diseases such as poor bone and teeth formation, anaemia,
stunted growth.

6 Water Thirst, failure of metabolic processes, in serious cases of deficiency,

death.

Balanced diet 5 It prevents constipation.

You have learnt, that each class of food has its functions
in the body. If one eats mainly some classes of food, but
not enough of others, then those functions of the defi- Activity 6.2 Discussion of balanced
cient foods will not be performed well in one’s body.
A balanced diet is one that contains adequate
diet
amounts of all classes of food (carbohydrates, lipids,
Procedure
proteins, vitamins, mineral salts and water) as well as
1 Students organise themselves in groups of four.
roughage, in correct proportions. Roughage is coarse
2 Each group discusses the common diet of people
material such as cellulose from vegetables. It helps the
in the area and how to make it balanced.
passage of food, under digestion, through the alimen-
tary canal. Roughage also prevents constipation.
The advantages of a balanced diet are that:
1 It provides energy,
2 It builds the body for growth,
3 It repairs wear and tear,
4 It protects the body from diseases,

95
Observation
The solution changes from blue to green. Then a yellow,
orange or reddish brown precipitate of copper (I) oxide
is formed, according to whether the sugar solution is
very dilute or fairly concentrated.

Fehling’s test
Procedure
1 Mix equal volumes of Fehling’s solutions A and B
just before use.
2 To 1cm3 of glucose solution in a test tube, add 1cm3
of a mixture of Fehling’s solutions A and B.
3 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath or heat
to boiling for 2 or 3 minutes.

Observation
A reddish brown precipitate of copper (I) oxide is
formed.
Substances that give positive results with Fehling’s or
Benedict’s tests are reducing sugars.
Fig. 6.1 A Kwashiorkor patient

Food tests Activity 6.4 Test for starch

Each class of food has one or more characteristic reac-
Procedure
tions by which that class of food may be identified. A
1 Make a dilute starch solution by making a starch
physical or chemical reaction, that is characteristic of a
suspension in cold water, and pouring the re-
particular class of food, which can be used to identify
quired quantity of boiling water into it.
that class of food, is called a food test.
2 Allow the starch solution to cool.
3 Put 2cm3 of the dilute starch solution in a test
Food tests for sugars tube.
Physical tests for sugars 4 Add one drop of iodine solution to the starch solu-
Sugars are soluble in cold water and also have sweet tion.
taste.
Observation
Chemical tests for sugars The starch solution turns blue-black. (A positive result
Glucose, fructose, maltose and lactose are called re- may be obtained by adding a drop of iodine to solid
ducing sugars because they reduce copper (II) ions in starch.)
Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution to copper (I) ions.

Activity 6.5 Test for lipids

Activity 6.3 Testing for a reducing
sugar using Benedict’s 1 Grease spot test
Procedure
solution Place a drop of palm oil or groundnut oil on paper and
allow it to dry. Raise it up and look at it.
Procedure
1 Mix 1cm3 of Benedict’s solution with 1cm3 of glu- Observation
cose solution in a test tube. The drop of oil forms a translucent grease spot.
2 Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for three
minutes. 2 Emulsion tests
Procedure
Dissolve a little fat or oil in 2 cm3 of ethanol in a test
tube. Add 2 cm3 of water and shake.

96
Observation Activity 6.7 Identifying food sub-
A milk-like emulsion is formed.
stances using food
3 Sudan III test tests
Procedure
Add 2 drops of oil to 3 cm3 of Sudan III solution in a test Materials required
tube and shake. Two food substances in powder form.

Observation Procedure
A red coloured liquid is formed. (This test is no longer 1 Decide what food substance you suspect each sub-
popular because Sudan III is red to start with.) stance to be.
2 Carry out food tests using the procedures described
above.
Activity 6.6 Test for proteins 3 Report your observations and inferences.

1 Millon’s test
Procedure
Put a small quantity of egg albumen in a test tube. Add
Modes of nutrition
0.5 cm3 Millon’s reagent to it and shake.
Modes of nutrition can be divided into two main kinds,
Observation namely, autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Each
A white precipitate is formed, which on heating turns main type of nutrition has sub-types.
red.

2 Biuret test
Autotrophic nutrition
Autotrophic nutrition is one in which an organism
Procedure
manufactures its own complex organic food substance
a) Add about 1 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solu-
from simple inorganic substances. There are two
tion to about 2 cm3 of egg albumen or aqueous ex-
groups of autotrophic organisms: photosynthetic and
tract of bean seeds in a test tube and shake.
chemosynthetic autotrophs.
b) Add 1 to 2 drops of dilute copper (II) tetraoxo sul-
phate (VI) (copper sulphate) solution and shake.
Photo-autotrophic organism
c) For control, add the same amounts of these re-
Green plants can make their own food. You have learnt
agents to 2 cm3 distilled water in a different test
that photosynthesis is the process of synthesising sim-
tube.
ple sugar, with radiant energy of sunlight, using carbon
dioxide and water, with the aid of chlorophyll, organ-
Observation
isms such as green sulphur bacteria, can also synthesise
A purple colour indicates protein.
simple sugar by photosynthesis. From simple sugar
and other elements, plants and green bacteria can syn-
3 Xanthoproteic test
thesise more complex food substances such as lipids
and proteins.
Procedure
a) Place about 3 cm3 of egg albumen in a test tube.
Chemo-autotrophic organisms
b) Add 1cm3 of concentrated HNO3 (trioxo nitrate
Chemosynthetic organisms are those that derive energy
(V)) acid).
from energy-releasing (exergonic) reactions carried out
c) Heat. A yellow precipitate is formed.
by them. The organisms use this energy to synthesise
d) Cool. Add 1cm3 of dilute ammonia solution.
organic food substances from carbon dioxide.
Chemosynthesis occurs in bacteria. They carry out
Observation
various inorganic oxidation reactions that release en-
The yellow precipitate turns orange.
ergy. Some examples are given below:
a) Nitrifying bacteria that convert ammonium com-
pounds to nitrate:

97
trition. They include holozoic, saprophytic, parasitic,
Nitrosomonas
2NH3 + 3O2 2HNO2 + 2H2O + Energy and symbiotic nutrition.
bacteria (aerobic)
B
Holozoic nutrition
(b) Nitrifying bacteria that convert nitrites to nitrate:
Holozoic nutrition means that an organism feeds on
Nitrobacter complex organic materials, often in solid form, which
HNO2 + O2 2HNO3 + Energy
bacteria (aerobic)
B require ingestion, digestion and absorption before utili-

sation. Animals that practice holozoic nutrition include
(c) Colourless sulphur bacteria oxidise hydrogen sul- herbivores (which feed on plant materials, e.g. sheep),
phide to sulphur. carnivores (which eat flesh, e.g. leopard, praying man-
tis, toad), and omnivores (which feed on both plant
2H2S+ O2 Colourless sulphur 2S + 2H2O + Energy and animal materials, e.g. man, chicken).
Bbacteria Herbivores include rabbits, guinea-pigs, rats,
sheep, goats and cows. They have adaptations that fit
(d) When hydrogen sulphide is not available, colour- them to their food. For example:
less sulphur bacteria oxidise sulphur to sulphate: 1 Herbivores have longer alimentary canals than
carnivores, so as to complete the digestion of com-
2S + 2H2O + 3O2 Colourless sulphur 2H2SO4 + Energy plex plant materials such as cellulose;
2 Those that chew the cud (ruminants), have a four-
Bbacteria
chambered stomach, e.g. cow, sheep;
Beggiatoa, thiothrix, thiospirillopsis and thiobacillus thio- 3 Some have a gap in the teeth, between incisors
oxidans are examples of sulphur bacteria that oxidise and premolars called diastema;
hydrogen sulphide to sulphur or sulphur to sulphate. 4 Premolars are similar to molars;
5 Premolars and molars have surfaces with cusps for
chewing grass;
Heterotrophic nutrition 6 Teeth grow throughout life;
Heterotrophic nutrition is one in which the organism
7 They have symbiotic bacteria in the alimentary
cannot make its own food from simple inorganic sub-
canal, which secrete enzyme that digests cellulose
stances. There are different forms of heterotrophic nu-
in the food.

nutrition

autotrophic heterotrophic

photosynthetic chemosynthetic holozoic saprophytic parasitic symbiotic insectivorous

e.g. green e.g. some plants
plants bacteria
herbivorous

carnivorous

omnivorous

Fig. 6.2 Modes of nutrition and their inter-relationship

98
Activity 6.9 Examining saprophytes
Materials required
Mushroom, toad-stool, shelf- fungi, mould on bread.

Procedure
1 Collect samples of mushrooms, toadstool and
shelf fungi from the locality. Note where you col-
lected each type, and what material it is growing
on.
2 With a hand lens, observe the structure of rhizo-
pus growing on stale bread provided by your
teacher. Record what you see in your notebook.

Fig. 6.3 A dog

Parasitic nutrition
Parasitism is an association between two organisms,
Carnivores include lion, leopard, hawk, kite and toad.
known as the host and the parasite. The parasite feeds
The adaptations to the carnivorous mode of feeding
on or at the expense of the host. The parasite is usually
are:
smaller than the host. The parasite benefits while the
1 Fast movement, to overtake their prey;
host suffers. Parasites that live on the hosts are called
2 Keen eyesight, to see the prey;
ectoparasites, while those that live inside the hosts are
3 Sharp retractable claws and sharp teeth or beak, to
called endoparasites.
grasp the prey;
4 Sharp pointed canines to tear flesh;
5 Carnassial teeth (last upper premolar and the
first lower molar on each side) operate in a scissor-
like fashion; and are used for tearing flesh from
bone; position of mouth
6 Keen sense of smell to identify prey.
Omnivores include man, chicken and pig. Their teeth
are adapted for general diet. They have incisors for cut- cephalothorax
ting food. Canines are not very prominent or sharp as
in carnivores, while premolars and molars have flat
surfaces for grinding. abdomen

Activity 6.8 Observing what ani-

mals eat and how Fig. 6.4a) Tick
Procedure
1 Identify five animals of your choice. eye
2 Observe what they eat and how they feed.
3 Record your observations in your notebook.

Saprophytic nutrition
Saprophytes are organisms that feed on dead organic
legs
matter. The organism secretes enzymes on the dead
organic matter, digests it extracellularly, and absorbs claws
the product of the digestion. Several kinds of fungi are
saprophytes, such as the moulds that grow on bread, mouth
orange peels, overripe fruits and the fungi that bring
about the decay of organic matter in the formation of Fig. 6.4b) Flea
humus.

99
antennae parasitic protozoa. Malaria is caused by plasmodium
while sleeping sickness is caused by trypanosoma.

legs

Fig. 6.4c) Louse

plasmodium
body cell

Fig. 6.5a) Plasmoduim

flagellum
undulating membrane

Fig. 6.4d) Bed-bug

Ectoparasites include ticks found on cows or dogs, nucleus

fleas found on dogs or rats, lice found on chickens and
Fig. 6.5b) Trypanosoma
man, bed-bugs which bite and suck the blood of man.
Endoparasites include the roundworm (Ascaris) and
the tape worm (taenia solium) both of which live in the
small intestine of man where they feed on digested Activity 6.10 Looking for parasites
food.
Endoparasites are also found in human and ani-
in animals
mal blood, muscles and organs. The liver fluke, Fasciola
Materials required
hepatica is found in the liver of sheep. The human tape
Dissected toad, rat or lizard, infected liver, infected
worm, Taenia solium, is found also in the muscle of pig,
flesh of pig, fresh fish, forceps, saline solution, and
the alternative host. A similar tapeworm in cattle, called
hand lens.
Taenia saginata, may also infect man. The filarial worm,
Wucheraria bancrofti, is a round worm which is found in
Procedure
the lymphatic system of man, and causes elephantiasis.
1 Your teacher will provide you with a dissected toad,
The guinea-worm, Dracunculus medinensis is found in
rat, or lizard. Look for parasitic worms in the ali-
the subcutaneous tissue of man from where it pushes
mentary canal. Keep a record of the number and
out its head through a wound caused by it on the foot
kinds of worms seen.
or leg of the host.
2 Put each of infected animal liver and flesh in saline
Some nematodes are also parasites which live in
solution to make the parasites come out. Use a pair
parts of certain plants such as the roots of tomatoes and
of forceps to bring out the parasites in the liver or
bananas. They inhibit the growth and hence, the yield
meat given to you. Examine the parasites with a
of the plants.
hand lens. Record where the parasites are found
Some protozoans are endoparasites. Two very
and describe their characteristics.
important diseases in West Africa are caused by endo-

100
3 Cut open the fresh fish and cut open its alimentary rostellum
canal along its length. Examine the alimentary ca-
nal for parasites. Examine also the gills. Sort the
hook
parasites. Draw and describe each kind.

sucker
Activity 6.11 Looking for parasites
on animals
Procedure neck
1 Visit a place where cattle are kept (cattle pen) or
fowls-sellers’ stalls at the local market.
2 Look for parasites on these animals.
young proglottides
3 For each parasite, use a hand lens to observe care-
fully the shape of its body, how many legs it has,
and the structure of its mouth parts.
4 Record your findings. Fig. 6.6 Head of tape worm, Taenia solium

2 Endoparasites have a simple structure, because

they do not have to search for their food. The tape
Adaptations to parasitic mode of worm is surrounded by digested food in the hu-
life man intestine. It absorbs food through its entire
Parasites have special adaptations which fit them to body surface. It has no digestive system, no sense
their modes of life and enable them to achieve success. organs, and no organ of movement. The round
worm Ascaris lumbricodes, which also lives in the
Adaptations of animal’s ectoparasites human intestine, has a simple structure, without
1 Animal ectoparasites have shapes adapted to their eyes, and organs for movement.
respective habitats. The body louse and the tick 3 Endoparasites in the alimentary canal can tolerate
are flattened, so that they are not easily shaken or low oxygen concentration in the system.
brushed off. The flea is laterally compressed, so 4 Endoparasites in the alimentary canal secrete anti-
that it can move easily between body hairs. enzymes which prevent them from being digested
2 Animal ectoparasites usually have no wings be- by human digestive enzymes.
cause they do not fly about. The flea has legs that 5 The biggest problem of endoparasites is how to
enable it to jump short distances on the host. infect new hosts. One of the ways of solving this
3 Animal ectoparasites have mouth parts adapted problem is that they produce many eggs or off-
for feeding on the host. Many of them bite and spring so that the chances of infecting new hosts
suck blood. are increased. The tape worm, Taenia solium, pro-
4 They rely on contact between hosts to move from duces millions of eggs. It achieves this by having a
one host to the other. The bedbug stays on the bed, complex reproductive system, and by formation
rarely on the host. It bites whoever comes to lie on of many strobili, each carrying numerous eggs.
the bed. One round worm, Taenia solium, produces up to
200,000 eggs.

Adaptations of endoparasites
1 Some endoparasites have organs for attachment
to avoid being pushed out of the host, e.g. the tape
worm; an intestinal parasite of man attaches itself
by four suckers and by hooks, so that it will not
be flushed out with the contents of the intestine.

Fig. 6.7 Roundworm, Ascaris

101
6 The eggs of endoparasites are resistant to weather blood
conditions, and can remain viable for a long time. vessel
7 Endoparasites have complex life histories, which
help to improve chances of infecting new host.
Some endoparasites have intermediates hosts, e.g.
the mosquito is the intermediate host for the ma-
laria parasite that attack man; the tse-tse-fly is the
intermediate host for Trypanosoma that attacks
man gill raker
8 Parasites are host-specific, that is, a parasite attacks
one or a limited number of hosts, but not others. gill arch
Taenia saginata attacks cattle, though sometimes it (b) gill filament
attacks man too. It does not attack all other ani-
mals. In this way the parasites avoid undue com- Fig. 6.8 A gill arch, with gill rakers and gill filaments
petition among themselves for hosts.
For instance, the marine fish, herrings and sar-
dines are filter feeders. They take in water through the
Feeding mechanisms in holo- mouth, and pass it out through the gill slits. This pro-
cess used for breathing, is also used for feeding.
zoic organisms A gill consists of a gill arch, which carries gill rak-
ers on the inner side, and gill filaments on the outer
side. As the water passes through the gill slits, the gill
Holozoic organisms adopt various methods in taking rakers strain out particles of food from the water, and
in food. Some of these methods are described below. the fish feeds on these particles.
1 Filter feeding Blue whales, the largest kind of whales, are filter
A filter feeder feeds on very tiny particles or organisms feeders.
that cannot be picked up fast enough, one by one to 2 Deposit feeding
provide sufficient food. Filter feeders are aquatic ani- Deposit feeding is by moving through, sifting and
mals. they make water flow through a sieve-like struc- swallowing soil or sediment at the bottom of bodies of
ture in their body in order to collect a reasonable quan- water. The soil or sediment they swallow is a mixture
tity of their food. They are therefore sometimes called of both useful food, in form of small particles of liv-
microphagous feeders. Water is generally drawn to ing or dead organic matter, and inert matter, such as
the body of the animal, either by the movement of ap- silt or clay or sand, of little food value. Earthworms,
pendages, as in a number of crustaceans or by action of polychaete worms, fiddler crabs, insects and insect lar-
cilia. The water then passes through some kind of sieve vae are examples of deposit feeders. Beetles and other
which filters off the particles. Then the water flows out organisms that live inside heaps of compost or animal
through an outgoing passage. dung are also deposit feeders.
3 Fluid feeding
gill chamber eye
Fluid feeding is taking in food in liquid form. Ani-
mouth mals which are fluid feeders may be divided into two
groups. The first group consists of animals that lie
within or wallow in their food, such as the tapeworm
in the human intestine. Such an animal can be called a
gills
wallower. The second group consists of suckers which
feed by sucking fluid from plants, animals or dead or-
ganic matter. Examples are bugs (e.g. aphids), butter-
flies, mosquitoes and house flies.
Animals that practise fluid feeding:
a) Tapeworm
Tapeworm is an internal parasite, which lives in
the human small intestine. There, the food eaten
by the host is already digested and is in liquid
operculum
form. The tapeworm lies or wallows in this liq-
uid, digested food and absorbs that food through
(a)
its entire body surface.

102
b) Bugs Milk and permanent dentition
Insects such as aphids, cicads or cotton-stainer, In a child, the first set of teeth is called the milk denti-
suck juices from the leaves and stems of plants for tion. At the age of about six, the milk teeth fall off, and
which they require strong, piercing mouth parts. are replaced by the permanent teeth, which remain till
Their major mouthpart, a rostrum is formed old age.
mainly from the labium. It is comparatively short
Homodont and heterodont dentition
and strong, and has a groove on the dorsal side
In a fish, an amphibian or a reptile, all the teeth are sim-
from inside of which both the mandibles and the
ilar in size and shape. These animals are said to have
maxillae can be brought out. The mandibles have
homodont dentition. In a mammal, however, there are
cutting edge for cutting into stems, while the max-
four different kinds of teeth, which differ in structure
illae, when placed against each other form two
and function. These different kinds of teeth are:
holes, a smaller one for the passing out of saliva and
1 Incisors
a larger one for sucking juice.
This kind of tooth is located in the front part of
c) Mosquito
the upper and lower jaws. It is chisel shaped, with
The female anopheles mosquito feeds on human
a broad and sharp edge. It is used for cutting piec-
blood, while the male feeds on plant and fruit juic-
es of food and in certain cases for apprehending
es. All female mouth parts, with the exception of
prey.
the labium are modified into piercing stylets and
2 Canines
sucking tubes. The stylets have a sharp cutting
The canines are located next behind the incisors,
edge. When the female anopheles mosquito bites
in the upper and lower jaws. They are large, point-
its victim, it first pours out its saliva into the vic-
ed, sharp and are used for seizing prey and tear-
tim. This saliva is able to prevent the blood of the
ing flesh.
victim from clotting while mosquito is sucking
3 Premolars
it. In this way, the clotting of the blood and block-
The premolars follow behind after the canines, in
ing of the sucking tube is avoided.
the upper and lower jaws. They are large. In some
d) Butterfly
mammals, premolars have flat surfaces (for grind-
The butterfly feeds only on nectar, secreted by nec-
ing food) while in others they have surfaces with
taries located at the bases of ovaries of flowers. In
two or more ridges called cusps used to tear flesh
butterflies, the maxillae are modified into long pro-
from bone.
boscis for reaching down to the nectaries. When
4 Molars
not in use, the proboscis is rolled into a coil under
Premolars and molars are called cheek teeth be-
the head.
cause they are located in the cheeks. Molars are
e) Housefly
the last set of teeth in the upper and lower jaws.
The mouthparts of the housefly are modified into
Molars only occur in the permanent dentition like
a strong proboscis formed from the labium. Other
premolars, they are large in size, and their surfaces
mouth parts are reduced. The end of the labium
may be flat or have cusps.
is expanded into labella, with many food channels
and testing hairs, in order to equip it for juice
sucking. When a housefly comes to rest on its Structure of a mammalian tooth
food, which may be uncovered human food, open Externally, a tooth has three parts: a crown which proj-
faeces, decaying plant or animal matter, dirty de- ects above the jaw bone, the root, which is embedded
caying food materials in dustbins or gutters, it first in the jaw bone, and the neck, which lies where the
pours out saliva on the food materials. The saliva crown and the root meet, and is covered by the gum.
partly digests the food and converts it into fluid The tooth is fixed inside a hole in the jaw bone known
form. Then the housefly sucks the liquid food. as the alveolus.
All incisors and canines have one root each. Some
premolars have one root each while others have two.
The molars have two or three roots each.
Mammalian teeth The internal structure of a tooth is seen in a longi-
tudinal section of the tooth. It has a central pulp cavity
Different types of teeth in which there are connective tissue, blood vessels and
The word dentition refers to the development, number, nerves. The pulp cavity is surrounded by a hard ma-
arrangement and types of teeth in an animal. terial called dentine, which makes up a major part of
the body of a tooth. In the crown and neck, the dentine

103
is covered by another hard substance called enamel Dental formula
which is white and contains calcium compounds. The The dental formula of an organism is a short way of
enamel protects the dentine. In the root, the dentine is writing the numbers of different kinds of teeth in one
covered by a substance called cement, which is sur- half of the upper and lower jaws.
rounded by a fibrous, vascular tissue called the peri- Examples:
odontal membrane. This membrane holds the tooth in
the alveolus. There is a hole at the lower end of the root 2 3 2 3
of each tooth through which blood vessels and nerves Man i , c , pr ,m = 32
pass into the pulp cavity to keep the living cells there 2 2 1 3
alive and sensitive. In some mammals such as the rab- 3 3 3 3
bit, this hole is large, and remains open throughout the Dog i ,c , pr ,m = 42
life of the organism. Hence the teeth grow continuously 3 2 2 2
throughout the organism’s life. In some mammals such 3 3 3 3
as humans, this hole is small. Hence, in old age the tis- Sheep i ,c , pr , m = 32
sues in the pulp cavity may die, and the teeth fall out. 3 2 3 3
2 3 3 3
Rabbit i ,c , pr ,m = 28
enamel 1 2 2 3
Crown

dentine
Adaptation of dentition to mode of
Neck gum nutrition
Animals have teeth that are adapted to their modes of
nutrition.
pulp cavity
Characteristics of the teeth of herbivores (example:
cement rabbit)
1 Incisors are sharp, and are used for cutting grass.
Root

membrane
They grow continuously throughout the life of the
animal.
bone 2 Canines may be absent, leaving a space called the
diastema.
entry to 3 Molars and premolars have broad surfaces with
pulp cavity transverse ridges, and are used for grinding grass.
4 Molars and premolars look alike.
Fig. 6.9 Vertical section of a human molar tooth

check bone Upper jaw

orbit
upper jaw

Incisors Premolars Molars

diastema Incisor
Premolars Molars

lower jaw

Lower jaw

Fig. 6.10a) Dentition of a herbivore (a rabbit)

104
orbit Upper jaw
upper jaw

Incisors Premolars Carnassial teeth Molars

Canine Molars
Incisors Premolars

lower jaw Lower jaw

Fig. 6.10b) Dentition of a dog

Characteristics of the teeth of a carnivore (example: 3 The canines are not very different from the inci-
dog) sors.
1 The incisors are sharp and are used for catching 4 The premolars and molars have flat surfaces with
and holding prey. cusps for grinding food.
2 Canine are long, curved and pointed for attack,
defence and for holding prey.
3 Last upper premolar and first lower molar on each Enzymes
side are called carnassial teeth. They are large, with
pointed projections and are used for tearing Enzymes are biochemical catalysts which speed up the
flesh from bone. rates of metabolic reactions but remain unchanged or
4 Molars have cusps for crushing bones. unused up at the end of the reactions.

Characteristics of the teeth of an omnivore (example: Characteristics of enzymes

human) 1 Enzymes are proteins.
1 The teeth of an omnivore such as a human, do not 2 They speed up reactions but remain unchanged
show much specialisation. They can be used for at the end of the reactions.
eating various kinds of food. 3 They catalyse reversible reactions in both direc-
2 The incisors are fairly sharp, and are used for cut- tions.
ting or biting off pieces of food. 4 A small quantity of enzyme acts on a large amount
of substrate.
5 Enzymes are destroyed by heat.
6 Each enzyme acts optimally at a specific pH.
7 Each enzyme acts best within a narrow range of
canine temperature.
incisors
premolars 8 An enzyme is specific in reaction; it can speed up
one reaction, but not others.
molars
Digestive enzymes
Digestion is the process by which complex organic food
substances are broken down into simple, diffusible
molecules, which can be absorbed through the walls
of the intestine into the body. This digestion is brought
about by digestive enzymes. In many cases, the diges-
tive enzymes bring about hydrolysis of complex mol-
ecules.

Fig. 6.10c) Dentition of a man

105
Classes of digestive enzymes
Digestive enzymes are classified into three groups according to the classes of food they act on.

Table 6.5 Classes of digestive enzymes

Class of enzyme Class of food digested Example

Amylases Carbohydrates Amylase

Lipases Lipids Steapsin

Proteases Proteins Pepsin, trypsin

Enzyme precursors and activators Functions of digestive enzymes

Some digestive enzymes are formed by two secretions
from two different parts of the digestive system. One
Digestion involves physical and chemical changes.
secretion is an active precursor, while the other is the
Physical changes include chewing of food by teeth in
activator. When the two secretions mix, one active en-
the mouth and physical mixing of food with digestive
zyme is formed. For instance, tripsinogen is an active
secretions in the stomach and intestines. This mixing is
precursor secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the
called churning. Enzymes bring about chemical chang-
pancreas. The duodenum secretes the activator, entero-
es as shown in Table 6.6.
kinase. The secretions form the active enzyme trypsin
which acts in the intestine.

Table 6.6 Function of digestive enzymes

Enzyme Source Location Food Action

digested

Ptyalin Salivary glands Mouth Starch Starch → maltose

Rennin Glands in wall Stomach Milk Curdles milk

of stomach

Pepsin Glands in wall Stomach Proteins Proteins → peptides

of stomach

Trypsin Pancreas Duodenum Proteins Proteins → peptides

Lipase Pancreas Duodenum Lipids Lipids → fatty acids and

glycerol

Amylase Pancreas Duodenum Starch Starch → maltose

Amylase Intestinal wall Intestine Starch Starch → maltose

Aminopeptidase Intestinal wall Intestine Tripeptides Tripeptides → dipeptides

106
Dipeptidases Intestinal wall Intestine Dipeptides Dipeptides → amino acids

Maltase Intestinal wall Intestine Maltose Maltose → glucose

Sucrase Intestinal wall Intestine Sucrose Sucrose → glucose +

fructose

Lactase Intestinal wall Intestine Lactose Lactose → glucose +

galactose

Importance of enzymes D Zinc, boron and molybdenum

The purpose of digestion is to convert complex, insolu- E Water and rice.
ble food molecules (such as starch) into simple soluble 2 Which of the following is food used for?
food molecules such as glucose, which can be absorbed A Synthesis of protoplasm
from the intestine into the body, where it is utilised for B Growth
producing energy, or growth and repair or other func- C Repair of the body
tions. Enzymes are the chemicals that convert complex D Production of energy
molecules into simple ones. Without enzymes, chemi- E All of the above.
cal digestion cannot take place, and animals cannot 3 Which of the following is not a holozoic form of
benefit from the complex food substances they eat. nutrition?
A Filter feeding
B Deposit feeding
C Chemosynthesis
Summary D Parasitic feeding
E Fluid feeding.
This chapter has taught the following: 4 An enzyme is a biochemical catalyst because it is
• All living things feed. _____________________.
• All animals are heterotrophic because they cannot A alive
make their own food. B a catalyst
• For optimal growth and health, animals require C specific in action
food substances, each in adequate amount. Defi- D studied in biology
ciency of any of these soon becomes evident thro- E produced by a living thing
ugh impaired health and growth of the animal. 5 Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotro-
• Animals feed in diverse ways. phic nutrition naming two examples of each.
• Teeth are used in feeding, such as for catching 6 Describe the structure of a mammalian tooth. State
prey, biting off pieces of food, shearing bone from the characteristics of the dentition of a carnivore.
flesh and chewing food. 7 State the characteristics of an enzyme.
• The teeth of a mammal are adapted to its mode of 8 Describe one chemical test for glucose and one
nutrition. chemical test for proteins.
• Enzymes digest food. This means that they con-
vert large insoluble, organic food molecules into
small, organic, soluble, absorbable food mole-
cules.
• Different enzymes digest different food substances.

Revision questions
1 Which of these are described as micronutrients?
A Fats and oils
B Mineral salts and vitamins
C Proteins and lipids

107
Theme 3
The organism and its environment

Chapter 7 Basic ecological principles

The concept of ecosystem highlights the fact that an organism and its environment are
closely related. An organism obtains its requirements for life from the environment. In
the case of plants, this includes sunlight, water, mineral salts, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
In the case of animals, the requirements for life obtained from the environment include
water, food, oxygen, warmth and shelter.
Without the environment, an organism cannot survive. Through adaptation, an or-
ganism is made fit for its environment.

Introduction sunshine which enables it to make its food. The wind

may break its stem. If the rainfall fails, it may die. In-
sects may eat its leaves and fruits.
The whole universe, with living and non-living things The total surrounding of an organism is called its
constitutes nature. The portion of the earth inhabited environment. The environment includes the physical
by living organisms, including the land masses, oceans surroundings, non-living factors and living organisms
and atmosphere is called the biosphere. In the bio- which influence an organism in its surroundings. For
sphere, the rocky crust of the earth is called the litho- instance, the environment of a maize plant in the farm
sphere, the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, ponds includes:
and all other bodies of water make up the hydrosphere, 1 The soil and the surrounding atmosphere,
while the envelope of gases surrounding the earth is 2 The climatic elements, such as rainfall, tempera-
called the atmosphere. ture, sunlight, relative humidity and wind,
Countless interactions take place in the biosphere 3 Living organisms within or above the soil, such
every second and all the time. Interactions take place as ants and grasshoppers.
between non-living things, between living things, as The environment of an organism is essential for
well as between living and non-living things. When its survival. In fact, an organism depends partly on its
two winds clash, thunder and lightning may result non-living environment for life. The soil supports the
as well as other consequences. As the sun rises in the growing maize plant and supplies it with mineral salts
morning, sleeping animals stir themselves from slum- and water. It absorbs carbon dioxide and oxygen from
ber and green parts of plants become active in making the atmosphere for photosynthesis and respiration re-
sugar. If a hungry mosquito bites you, you will feel spectively. Without the soil and the surrounding atmo-
pain, and later you may become ill. sphere, the maize plant in the farm cannot remain alive.
Many interactions in the biosphere affect man di- An organism constantly interacts with living and
rectly or indirectly. Ecology is concerned with the study non-living things within its environment. A fish in a
of interactions in the biosphere. stream constantly obtains oxygen from and gives out
carbon dioxide to the water. It obtains food from, and
passes out waste products into the environment. It
Ecological concepts may be eaten by predators and if the stream dries up, it
migrates; hide in the interesting range of interrelation-
ships with its environment.
Consider a maize plant on a farm. It is surrounded by
Ecology is the branch of Biology concerned with
the atmosphere. It is growing on the soil. It receives

108
the study of interrelationships between living organ- then pass out their droppings on the soil, thus recycling
isms and their external environment. Ecology is di- nutrients in the forest.
vided into two main sub-branches, autecology and An ecosystem or ecological system is defined as
synecology. Autecology is concerned with the study a natural unit of living and non-living things which
of an individual organism or a single species of organ- interact to form a stable system in which a cyclic inter-
ism and its environment. The study of the interrelation- change of materials takes place between the living and
ships between a single palm tree and its environment the non-living components. Examples of ecosystems
is an example of autecology. The study of the interrela- are a lake, a forest, a fallow farmland, a stream or large
tionships between groups of organisms or species of an pond.
organism living together in an area (such as organisms Components of an ecosystem can be divided into
in a salt-water marsh, or an abandoned farmland, or a two: living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) compo-
stream) and their environment is an example of syn- nents.
ecology. All the living things in an ecosystem constitute
If you wished to collect an earthworm, you would a biotic community or community in a community;
probably look for it in moist soil in a garden. If you all the living things that belong to one species form a
wanted to catch a Tilapia fish, you would probably look population.
for it in a stream or river. Similarly, to catch a cockroach,
you would probably have to look in a dark corner of
a home, possibly containing some remains of human Habitats
food. The kind of place where an organism normally
lives in nature is called its habitat. An organism nor- There are two main kinds of habitats: aquatic (water)
mally lives in a specific part of a habitat. For instance, and terrestrial (land) habitats.
spirogyra lives at the surface of slow-flowing fresh wa- Aquatic habitats
ter stream, Tilapia swims in the water, and tadpoles are Aquatic habitats are divided into:
found at the stream bottom. In these locations, each or- 1 Marine habitats, which contain saltwater and in-
ganism does something in relation to other organisms. clude the open sea, sea-shore and saltwater lakes.
Spirogyra is an autotroph (i.e. it does not depend on 2 Freshwater habitats, which contain salt-free wa-
the environment for a source of organic substance as ter and include springs, streams, rivers, freshwa-
nutrients. It manufactures complex organic substances ter ponds and rice fields flooded by freshwater.
from simple inorganic substances such as water, car- 3 Brackish water habitats, which contain a mixture
bon dioxide, and nitrate ions). Tilapia is a consumer of of saltwater and freshwater. Brackish water habi-
small plants and animals in the water; the tadpole is a tats occur in estuaries and lagoons where freshwa-
primary consumer of small water plants. ter flowing down rivers mixes with seawater
The specific place occupied by an organism, and brought in by tides.
the activity it engages in, with reference to other organ-
isms is its niche. Accordingly, the niche of the tadpole
is that it lives at the bottom of slow fresh water streams
and is a primary consumer. Activity 7.1 Naming habitats
Living and non-living things in a natural area col-
lectively form what is called an ecological system or Complete the following table by filling in, as precisely
ecosystem. This term highlights the fact that in nature, as possible, the habitat of each of the organisms.
there is constant interaction between the living and
non-living components. For instance, in an area of for- Table 7.1 Some organisms and their habitats
est, the trees absorb water and mineral salts from the
soil. The water is used by the plant, while the excess Organism Precise habitat
is transpired into the atmosphere. The trees shed their
old leaves, which earthworms, ants, beetles and fungi 1 Spirogyra
feed on and cause them to decay on the soil. As they
2 Moss
decay, some nutrients originally absorbed from the soil
by the trees are returned to the soil, for possible absorp- 3 Rhizopus
tion by the trees again. So there is recycling of materi-
als between the living components (trees) and the non- 4 Tadpole
living components (soil and atmosphere). In the same
way, forest animals may eat leaves and fruits of trees 5 Housefly

109
Terrestrial habitats to place. The main causes of variation in total annual
Terrestrial or land habitats are divided into: rainfall are:
1 Arboreal habitats (on, in or among trees), i) The distance from the Atlantic coast and
2 Ground habitats, and ii) The elevation.
3 Underground habitats. The rain-bearing wind in Nigeria and throughout
West Africa is the south-west wind. As this blows over
Ecological or habitat factors the Atlantic ocean towards West Africa, it becomes lad-
en with moisture. On reaching the land, this moisture-
laden wind rises and cools, then the water vapour in it
An organism will live in a particular kind of habitat that condenses and falls as rain. The annual rainfall is high-
provides it with its requirements for life, including oxy- est near the coast and decreases progressively inland.
gen, food, water, shelter and facilities for reproduction. The effect of elevation is observed on the Jos Plateau
For instance, Tilapia fish can obtain these requirements and other high lands. There, the elevation of the land
in freshwater, but not on land. Apart from providing causes the rain-bearing wind to rise. In so doing, the
the requirements for life, the habitat also provides a wind is cooled and the moisture in it condenses and
suitable environment for the organism. falls as rain. The windward sides of Jos Plateau and
Habitat other highlands therefore have more rain than would
(ecological) have been the case if the highlands were not there.
factors The length of the rainy season is greatest near the
coast and diminishes progressively inland. While Cala-
bar, Lagos and Port Harcourt have some rain in each of
the twelve months of the year, Jos has rainfall for eight
Abiotic Biotic
months of the year, and Sokoto has rain for only six
factors factors
months (April to September) of the year.
In Nigeria, rainfall is the most important climatic
factor. It determines the seasons, which are the rainy
season and the dry season. The main vegetation belts,
or biomes, are determined mainly by the annual rain-
Climatic Topographic Edaphic fall in each belt.
factors factors factors
Rainfall affects living things in several ways. It
soaks and softens the soil, making it easy for plant roots
Fig. 7.1 Schematic classification of ecological factors to penetrate. It provides water for the germination of
seeds and for plant growth. Where rainfall is low, plant
The factors which influence living organisms in a
growth is poor and animals which feed on the plants
habitat and control their survival and distribution are
are few. Where rainfall is very high, on the other hand,
called habitat factors. Habitat factors are also called
the soil may become waterlogged, usually leading to
ecological factors or environmental factors. These fac-
the extensive erosion and leaching of the soil. Plant
tors are also grouped into abiotic or physical factors
growth is also usually poor and animals are few. Mod-
which relate to non-living aspects and biotic factors
erate levels (of about 500 to 2000 mm) make for healthy
which relate to other living things.
plant growth and the successful rearing of many ani-
mals. Both the total rainfall per annum and the pattern
Physical factors
of distribution of rainfall throughout the year are im-
These can be sub-classified into climatic, topographic
portant. Zaria and Ibadan have a roughly equal mean
and edaphic factors which relate to climate, physical
annual rainfall of about 1300 mm. At Ibadan, however,
features of the land and soil respectively.
there are three months with less than 25 mm of rain-
fall while Zaria has five such months. The vegetation
1 Climatic factors
at Ibadan is tropical rain forest while that of Zaria is
The average weather conditions of a place or region,
savannah.
throughout the seasons, make up the climate. The
Rainfall is measured with a rain gauge. If the
factors which determine the climate include rainfall,
earth’s surface were perfectly flat and water could
temperature, relative humidity, sunlight, pressure and
not sink into the ground nor run off from it, rain wa-
wind.
ter would settle down in a uniform thickness over the
earth whenever it rained. The height of the water, in
a) Rainfall
millimetres, would be exactly the amount of rain that
In Nigeria, both the total annual rainfall and the distri-
had fallen. However, the situation is not so in real life,
bution of rainfall throughout the year vary from place

110
hence the need for an instrument with which rainfall in the measuring cylinder has to be multiplied by a con-
can be accurately measured. version factor, obtained as the value derived when the
Any vessel with vertical side walls may be used area of the mouth of the graduated cylinder is divided
as a rain gauge. It should be stood on an elevated stool, by the area of the mouth of the funnel.
at least 0.8 m high from the ground, so that rain drops Mathematically,
which strike the ground do not splash up into it. Af-
ter each rainfall, a millimetre rule is used to measure Area of mouth of graduated cylinder
the height of the water in the vessel. Such a makeshift = Conversion factor
Areaofofmouth
Area mouthoffunnel
funnel
gauge would have one major source of error, namely
that water would evaporate from it.
A normal rain gauge has three main parts. These
are a funnel which collects the water, a graduated cyl-
inder into which the water collected by the funnel runs,
and a container which encloses the graduated cylinder.

Table 7.2 Mean monthly rain (mm) (1964-1984) at Ibadan and Zaria: data from Federal Meteorological Service, Lagos

Month Ibadan Zaria

(mm) (mm)

Jan 4.27 0.00

Feb 21.80 0.30

Mar 80.30 3.48

April 144.61 43.15

May 163.70 84.36

June 165.93 143.90

July 155.14 250.50

Aug 129.24 246.78

Sept 178.87 159.78

Oct 157.33 42.15

Nov 28.46 1.07

Dec 9.52 0.00

Total 1 239.17 975.47

If the mouth of the funnel, and the mouth of the gradu- solid level
ated cylinder of the rain gauge are of equal surface ar-
eas, then the height of the water in the graduated cyl-
inder in millimetres would be taken as the measure of funnel
rainfall. However, the mouth of the graduated cylinder
usually has a smaller area than the mouth of the fun-
graduated
nel. The height of the water in the cylinder is therefore cylinder
greater than the depth of the rainfall (if it had formed a
layer over the ground surface). The height of the water

Fig. 7.2 A rain guage

111
Activity 7.2 Measurement of rain-
fall in the school com-
pound
Procedure
1 Use rain gauge to measure the rainfall in your
school compound, during the rainy season, over
a period of one week. After each rain, measure the
rainfall and record your data. Pour away the wa-
ter in the measuring cylinder and set up the rain
gauge again.
2 Place a large tin cylinder, such as a Bournvita tin,
on a high stool and use it to collect rain water in
your school compound over the same period of
one week. Measure the rainfall after each rain us-
ing a ruler. Record your measurements and pour
away the water.
Compare your results from the two
methods.

Activity 7.3 Representing a rainfall

data in a histogram
Use a sheet of graph paper to draw a histogram show-
ing the mean monthly rainfall distribution for Zaria
(see Table 7.2).

b) Temperature
Plants do not grow well at very low temperature close
to 00C, or at high temperature above 350C. Tempera- Fig. 7.3 Thermometer (maximum and minimum 0C)
tures of 200C - 300C are suitable for the healthy growth
of plants and animals which feed on the plants. Tem-
taken throughout the year are more useful than a single
perature influences the rate of metabolism of plants
or a few readings. At least, mean monthly temperatures
and animals (proceed normally). At very high or very
are necessary. The mean monthly temperature is the av-
low temperature, the life-processes may cease. Temper-
erage of temperature readings taken at a specific time
ature also affects organisms through its effect on rela-
(say 9.00 a.m) every day, throughout a month.
tive humidity. As temperature rises, relative humidity
increases the rate of transpiration by plants and loss
of water by animals. Excessive transportation retards
plants’ growth. Activity 7.4 Representing tempera-
Temperature is measured with a thermometer. A
special thermometer is used for measuring soil tem-
ture data on a graph
peratures. To measure the water temperature at vari-
Use a sheet of paper to draw a graph showing the mean
ous depths, it is necessary to lower the thermometer to
monthly temperatures provided for Jos.
the desired depths after tying it with a rubber band to a
Jan 21.3 Jul 20.9
metre rule or graduated pole. The metre rule or gradu-
Feb 22.3 Aug 20.5
ated pole helps in determining the depth at which the
Mar 25.7 Sep 21.9
reading is taken.
Apr 25.5 Oct 24.3
The temperature taken at a point in habitat does
May 24.0 Nov 24.1
not give an accurate indication of the temperature in
June 22.5 Dec 22.5
the place throughout the year, nor of the range of varia-
Mean monthly temperature for Jos (1951-1975).
tion of temperature. For this reason, many readings
Data from Federal Meteorological Service, Lagos.

112
c) Relative humidity
The relative humidity of the atmosphere at a particular
time is given by:
the amount of water vapour in the air
the amount of water required to stimulate air at that temperature
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage, e.g.
RH = 60%.
When relative humidity is high, the rate of transpi-
ration of plants and evaporation of water from animals
is low. The reverse is the case when relative humidity is
low.
High relative humidity promotes the growth of
forest species, while low relative humidity can be tol-
erated by savannah and scrubland plants. Relative hu-
midity decreases progressively northwards, from the
rain forest belt to the savannah and desert belts.

Measurement of relative humidity

Relative humidity is measured with a hygrometer.
There are some direct-reading hygrometers which di-
rectly give the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
The wet and dry bulb hygrometer, is commonly used
in place of a direct-reading hygrometer. It consists of
two thermometers. The bulb of one of these, known as
the dry bulb thermometer, is exposed to and measures
the temperature of the air. The bulb of the other ther-
mometer, known as the wet bulb thermometer, has a
wick tied to it, which dips into water in a container. The
wick soaks up water which keeps the wet bulb continu-
Fig. 7.4 Wet and dry bulb hygrometer (0C)
ously moist. As the water evaporates from the surface
of the wet bulb, it absorbs heat from it, causing the wet
bulb thermometer to give a lower reading than the dry
thermometer. Activity 7.5 Determining the rela-
The difference between the wet bulb and the dry tive humidity in the
bulb is related to the humidity of the air. When the air is
very humid, the water evaporates only slowly from wet classroom
bulb, hence there is a small difference between the wet
and the dry bulb readings. On the other hand, when Use the wet and dry bulb thermometer (maximum and
the air is dry, water evaporates fast from the wet bulb; minimum (0C)) to determine the relative humidity of
hence there is a big difference between the wet and dry your classroom.
bulb readings. In order to determine the relative hu- Record your readings as follows:
midity of the atmosphere using the wet and dry bulb Reading of the dry bulb thermometer = 0C
thermometers, the difference between the readings of Reading of the wet bulb thermometer = 0C
the two is taken. Then from an already prepared chart, Difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb ther-
the relative humidity, which corresponds to that differ- mometer readings = 0C
ence at that temperature, is read. Relative humidity read from a chart = 0C

d) Wind
Wind affects plants and animals in many ways. It in-
creases the temperature rate in plants. Strong wind
may break branches or cause trees to fall. In very windy
situations, plants are few and those that survive tend to
be stunted. Animals that live in windy places need to
have protective features, such as means of attachment

113
to supports. Wind causes the erosion of exposed soil
surfaces, thus reducing soil-thickness. It may however
bring rain, which is beneficial to plants and animal.
Wind-direction is determined with a wind vane, while
wind speed is determined with an anemometer.

e) Light
Plants require light for photosynthesis, hence where
sunlight is abundant (other factors being favourable),
many plants grow. Relatively few species of plants live
successfully in the shade.
Light is also associated with heat. Sunlight brings
with it warmth, which is favourable to living things. Fig. 7.5b) Anemometer
When sunlight is very intense and the temperature very
high, plants tend to wilt, while animals seek shade.
Apart from light intensity, the number of hours of
daylight in a day, known as day length, affects living
things. The day length varies throughout the year. In
Nigeria, it is observed that in January, it is still dark at
6 a.m. and already dark again by 6.30 p.m. At this time
of the year, the day length is short. The day length in
Nigeria is shortest in December and longest in July. On
summer’s day in Europe or North America, there could
be daylight from 5.30 a.m. to 8 p.m. Although the actual
difference between the longest day and shortest day in
Nigeria is comparatively small, plants nonetheless re-
spond to these changes in day length. For instance, day Fig. 7.6 Aneroid barometer
length affects the flowering of plants.
Some plants such as some varieties of dry-season
Okro flower only when the day length is short (usually
around September). Other plants flower when the day
length is long, while a few do so at any time.
Light intensity is measured with a light meter.
Some light meters give readings in candela units,
while others are graduated into divisions without nam-
ing the units. The latter type is only useful in compar-
ing the intensities of light in two places or two parts of
the same locality.

Fig. 7.7 Light meter

2 Topographic factors
Topographic factors are those which relate to the physi-
cal features of the earth’s surface. Hills, valleys, rivers,
ravines, water courses and other features affect the liv-
ing conditions of organisms. Some topographic factors
are described as follows.

a) Elevation
The height of a place above sea-level is described as
Fig. 7.5a) Wind vane

114
its elevation. As the elevation increases, wind speed 4 Repeat this procedure at 1 m intervals, along a
and wind strength increase while the temperature, at- straight line down the slope, beginning at point
mospheric pressure and amount of oxygen in the air A.
decrease. Plants and animals of high altitudes have to 5 Use the data to plot a graph of the slope on the
possess features which fit them to function well there. sheet of graph paper.
Clear vegetation changes can be observed as one as-
cends a mountain.
Elevation is measured with a barometer, such as c) Exposure
the aneroid barometer. The barometer in fact measures Plants and animals living on a hilltop are more open to
air pressure, but this is related to elevation, hence the the influence of climatic and other factors than those
elevation can be worked out from barometer readings. living in a valley. An animal that lives in a hole in the
ground is not exposed. Exposure is the degree to which
b) Slope organisms are left open to climatic and other factors. In
When the slope of the ground is steep, rainwater runs exposed habitats, light intensity is high, wind may be
off fast, allowing little water to soak into the soil. At the strong but relative humidity may be low. Light-loving
same time, soil erosion may be strong so that the soil plants live in exposed places. Where the exposure is
tends to be shallow. Plants in such locations tend to be low, light intensity is low, wind may be mild, but rela-
herbs, shrubs, and stunted trees. Where a land has a tive humidity is high.
gentle slope or is flat, conditions are more favourable
for the growth of plants. Rainwater flows on the soil 3 Edaphic factors
surface slowly, and much of it sinks into the soil. The
a) Soil texture
soil is not strongly eroded and will usually be deep.
The feel of a soil to the touch is its texture. Sandy soil is
Numerous species of plants will also live in such a
coarse; clay soil is very fine while loamy soil is neither
place, together with the animals associated with them.
coarse nor very fine. Soil texture is determined by the
The slope of a piece of land can be determined by
relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in it. Sand, silt
measuring the drop in height at one metre intervals
and clay differ in particle size (Table 7.3).
along a line, and then plotting the height drops on a
graph.
Table 7.3 Size ranges of mineral particles of soil
Particle Size range (diameter in mm)
Activity 7.6 Determining the de-
Stone Greater than 200
gree of slope of a Gravel 02-200
piece of land Fine gravel 2-20
Procedure Coarse sand 0.2-2
(Two students work together in one group). Fine sand 0.02-0.2
1 Place one metre rule vertically upright at a point Silt 0.002-0.02
A and another vertically upright at a point B, so
Clay Less than 0.002
that A and B are exactly one metre apart.
2 Place the third metre rule horizontally across the
other two. Use a spirit level to ensure that this
metre rule is truly horizontal. Soil texture affects drainage and capillarity and hence
3 Note the readings on the two vertical metre rules the water-retaining capacity of soil. The water-retain-
at the point where the horzontal metre touches ing capacity of soil affects plant growth. Sandy soil
them. Work out the difference between the read- is porous, retains little water and consequently sup-
ings of the two vertical metre rules. ports only a few small plants. Clayey soil retains too
Example: Suppose that at point A, the horizontal much water and easily becomes waterlogged. Such soil
metre rule touches the vertical rule at the 10 cm supports a few plants, such as mangroves which are
mark, while at point B, the horizontal rule touches adapted to waterlogged conditions. Loamy soil, with
the other at the 8 cm mark. This shows that point B is good water-retaining capacity, supports healthy plant
2 cm lower than point A. Record this observation growth and many species thrive on it.
in your notebook in a short form which you can Soil texture also affects soil air. Sandy soil contains
understand, such as A (0), B (2 cm). much air, whereas clayey, waterlogged soil contains

115
little air. Both conditions are unfavourable to plants. The weight of crucible and air-dry soil be b g.
Then the weight of air-dry soil is (b - a) g = c g.
b) Soil structure Let the weight of crucible and heated soil be x g.
Soil structure relates to how the soil particles are ar- Then loss in weight owing to burning off of organic
ranged. In a soil with good structure, the soil particles matter is (b - x) g = d g.
are in crumbs. Good crumb structure helps the soil to Percentage of organic matter in the soil
retain water and the air content is good. These promote weight of organic matter 100 d
plant growth. = × %=
× × 100%

weight of air - dry soil 1 c
c) Soil depth
Shallow soil can sustain only small plants such as Note
grasses and hence few animals. Causes of shallow soil Loss in weight may also be due to the decomposition
include strong erosion or an underlying rock layer very of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) (calcium carbonate)
close to the surface. Deep soil can sustain many species in the soil into lime and carbon dioxide. The loss from
of plants and the animals associated with them. decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) can be
ignored. To find out if a soil sample contains much
d) Soil organic matter calcium trioxocarbonate (IV), dilute hydrochloric acid
Dead plant and animal matter at various stages of de- may be added to a small quantity of the soil sample in
cay in the soil constitute soil organic matter which is a test tube. Bubbles of gas (carbon dioxide) from the
useful in several ways. ensuring reaction indicates the presence of carbonate in
i) It helps to retain water in the soil. the soil sample.
ii) It provides food for soil microorganisms some of
which have useful roles in promoting soil fertility. e) Soil pH
iii) It releases nutrients for plants as it decays, hence Certain plants, such as tea, grow best where the soil is
soil that is rich in organic matter supports the acid, while some, such as maize, can grow reasonably
healthy growth of plants and rich vegetations. well where the soil is slightly acid or alkaline. Soil pH,
therefore, helps to determine the plant species that can
grow in a habitat and how well they will grow there.
The pH of a soil is commonly measured by using
Activity 7.7 Determining the am- a soil indicator. This is a chemical in solution, whose
ount of humus or org- colour changes in accordance with the pH of the mate-
anic matter in a soil rial mixed with it. An example of a soil indicator is the
BDH soil indicator made by the British Drug House.
sample This company produces a soil testing kit which in-
cludes the soil indicator, test tubes, a spatula, a chart
Materials required of pH colours, barium tetraoxo-sulphate (IV) (barium
Air- dried soil, crucible, stove or Bunsen burner, bal- sulphate) and an instruction sheet for use with the kit.
ance. The procedure for determining the pH of a soil sample
is as follows:
Procedure – Place about 10 mm of soil in a clean test tube.
1 Weigh a dry crucible. – Add about 10 mm of barium tetraoxo sulphate (VI)
2 Put a small amount of air-dried soil (soil from powder (this is to flocculate and precipitate the
which water has evaporated through exposure to clay particles).
air) into the crucible and weigh. – Add 10 cm3 of distilled water with a pipette.
3 Heat the crucible containing the soil on stove or – Add 2 cm3 of soil indicator to the test tube.
burner until the soil is red-hot. Continue to heat – Close the mouth of the test tube with a thumb and
the soil until no more smoke is produced. Then shake the test tube thoroughly.
allow cooling. – Allow the test tube to stand so that a clear coloured
4 Weigh the heated and cooled soil. The loss in we- liquid appears above the soil in the test tube.
ight is due to organic matter which has burned – Hold the clear coloured liquid in the test tube
off. against the chart of colours that corresponds to that
5 Calculate the percentage of humus organic matter obtained from the soil sample. Each colour on the
in the soil as foolws: chart represents a different pH. From your obser-
Let the weight of empty dry crucible be a g, vation, deduce the pH of the soil sample.

116
f) Soil water It should be observed that clayey soil retains more
Water is very important to plants. Mineral salts are ab- water than loamy soil and loamy soil more water
sorbed in solution from the soil. The salts are transport- than sandy soil.
ed in the plant, also in solution. Water keeps the living
cells of the plant turgid. Loss of water vapour from the
leaves keeps the plant cool.
Many biological reactions in the plant take place
Activity 7.9 Determining percent-
in aqueous solutions. Water is necessary for germina- age of water in a soil-
tion and is a raw material for photosynthesis. sample
The water that the plant needs is absorbed from
the soil. The quantity of available water in the soil is Materials required
therefore a very important ecological factor. Freshly collected soil, evaporating dish, steam bath or-
beaker, water, balance.
Activity 7.8 Determining the amo-
Procedure
unts of water retained 1 Weigh a dry evaporating dish.
by different soil-types 2 Weigh the dry evaporating dish with some soil.
3 Place the evaporating dish with soil on a steam
Materials required bath. A beaker of water, heated with a stove or
Three filter funnels, filter paper, sandy soil, loamy soil Bunsen burner may be used as a steam bath.
and clayey soil. 4 Cool and weigh the evaporating dish with soil
from time to time until two consecutive weighings
Procedure give a constant weight.
1 Obtain samples of sandy soil, loamy soil and clay- 5 Calculate the loss in weight. This represents the
ey soil and dry them in the air to constant weight. amount of water in the soil which was driven off
2 Place three funnels in the necks of three 10 cm3 by heating.
measuring cylinders. 6 Calculate the percentage of water in the fresh soil.
3 Place a folded filter paper inside each filter funnel.
4 Put 20 g of air-dried sandy soil into the filter paper
in the first filter funnel and the same quantity of
air-dried loamy and clayey soils into the filter pa-
Factors which affect the ability of
pers in the second and third filters respectively. soils to retain water
5 Pour 50 cm3 of water into each soil sample. Leave The capacity of the soil to retain water depends on sev-
the water to drain through into the measuring eral factors including the following:
cylinder until no more drops of water pass
through. 1 Temperature
6 Measure the volume of water collected in each When the weather is warm, more water will evaporate
measuring cylinder. from the soil than when the weather is cool.
7 Calculate the amount of water retained in each
soil sample. This is obtained by subtracting the 2 Relative humidity
volume of water collected in each measuring cylin- If relative humidity is high, the rate of evaporation of
der from 50 cm3. water from the soil surface will be low and more wa-
ter retained in the soil. The reverse is the case with low
Tabulate your results as follows: relative humidity.

Type of soil Volume of water Volume of water 3 Exposure

collected in retained in the soil Evaporation of water from exposed soil, such as on
measuring cylinder a hilltop or hillside, is greater than evaporation from
sheltered soil in a valley.
Sandy soil
Loamy soil 4 Humus content
Clayey soil Humus absorbs and retains water; hence soil that is
rich in humus can retain much water.

117
5 Clay content potassium, calcium and magnesium, leaving mostly
Clay retains much water for the following reasons: aluminum and iron oxides. Laterites are usually acid
a) Clay particles are very small and therefore and yellow or reddish brown in colour (though not all
have a very large total surface area. Each clay yellow or reddish brown soils are laterites). They are
particle is surrounded by a film of water. The not fertile and can only support little vegetation. Pro-
films of water surrounding all the particles longed fallowing may improve such soil through the
add up to a large amount of water. addition of organic matter from leaf litter. Laterites may
b) Clay particles are colloidal and therefore ab- thus, over many years, support rain forest vegetations.
sorb and hold water.
Biotic factors
Soil types and their effects on veg- Biotic factors are those factors which relate to living
things. Living things influence other living things in
etation many ways, such as feeding, parasitism, shading from
The soil affects the vegetation that grows on it and
light and fires, pollination and dispersal of seeds and
helps to determine the type of vegetation that will de-
competition. Some of these factors are favourable to
velop. Different soil types have different properties as
some organisms.
described below.
1 Feeding
1 Sandy soil
a) Green plants make their own food, using sunlight,
Sandy soil contains mainly silica, which is low in nu-
water, carbon dioxide and mineral substances.
trient elements. It is made up of large particles and is
Such food, made by plants, is the source of food
porous. It retains little water. As the water flows down-
for many grazing animals, other animals that feed
wards between the sand particles, it washes off some
on the gazing animals and eventually those organ-
mineral elements from the sand particles. This process
isms that feed on dead plant and animal materi-
is known as leaching. With their low content of mineral
als.
nutrients and low water retention, sandy soil supports
b) While grazing, cattle and other heavy-grazing ani-
only scanty vegetation, such as grasses.
mals trample on some herbs and grasses and may
kill them or inhibit their growth.
2 Loamy soil
Overgrazing may expose the soil to erosion.
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay in about
equal proportions. It also contains humus. This kind of
2 Shading from light
soil has good crumb structure and an adequate capac-
Plants shade other plants that grow beneath them. If
ity of retaining air and water. Loamy soil is, therefore,
the amount of light reaching the plants below the tall
fertile and if well supplied with air water, supports
plants is insufficient, growth of the plants below is in-
healthy vegetation.
hibited and only shade-tolerant plants may thrive, e.g.
the cashew tree shades plants below it.
3 Clayey soil
Clay consists of silicates, sulphates and phosphates of
3 Fires
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium
Some bush fires are caused by lightning, but most are
and iron. The presence of these elements makes clay
caused by man, deliberately or accidentally. An exam-
soil fertile. Clay retains much water but can become
ple of an accidental fire is one caused by a cigarette stub,
waterlogged, thus reducing the amount of air that the
dropped by a smoker on dry grass near a bush. Bush
soil can hold. Clay particles hold films of water around
fires destroy vegetation, including valuable resources
them strongly, so that at the point when plants grow-
such as timber, firewood and medicinal plants. When
ing on a clayey soil begin to wilt, some water may still
fire removes the vegetation cover, the soil is exposed
be present. Plants growing on clay soil are quite often
to agents of erosion. Bush fires destroy organic matter
those that can withstand drought.
on the soil as well as microorganisms, some of which
promote soil fertility. For these reasons, bush fires are
4 Laterites
undesirable and should be prevented.
Laterites are soils formed by the chemical weathering
of granite rocks. The compounds in the rocks may be-
4 Competition
come oxidised, causing the rocks to crumble. Rainwa-
Members of the same or different plant species, which
ter, which flows downwards through the soil, leaches
grow together in the same area, compete for space, min-
most of the alkaline metallic elements such as sodium,

118
eral nutrients and sunlight. In this way, the individuals the salinity of the water can be expressed as 5 parts per
hinder one another’s growth. thousand. The salinity of sea water is around 35 parts
per thousand.
5 Pollination
Bees, butterflies, ants and other insects pollinate many 2 Speed of flow
flowers, including those of crop plants, and by so do- Some organisms live in fast-flowing water. The larvae
ing, help the plants to reproduce and continue the spe- of the blackfly thrive in fast flowing streams. As the wa-
cies. By pollinating flowers, insects prove helpful to ter of the fast-flowing streams runs over pebbles and
plants and man. rocks, it acquires more dissolved oxygen than would
have been obtainable from slow-flowing water. Organ-
6 Dispersal of fruits and seeds isms that live in fast-flowing water, however, have to
Bats, rats, birds, goat, sheep, cattle and other animals be strong swimmers, in order to move against the di-
help to disperse fruits and seeds. The methods by rection of water flow, when necessary. Some organisms
which this is done are many, but dispersal generally live only in slow-flowing or stagnant water. Such or-
helps to spread the plant species concerned and to pre- ganisms usually have only moderate powers of move-
vent overcrowding around the parent plant. ment.
The speed of flow of water in a stream is deter-
7 Parasites mined by measuring the time it takes a light object,
A parasitic organism gains from its relationship with such as a cork, to be carried by the water, from one fixed
its host, but makes the host suffer harm in one way or point to another along the stream.
another. Some parasites ultimately kill their hosts while
many hosts suffer, at least, a reduction in growth and
an impairment of health.
Activity 7.10 Measuring the speed
8 Support of flow of water in a
One of the ways in which some organisms influence stream
others is through physical support. Bigger plants sup-
port certain kinds of smaller ones, such as epiphytes Materials required
and climbing plants. By so doing, the epiphytes or A piece of cork, two poles, stopwatch.
climbers are helped to obtain light which they may not
have had otherwise. Procedure
1 Fix two poles, 20 metres apart along the bank of a
9 Cover stream.
Plants are useful to animals which live on or around 2 Drop the cork into the water.
them. Apart from providing food for such animals, the 3 Start the stopwatch exactly when the cork reaches
vegetation provides protective cover as well as resting the first pole and stop it exactly when the cork
and nesting sites for the animals. reaches the second pole. Repeat the activity three
times and find the average time it has taken the
cork to be carried from one pole to the other. The
Ecological factors in aquatic habi- speed of flow of the water is obtained by dividing
the distance (20 m) by the average time.
tats
Ecological factors which are peculiar to aquatic habitats
3 Turbidity
include salinity, speed of flow, turbidity, depth of water
Turbid water allows less light to pass through it than
and nature of the bottom and pH.
does clear water. Plants can, therefore, live at a greater
depth in clear water than in turbid water.
1 Salinity
The turbidity of water can be determined by put-
The degree of salinity is one of the factors which deter-
ting down into the water a white object, known as a
mine the species that will occur in an aquatic habitat. A
Secchi disc, and measuring the depth at which the disc
freshwater organism cannot live in saltwater and vice
just fails to be seen. The Secchi disc is attached to a me-
versa. Those organisms that live in brackish water do
tre rule or graduated pole to facilitate the reading.
not normally live in seawater or freshwater. Salinity of
water is measured in parts per thousand. If 1000 g of
4 Depth of water
the water is evaporated and 5 g of salt recovered, then
Sunlight can penetrate down to the bottom of shal-

119
low body water in a stream or pond. Green plants can,
therefore, grow throughout the depth of the water, to- Population studies
gether with animals that feed on them.
Sunlight also helps to keep the water warm. In In ecology, the word population does not refer only
deep water, only the surface layers receive sunlight and to human beings. A population is defined as a group
green plants are restricted to these. Again, oxygen dis- of living things of the same species which inhabit the
solves in the water only at the surface, where the water same defined area or locality. Thus, it is possible to have
is in contact with the atmosphere. The concentration of a population of weevils, palm trees or human beings.
oxygen in the water, therefore, decreases from the sur- In a green ecosystem, there may be many popula-
face to the deeper layers. There is little oxygen in very tions making up a community. In a freshwater stream,
deep layers of the oceans. As depth increases, the pres- one may find populations of diatoms, tilapia, water lil-
sure also increases. Organisms that live in deep water ies, dragon flies and water batsmen.
must be able to withstand this pressure. The total number of individuals of a population
per unit in a defined area is known as the population
5 Nature of bottom number or population size. The number of individuals
The bottom of a river or stream or sea may be rocky, of a population per unit area or volume is known as the
muddy or rich in organic matter. Each type of bottom population density.
attracts certain animals. Animals that dig holes prefer a
sandy or muddy bottom while those that need to attach Hence population density = population size
themselves prefer a rocky bottom. Area
a or volume of habitat

6 pH
Organisms are affected by the pH of their habitats. Changes in population size
In aquatic habitats, the pH depends on the kinds and The number of individuals in a population changes
amounts of dissolved substances in the water. Carbon- and is affected by various factors, such as the weather,
ates neutralise acidic substances present, so that the pH availability of food, disease, rates of reproduction and
assumes a neutrality value of approximately 7.0. If ba- death, emigration and immigration.
sic ions are in excess, the water is alkaline and the pH The size of population of mosquitoes changes
is higher than 7.0. If, however, acidic ions are in excess, with the weather. In the rainy season, the numbers in-
the water is acidic and the pH value is less than 7.0. crease, owing to the abundance of reproductive sites. In
The pH of seawater tends to be alkaline, with values the dry season, the number is reduced. A population of
of 8.0 to 8.5 in surface waters. Aquatic organisms usu- maize weevils increases in size when there is abundant
ally tolerate small pH variations that occur naturally in food. If the food eventually runs out, the weevils die,
the habitat. If, however, through the addition of large unless they succeed in finding an alternative source of
amounts of waste substances (such as effluents from food.
factories) there occurs a significant change in the pH of Reproduction is the means by which a population
the habitat, the usual plant and animal inhabitants of increases in number. The rate of reproduction, there-
the water may migrate or die out, while new and toler- fore, strongly influences the rate of increases of the
ant organisms take over the habitat. For instance, fresh population.
water molluscs tend to be absent in acidic waters with In an ecosystem, however, the populations of dif-
a pH value of less than 6.0. ferent species eventually achieve a kind of stability and
the population numbers of the different species remain
more or less constant. Consider this food chain.
Ecological factors common to both
aquatic and terrestrial habitats Carpet grass → grasshoppers → toad → snake → hawk
The ecological factors which are common to both
aquatic and terrestrial habitats include: If the number of grasshoppers suddenly increases, they
1 climatic factors namely rainfall, temperature, sun- will very likely consume more grass than usual and may
shine, relative humidity, wind and pressure; soon run short of food. Some grasshoppers may die of
2 topographic factors such as slope, exposure and hunger. Again, if grasshoppers increase in number, the
elevation; toads which feed on them may also increase in number
3 pH; and and help to reduce the number of grasshoppers. Either
4 biotic factors (influence of other living things). way, the population of grasshoppers tends towards a
number at which a balance is maintained with either
populations in the food chain or community.

120
Suppose all the toads in the ecosystem should die. 4 Find the average number of crotalaria plants per
The population of snakes would face a shortage of food square metre.
and some of the snakes would die. Factors which tend 5 Determine the area of the whole plot of farmland.
to keep populations more or less constant are said to 6 Using the area of the plot, calculate the population
regulate the populations. size of crotalaria plants in the entire plot.
7 What does the average you calculated in 4 above
represent?
Determination of population size
The proper technique to be adopted for determination
of the population size depends on the species and habi-
b) Volume sample method: The number of mosquito
tat.
larvae in stagnant water inside a tin can may be
estimated using this method. This is done by
1 Complete census
counting the number in 1 cm3 of the water. The
If the area covered by the species is small, and the indi-
water should first be stirred, then 1 cm3 taken out
viduals are few in number and large in size, a complete
with a suitable pipette and the number of mosqui-
census may be used. In this case, all the individuals can
to larvae in the 1 cm3 counted. After counting, the
be counted, e.g. palm trees in a palm plantation.
water with the larvae is returned to the can and al-
lowed to mix. The procedure is then repeated sev-
2 Sampling
eral times. The average number of larvae per 1 cm3
If the individuals in the population are small in size,
is determined and used to calculate the total num-
many in number, or covers a large area, it may not be
ber of larvae in the entire volume of water in the
practicable to count them one by one. In such a case,
tin can.
only part of the population is taken and counted. On
c) Transect sample method: The transect method is used
the basis of the part counted, an estimate of the total
to find out what percentage of the total number
population is worked out. The study of the whole pop-
of organisms in an area belong to a particular spe-
ulation by looking closely at certain parts of it is known
cies. A transect is a line that runs through a plot.
as sampling. Each part chosen for study is called a
A rope tied to pegs at each end is a convenient
sample. Three sampling methods are often used.
line. Only those plants which actually touch the
a) Quadrat method: A quadrat is a square wooden or
rope are counted. The number of each kind of spe-
metal frame. The size of the quadrat to be used de-
cies of plant that touches the rope is recorded.
pends on the population to be studied and the size
From a fallow farmland, the figures obtained might
of the individuals. For savannah, a one metre
be as follows:
square (1m2) quadrat is commonly used. For a
population of mosses, a quadrat of size 0.1 m2 may
be suitable. Guinea-grass 20
Ipomea 2
Activity 7.11 Determination of the Commelina 5
number of crotalaria Aspilia 25
plants on a plot of Croatalaria 3
fallow farmland Total 55

Materials required The percentage of each species or population can

1 m2 quadrat, record book. be calculated. In any given habitat, one species
Procedure will often have a larger population size than other
1 Throw the quadrat in a random manner onto a species. Such a species is said to be dominant.
piece of fallow farmland. d) Capture-recapture method: This method is used to
2 Count the number of crotalaria plants inside the estimate the number of mobile animals in a habi-
quadrat frame. Record this number in your note- tat. Such animals include fish, insects and snails.
book.
3 Repeat the throw ten times, counting and recording
the number of crotalaria plants inside the quadrat
each time.

121
Activity 7. 12 Estimating the popu- Communities
lation of moths in an
area Organisms do not generally live apart from one an-
other in nature; they live together. On a grass lawn,
many individuals of the same species of grass or dif-
Procedure
ferent species of grass co-exist, with different species of
1 Use a standard technique to catch the moths on
grasshoppers, butterflies, ants, earthworms and other
one occasion. For instance, use an electric bulb to
animals. All the individuals of one species, living in an
attract the moths to settle on a white sheet of cloth
area, such as the grass lawn, form a population. For in-
at night. (Use a particular fish net, in a particular
stance, in the grass lawn, there might be a population
way to catch the fish in a river or stream, or use a
of carpet grass, a population of swallowtail butterflies
suitable food to attract cockroaches or snails).
and so on. Each species has its population. All the pop-
2 Use an indelible ink to mark all the animals caught
ulations of living things in the grass lawn form a com-
in a readily recognisable part of the body.
munity. A community or biotic community is a group
3 Count the number of animals caught and marked
of organisms living together and interacting with one
in first catch. Let this number be x.
another in an area. The community and the non-living
4 Release all the animals caught and marked in the
things with which it interacts (such as air, soil) form
first catch.
an ecological system or ecosystem. An ecosystem is
5 Allow a period of about two weeks so that the ani-
defined as a natural unit, consisting of living (biotic)
mals caught and marked in the first catch will mix
and non-living (abiotic) components, in which the liv-
thoroughly with the rest of the population.
ing and non-living components interact, and there is
6 Carry out a second catch using the same standard
exchange of material between the living and non-living
technique. This time;
components. An ecosystem may be terrestrial, such as
• Count all the animals in the second catch, let
the grass lawn, or aquatic, such as a pond.
this number be y;
Communities vary in size. Several species of
• Count all the animals in the second catch that
moulds and bacteria on a piece of bread, form a com-
were caught and marked in the first catch, let
munity. This community is small. A strip of forest is
this number be z.
a community. Large biotic communities which corre-
Calculation of population size
spond to vegetation belts or zones are called biomes.
Let the number of animals in the population be N.
Let the number caught and marked in the first catch
be x. Local biomes
Let the number caught in the second catch be y.
Let the number found in the second catch be marked z.
Local biomes in Nigeria can be divided into two kinds,
z x forest and savannah. The most important factors that
Then, =
y N determine the distribution of forest and savannah are
climatic. They are:
yx 1 The mean annual rainfall,
N=
z 2 The length and severity of the dry season,
3 The minimum relative humidity in the driest
3 Dominance months.
The most frequently occurring species in a community The annual rainfall decreases progressively from the
is said to be dominant. For instance, in an abandoned south to the north of Nigeria and the vegetation chang-
farmland, Eupatorium oderata may constitute 70 out of es accordingly.
100 plants in the area. The Eupatorium species is said
to be dominant to the other species. When one species Saltwater swamp forest
outnumbers other species in a community, the most The saltwater swamp forest forms a belt along the coast
commonly occurring species is said to have dominance of Nigeria, from Lagos State across Ondo, Edo, Delta,
over the other species. Rivers, Cross River and Akwa Ibom States.
Two species or more may be co-dominant. In a In this belt, the mean annual rainfall is very heavy;
Savannah biome, grass species are dominant over tree sometimes over 2 000 mm. The mouths of several rivers
species. In a tropical rainforest, tree species are domi- are located here. During the rainy season, the river wa-
nant. ter brings down large amounts of sand and silt which

122
are deposited at the delta. The land is low-lying and The forest vegetation is irregular and broken. The
swampy and there are many creeks and lagoons. Dur- canopy is open in places. Shrub and climbing plants
ing the dry season, the flow of the rivers subsides and form clumps of thick bush. Patches of open water are
seawater brought in by tides makes the water in the es- present even in the dry season. In standing water, float-
tuaries and creeks brackish. Saltwater also floods the ing plant species include water lettuce, Lemma and
alluvial deposits, making them salty. Salvina. At or near the edges of the bodies of water are
Mangrove swamp forests develop on the bare, wa- arums, several species of grass, such as sword grass,
ter-logged salt mud deposits, where few other species ferns and raffia palm. Trees that occur on land near the
grow. The red mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa) is the water include Alstonia and spondiathus.
mangrove species that first colonises bare, shifting mud
banks. The seed of the red mangrove germinates on the
parent plant. The seedling falls into the water and floats
Tropical rain forest
The tropical rain forest occurs where the mean annual
at an angle, with the root pointing downwards. The
rainfall is at least 1250 mm and sometimes up to 2000
movement of the water by wind tide may push the root
mm. The temperature is high, the relative humidity is
of the seedling into the mud. The root does not grow
at least 70%, the rainy season is long, i.e. from 8 to 10
root hairs but numerous rootlets, which absorb water
months, while the dry season is short and not very se-
and mineral salts. The rootlets, in turn, form a mat of
vere.
smaller roolets.
Forest is a form of vegetation dominated by trees
These hold the shifting particles of mud together.
and shrubs which form a more or less continuous over-
As stem grows upwards, it puts out stilt roots. Each
head canopy that does not permit the growth of grasses
stilt root grows downwards to the mud where it pro-
at the ground level. One of the characteristics of tropi-
duces a mass of rootlets. The stilt roots grow bigger as
cal rain forest is its structure. It is possible to identify
the tree grows. All the rootlets help to support the plant
five layers of which the three top layers are trees, the
and to stabilise the soil. As the red mangrove grows,
fourth is the shrub layer while the fifth is the ground
it produces also from the stem, another kind of roots,
vegetation.
known as drop roots. Drop roots do not grow big but
remain thin. They contain air spaces and are used for
Upper tree layer
obtaining air.
The upper tree layer, or storey, consist of the tallest
As new alluvial deposits are formed, the red man-
trees, which are over 40 m tall. These trees, called emer-
grove advances to colonise new ground. The vegetation
gents have straight, slender trunks and do not branch
grows best at the edge of the creeks and waterways. In
till they reach high up on the air. Some emergents are
the areas colonised earlier, the ground level continues
evergreen, others are deciduous, i.e. shed their leaves in
to rise as more and more mud is deposited around the
the dry season. They have small flower and spreading
roots of established plants. In this area, the growth of
crown which do not touch and do not form a continu-
the red mangrove vegetation begins to decline. Further
ous canopy. These include many valuable timber trees,
behind still, in the area that is flooded by the highest
such as mahogany (Khaya sp.), African walnut (Lovoa),
tides only, grows the white mangrove, Avicenia nitida.
African cedar (Guaria), ironwood (Lophira procera),
This plant has breathing roots which project upwards
opepe (Sarocephalus) and iroko (Chlorophora excelsa).
from the ground and are used obtaining oxygen in this
environment where the soil may still be waterlogged.
The middle tree layer
Coconuts and reeds grow on sandy beaches along
The trees in this layer, range from 16 m to 34 m tall.
the sea shores. Animals found in the mangrove swamp
They have small crowns which, in a mature forest,
vegetation include tilapia species, angel-fish, bloody
touch and form a continuous upper canopy.
clam (Arca), oysters, barnacles, mangrove crab, lagoon
crab, hermit crab, mudskipper fish, mosquitoes and
The lower tree layer
birds, e.g. heron.
The shrub layer contains shrubs and also young plants
of the tree layers. Many of the plants in this layer have
Freshwater swamp forest straight, unbranched, thin stems.
The freshwater swamp forest occurs beyond the range
of the tides. The rainfall in this biome is very heavy, The ground vegetation
relative humidity is high and evaporation from river Since little light reaches the forest floor, the ground veg-
is low. Rivers overflow their banks during the rainy etation consists of shade-tolerant species such as gin-
season and flood the land, making the soil marshy and ger, ferns and mosses. Here also are found seedlings of
waterlogged. the tree species. Most of the tree seedlings die. Only a

123
few survive in the spaces created by large trees which One major characteristic of the savannah is the cy-
have died and fallen down, creating openings in the clic change of the vegetation, from the rainy to the dry
forest roof for light to shine through. season. In the rainy season, the vegetation is green and
The forest floor is normally open, having only a luxuriant. Many of the herbs and grasses flower. In the
few plants. The herb layer is densest at the forest edge dry season, the trees shed their leave and the vegeta-
where the plants in this layer can obtain light. tion turn dry and brown.
A characteristic of the tropical forest is the pres- Another major characteristic of the savannah is
ence of many climbing plants. Some of these have the common occurrence of fires in the dry season. The
long, wiry stems which twine round large trees and are fires burn the grass which is dry at this time, leaving
called lianas. At different heights, epiphytes may be behind standing clumps of burnt grass stems and black
found growing on the trees, depending on their light ash on the ground. Several of the trees are adapted to
requirements. These include orchids and ferns. Many fire by possessing thick, fire- resistant barks. They also
of the animals of the tropical rain forest are arboreal. produce new sucker growths soon after each fire. Many
These include monkeys, squirrels, lizards, birds, frogs of the trees have crooked trunks as a result of their ex-
and insects. posure to fire. The grasses also have remarkable powers
of producing new suckers from the bases of old shoots,
soon after fires.
Southern Guinea Savannah The savannah tree species include Daniellia oliveri,
Savannah is grassland vegetation in tropical and sub-
Hypmemocardia acida, Vitex doniana and Afzelia africana.
tropical areas. It contains scattered trees and shrubs.
Others are Butyrospermam (shea butter tree) and Parkia
In the southern Guinea savannah biome, the mean
(locust beans). The grass species include Andropogon,
annual rainfall is above 500 mm, but less than 1250 mm.
Hyarrenia and Pennisetum.
the dry season is shorter and less intense than in the
Many animals are found in this biome and they in-
Northern Guinea savannah and there are not more than
clude guinea fowls, deer, rats, grass cutters and snakes.
six months in the year with less than 25 mm of rainfall.
Termites are also plentiful.
The lowest monthly relative humidity is above 28%.
The vegetation is an open savannah woodland
type, with tall grass up to 3 m high. The trees have short Northern Guinea Savannah
boles, with broad leaves. They are usually up to 17 m In this vegetation zone, the mean annual rainfall is
but rarely up to 30 m high. above 600 mm, as in the Southern Guinea Savannah,
but the dry season is longer. The vegetation is dominat-
ed by grass. There are also scattered trees and shrubs.
The tree species are also shorter and thornier, while the
number of tree species is fewer than in the Southern
Guinea Savannah zone. A common tree species of the
zone is Isoberlina doka; others include Uapaca somon and
Monotes kerstingii. The grasses in this zone are shorter
than those in the Southern Guinea zone. The vegetation
of the Northern Guinea savannah resembles that of East
and Central Africa known as miombo. The Northern
Guinea savannah zone is very thickly populated and
has been so for several centuries. The natural North-
ern Guinea savannah has, therefore, been disturbed by
long periods of habitation, cultivation and grazing and
may now be seen only far away from villages.

Sahel savannah
Sahel savannah extends across West Africa from Sen-
egal in the west to Chad in the east, and from the Sa-
hara in northern to the Northern Guinea savannah belt
in the south. In Nigeria, it occurs only at the north east
corner, in Borno State, near Lake Chad.
Rainfall is very variable in this zone. The mean an-
Fig 7.8 Profile of a tropical rain forest nual rainfall in Maiduguri is 629 mm, but rainfall some-

124
times fails in the Sahel, resulting in drought. The zone wolves and polar bears. Birds migrate into this area in
is arid. summer. Mosquitoes and black flies are plentiful.
The typical vegetation is an open thorn savan-
nah, with trees up to 10 m tall, having small leaves
and thorns. The grasses are short and sparse. Common
plant species include Acacia, gum Arabic, Leptadenia
and date palms. A common grass in this region is Aris-
tida stipioides.

World biomes
Several tropical biomes have already been described as
local Nigerian biomes. Temperate biomes differ from
tropical biomes in two important respects:
1 In tropical biomes, the most important ecological
factor is the rainfall, while in temperate biomes
it is the temperature.
2 In tropical biomes, there are two seasons, wet and
dry, while in temperate biomes there are four
seasons with marked temperature differences,
namely spring, summer, autumn and winter.
Some world biomes are described in the following
section.
Fig. 7.10 Temperate forest

Temperate deciduous forest

Temperate deciduous forest occurs in temperate re-
gions of Europe, Asia and North America, especially in
eastern USA. Most of the areas formerly occupied by
this vegetation have been altered by urbanisation and
agriculture.
The trees are broad- leaved and include the maple,
beech, oak, hickory, poplar, walnut and others. They
shed their leaves in autumn and grow new leaves in
spring. There are also many herbs and shrubs.
Animals of this zone include the black bear, deer,
red fox, racoon and various rodents. Many birds, rep-
tiles and insects are also present.
Fig. 7.9 Tundra in the summer

Tundra
The tundra occurs in the northernmost parts of the
North America and Euroasia, extending to the North
Pole. The tundra region is intensely cold and the
ground is almost permanently frozen and covered with
ice. The summer is short summer; the top layer of the
ground thaws a depth of a few centimetres.
Lichens form the principal plant cover. One of
these, called the reindeer moss, is a major producer in
the food webs. The growing season is short and lim-
ited to the short summer. Tundra animals include the
caribou (or reindeer), lemmings, shrews, arctic foxes, Fig. 7.11 Desert vegetation

125
Desert Procedure
Deserts occur between latitudes 150and 300 north and 1. Observe the different charts and photographs of
south of the equator. In most cases, they are found on different world biomes.
the western side of land masses, except the Sahara des- 2. Identify the characteristic features of each biome.
ert, which extends right across Africa. Other deserts 3. Make a list of the major characteristics of each
include the Arabian (covering parts of Iraq and Syria), biome.
Negev (between Israel and Egypt), and Australian, Na-
mibian (covering parts of South- west Africa), Atacama Scrub land
(in parts of Peru and Chile) and Californian deserts. Scrub land or thorn forest is a kind of forest vegeta-
The mean annual rainfall in desert vegetation is tion consisting chiefly of shrubs and stunted trees. The
less than 25 mm. Daily temperature fluctuation is great, shrubs have thorny leaves and other xerophytic fea-
varying from near 00C at night to over 300C by day. tures.
There is more evaporation of water from the soil. This type of vegetation is found in the temper-
The dry conditions permit only few adapted spe- ate zone such as Meditteranean areas, and parts of
cies of plant to thrive. The annuals flower during the the coast of California in the United states of America.
short, rainy period, produce seeds and then die. Succu- Tropical scrubland occurs in Brazil, South America.
lent plants store water which enables them to survive. The climatic conditions that produce this veg-
Woody species have tiny, reduced leaves, thorns etation include short rainy season and low unpredict-
in the place of leaves, as well as other devices to reduce able rainfall. Animals that can be found in this biome
transpiration. In some plants, the branches are green include birds, snakes, insects (e.g. butterflies, ants, lo-
and carry out photosynthesis, while the leaves may be custs) and bats.
smaller or scaly. Common desert plants include the cac-
tus and acacia. Date palms occur around oases.
Desert animals are especially adapted for the con- Summary
servation of water. They tend to excrete solid urea in-
stead of urine. The camel has feet adapted for walking This chapter has taught the following:
on loose sand. • Concepts which are used in ecology include bio-
sphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
Afro – alpine vegetation habitat, niche, ecosystem, population, community,
Afro- alpine vegetation occurs on highlands and moun- biome.
tains in Africa and is brought about by altitude and • Ecological factors in an ecosystem affect the lives
rainfall. The vegetation changes as one ascends the of organisms and their distribution and survival.
mountain. On the Kenyan highlands, the variation of • All individuals of the same species in an ecosys-
vegetation is as follows: tem make up a population.
600 m to 1600 m – savannah • All populations in an area of nature make up a com-
1600 m to 2000 m – temperate forest munity.
2000 m to 3000 m – bamboo forest • Communities and ecosystems are of different siz-
Above 3000 m – Alpine pasture es. The largest size of community, equivalent to a
In West Africa, there are a few highlands with full vegetation belt is a biome.
mountain vegetation. On the highlands of Guinea and • There are local and world biomes.
mountains of Fernando Po and Cameroun, rain forest
on the lower slopes changes to mist forest between 900
and 1800 m. Above 1800 m, there is temperate forest Revision questions
and beyond the temperate forest, there is grass.
1 All the parts of the earth where living things occur
make up the ____________.
Activity 7.13 Observing charts and A ecosystem
B habitat
photographs of differ- C biosphere
ent world biomes D community
E biome
Materials required 2 Which one of these habitat factors is common to
Charts and photographs of different world biomes aquatic and terrestial habitats?
A Speed of flow of water

126
B Tide
C Currents
D Biotic factors
E Salinity
3 Population size is affected by the following: ______
__________________.
A availability of nutrients
B disease
C rate of reproduction
D immigration
E all of the above
4 A community whose size is up to that of a vegeta-
tion belt is _________________.
A a biome
B a community
C an ecosystem
D a habitat
E none of the above
5 Describe the influence of two named habitat fac-
tors on lives and distributions of organisms.
6 Describe one sample method for determining the
population size of a named organism in a habitat.
7 Describe the characteristics of the tropical rain for-
est.
8 Describe the adaptations of plants for life in the
savannah.

127
Chapter 8 Functioning ecosystem

Introduction Decomposers are organisms which feed on the carcass-

es of dead producers and consumers and in the process
bring about the decay of such carcasses. Large decom-
In freshwater, one may find green plants, such as spi- posers, such as insects, are called macro decomposers,
rogyra and animals such as fishes and tadpoles. These whereas small decomposers, such as certain bacteria
living things in the water interact with the non-living and fungi, are known as micro decomposers. The im-
environment which includes the water itself, the atmo- portance of decomposers is that they break down dead
sphere above and the soil beneath it. The living things organic matter and release simple chemical compounds
in an environment, together with the non- living part which plants can absorb and use again.
of the environment, constitute an ecological system or
ecosystem. The living part interacts with the non-living Products of decomposition
part of an ecosystem and there is an exchange of mate- During decomposition, dead organic matter is bro-
rials between them. For instance, a fish absorbs oxygen ken down physically and chemically, in stages. The
dissolved in the water through its gills and gives out ultimate decomposition products are inorganic com-
carbon dioxide into the water. pounds, such as carbon dioxide, ammonia and ammo-
nium compounds, as well as salts of elements present
in the organic matter. Gaseous products, such as car-
bon dioxide, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide can be
Components of an ecosystem: identified as organic matter decomposes. Intermediate
autotrophs and heterotrophs products of decomposition include sugars, and com-
plex organic compounds derived from protein.

There are two major parts of an ecosystem, the biotic or

living and abiotic or non- living. ecosystem
From a functional point of view, the living things
in an ecosystem may be classified into three kinds,
known as producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers are green plants which can make their own
food through the process of photosynthesis. These abiotic biotic
component component
plants are autotrophic or self-feeding. Consumers are
animals which feed on plants or on other animals. They
are said to be heterotrophic.
Consumers are subdivided as follows:
1 Primary consumers are animals which feed
directly on plants; e.g. grasshoppers, rats. producers consumers decomposers
2 Secondary consumers are animals that feed on pri-
mary consumers, e.g. cats.
3 Tertiary consumers are animals that feed on sec- Fig. 8.1 Schematic representation of components of an
ondary consumers, e.g. hawks, leopards. ecosystem
4 Omnivores are animals that feed on both plants
and animals, e.g. man, domestic fowl.

128
Activity 8.1 To show that carbon Procedure
1 Place moist humus in a dry vacuum flask, A. Cover
dioxide is released the mouth with cotton wool and insert a thermom-
during decomposition eter.
2 Cover the mouth of a similar vacuum flask B, with
Materials required cotton wool and insert a thermometer. This is the
Two test tubes; delivery tube, decaying humus, lime control.
water 3 Leave the flasks for three hour. Read the thermom-
eter. Record your observation in your notebook.
Procedure
1
2
Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 8.2.
Set up a control experiment with no humus in test
Food chains
tube A.
3 Leave to stand for three hours. On land that has been left fallow, there are various
4 Observe the lime water in test tube B in the experi- plants and animals, all of which find their food for sur-
ment and in the control. vival there. The grasshopper feeds on plants, such as
5 What inference can you make? guinea grass. A toad eats the grasshopper. A snake eats
the toad and a hawk eats the snake. The guinea grass,
grasshopper, toad and hawk thus form a relationship,
in which one eats the other in turn. A linear feeding re-
delivery tube
lationship among organisms in the same community, in
which each organism feeds on the one before it in the
sequence, is called a food chain. The chain described
above can be represented as follows:

Guinea grass → grasshopper → toad → snake → hawk

In a freshwater stream, a paramecium may eat a dia-

tom, a water flea may eat the paramecium, a small fish
may eat the water flea and a big fish may eat the small
fish. This food chain can be represented as follows:
delivery tube
Diatom → paramecium → water flea → small fish
→ big fish

Each of the two food chains described above starts

lime water with a green plant, the producer. This is nearly always
the case. However, some food chains begin with dead
plants or animals. An example is as follows:
decaying humus
Humus → earth worm → domestic fowl → man

Fig.8.2 Release of carbon dioxide by decaying humus Food web

A food chain is a single line relationship and gives the
impression that one organism feeds on only one other
Activity 8.2 To show that heat is and may itself only be eaten by one other. For instance,
released during decom- our first example may suggest that only the grasshop-
per eats guinea- grass, and only the toad eats grasshop-
position pers. In fact, the guinea-grass may be eaten by any of
several insects or other animals. A grasshopper may be
Materials required eaten by a toad, an agama lizard, a chicken or a chame-
Two vacuum flasks, moist humus, and thermometer. leon. A toad may be eaten by a snake or a hawk, while

129
a snake may be eaten by a hawk or some other animal. fish is greater than that of the big fish which eat them.
In nature, therefore, there are more complex feeding The relationship among the numbers of individuals at
relationships than food chains show. A complex feed- various trophic levels in a food chain can be represent-
ing relationship consisting of interrelated food chains ed diagrammatically, as in Fig. 8.4.
is called a food web. The diagram which represents the decreasing number
hawks of individuals from one trophic level to another in a
food chain is called a pyramid of numbers.

hawks
snakes

snakes
toads
lizards field mice
lizards

worms grasshoppers
insects

green plants
(humus)

guinea
grass Fig.8.4 A pyramid of numbers

Fig.8.3 A food web

Energy-flow in an ecosystem
Trophic level
In a food chain or web, each stage in the chain or web is
Organisms require energy for such vital activities as
called a trophic (feeding) level. In the food chain:
movement, growth, irritability and reproduction.
They obtain this energy from the food they eat.
guinea grass → grasshopper → toad → snake → hawk
Human beings obtain energy from the carbohydrates,
lipids and protein that are present in the various kinds
there are five trophic levels.
of food they eat. How does such food, e.g. rice, obtain
Guinea grass is the first trophic level, grasshopper the
its energy?
second, toad the third, snake the fourth and hawk the
As we saw, green plants use the radiant energy of
fifth trophic level. Some food chains are short, having
the sun for the manufacture of sugar in a process known
only a few trophic levels, e.g.
as photosynthesis. The radiant of sunlight is built into
maize→ goat → man stored energy in the molecules of carbohydrates. Start-
ing with simple carbohydrates, the plant makes more
complex food substances, such as lipids and proteins.
Pyramid of numbers
One of the relationships observed in a food chain or
web is that of the relative numbers of individuals at the Primary production
different trophic levels. Normally, the number of indi- Photosynthesis is the process by which radiant energy
viduals decreases progressively from the first to the last from sunlight is built into the molecules of sugar. The
trophic level. Look at this food chain: energy thus built into plants during photosynthesis is
the source of energy for consumers and decomposers.
diatom → paramecium → water flea → small fish → big fish
The conversion of the radiant energy of sunlight into
The number of diatom eaten by paramecia is
energy in carbohydrates is known as primary produc-
greater than the number of paramecia, while the num-
tion.
ber of paramecia eaten by water fleas is greater than the
number of water fleas. Similarly, the number of small

130
The rate at which radiant energy is converted into energy, which is lost to the environment. The chemical
energy in carbohydrates, through photosynthesis, is energy in the organic molecules of the producer is the
called the rate of primary productivity. This rate can energy for the primary consumer.
be determined in different ways, such as by:
1 Measuring the amount of plant material produced
in a given time;
Energy loss in ecosystem
A very large amount of radiant energy is given out by
2 Measuring the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed
the sun. In the upper layers of the atmosphere, about
in a given time,
half of the radiant energy is absorbed by the clouds and
3 Measuring the amount of oxygen evolved in a giv-
ozone layer. Of the radiant energy that reaches the bio-
en time;
sphere, only a small part, estimated at about two per
4 Measuring the amount of chlorophyll present to
cent, is reflected, transmitted or radiated and much of
carry out photosynthesis.
this is converted into heat energy. Part of the heat en-
Of these methods, the simplest is the first, i.e. measur-
ergy also causes the water on the earth or in the soil to
ing the amount of plant material formed. This is done
vaporise. This water vapour later condenses and falls
by harvesting plant material in a unit area, e.g. one
as rain.
square meter (1m2) of an ecosystem. The fresh weight
Of the radiant energy actually absorbed by green
of the plant material is obtained. The plant material is
leaves, only a part is used in photosynthesis and con-
then dried in a suitable oven at a temperature of about
verted into chemical energy in sugar molecules, while
1100C, cooled and weighed several times until a con-
part is lost as heat energy to the environment.
stant weight is recorded. Finally, the dry plant material
The plant then uses some of the energy it has built
is burnt in a calorimeter and the amount of energy in
into carbohydrates and other molecules for its own life
the plant material is determined in kilojoules.
activities and loses some as heat to its surroundings,
through conduction, convention and radiation.
Net production When a primary consumer eats a part of the body
The amount of vegetation found in one square metre of of a producer, the material eaten contains chemical en-
an ecosystem does not represent the total production. ergy in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and other mole-
After a plant has converted radiant energy into energy cules. The primary consumer digests and absorbs some
in carbohydrates and other molecules in its body, the of the food, discarding the rest as solid or liquid waste.
plant itself uses up some of this energy for its own vi- It uses the absorbed food to build its own body mate-
tal activities, such as the synthesis of body materials as rial and some of it for respiration, but not all absorbed
well as growth. Only what is left of this energy remains molecules may be fully utilised. Some of the energy
in the standing plant is described as the net production. produced through respiration is used by the primary
When primary production is determined by harvesting consumer to keep itself warm, while some is lost to the
the vegetation, drying it and burning it in a calorimeter, environment as heat. The same thing happens between
it is in fact the net production that is determined. the primary and secondary consumers. In all, there are
many ways in which energy is lost, form one trophic
level to another, resulting in a progressive diminution
Energy transformations in na- of the energy content in a food web or chain. It is es-
ture timated that only about ten percent, on the average,
of the energy in one trophic level, is transferred to the
next.
As energy flows in ecosystems, it is transformed from
one form into another. In the process of photosynthesis,
the radiant energy of the sun is converted into chemi-
Laws of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can-
cal energy stored in the sugar molecule. From the sugar
not be created or destroyed but can be converted from
molecules, the plant makes lipids, proteins and other
one form to another.
body materials containing chemical energy. The plant
The second law of thermodynamics states that
needs energy for the absorption of mineral salts, as well
when energy is converted from one form to another, a
as for movement, synthesis, growth, reproduction and
fraction of it is converted to heat.
other vital processes. It obtains this energy through
These can be applied to ecological phenomena as
respiration, during which some molecules of carbo-
follows:
hydrates, lipids or proteins are broken down and the
In an ecosystem, there are producers, different or-
chemical energy in them released. Part of this energy
ders of consumers and decomposers. The feeding re-
is used by the plant and part converted into chemical

131
lationship between these organisms in the ecosystem Only about ten per cent of the total energy in a tro-
has led to the formation of food chains, food webs and phic level is transferred to the next trophic level. This
ecological pyramids. The producers use light energy shows that energy transfer is not efficient as part of the
from the sun to make food in photosynthesis. During energy is lost as heat.
the process the light energy is converted to chemical However, if all the energy involved in an energy
energy (another form of energy) which is stored in the transfer is put together, it would be seen that there is no
carbohydrate in plants, as potential energy. net gain or loss of energy; this therefore supports the
When the primary consumer eats the plants, only first law of thermodynamics.
a fraction of this energy is transferred to this trophic
level. Part of the energy is released as heat in the body
of the primary consumer. When a secondary consumer
Pyramid of energy
The amount of energy present in the living organism at
feeds on the primary consumer, the energy is trans-
the different trophic levels of a food chain can be repre-
ferred to this third trophic level. However, like in the
sented in what is called the pyramid of energy.
first case, only a portion of the energy gets to the sec-
In this pyramid, the energy contained in the pro-
ondary consumer as part of it has been lost as heat to
ducers is always more than that in the primary consum-
keep the animal warm. At every point of energy trans-
ers, which is more than that in the secondary consum-
fer in either a food chain, food web or ecological pyra-
ers, and so on. The ratio of the energy in one trophic
mid, only a fraction of the energy is transferred to the
level to that in the preceding one is about 1:10.
next trophic level, part of it is lost as heat. (This sup-
There are significant differences between the pyra-
ports the second law of thermodynamics).
mid of energy and the pyramid of numbers. In the pyr-
amid of numbers, only the number is counted. The size
of the individuals is not reckoned with. For instance,
plankton is counted as one unit, and the whale, which
SUN feeds on plankton, also as one unit, regardless of the
difference in their sizes. A pyramid of energy is based
on a common unit, i.e. the unit of energy (joule).
Again, the shape of the pyramid of numbers is not
constant. It depends on what an organism feeds on. If
one grasshopper feeds on two large grasses, the ratio
heat heat of number is 2:1. If the same grasshopper feeds on five
small grasses, the ratio of the number of producers to
the number of primary consumers is 5:1. If a hundred
producer
grasshoppers feed on one large tree, the ratio of the
number of producers to the number of primary con-
sumers is 1:100. (This is an example of what is referred
heat heat to as an inverted pyramid of numbers). The shape of
the pyramid of numbers will thus be inverted. The pyr-
primary consumer amid of energy cannot be inverted.

Nutrient cycling in nature

heat heat Through feeding and other relationships between or-
secondary consumer
ganisms and their environments, it is possible for a
single atom to pass from the environment into a plant,
then through several animals and back into the envi-
ronment. A nitrogen atom, for instance, may be a part
heat heat of nitrate molecule in the soil. This molecule may be ab-
tertiary consumer sorbed by a plant, where it may become part of a plant,
protein molecule. If the plant is eaten by a guinea-pig,
the nitrogen atom may become part of a protein mol-
ecule in the guinea-pig. If the guinea-pig is then eaten
Fig.8.5 Energy flow diagram
by man, the same nitrogen atom becomes part of man.
If the man excretes urea in his urine, this nitrogen atom

132
may pass out, as part of urea, into the environment, and gen compounds, within themselves or in the soil.
may be absorbed again by a plant. 4 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in root nod-
The movement of atoms of nutrient elements from ules of leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitro-
environment into various organisms and back into the gen into various nitrogen compounds in the root
environment is known as nutrient cycling. The path nodules.
along which the atoms of the elements pass is called a 5 Plants absorb the nitrates in the soils, through
cycle. There are many such cycles. In fact, each element their roots. In the plants, the nitrogen in the ni-
has its own cycle. However, the nitrogen, carbon and trates is used to synthesise protein and proto-
water cycles will now be considered in detail. plasm.
6 The nitrogen in plant proteins and protoplasm
passes into animals which feed on the plants. The
Nitrogen cycle nitrogen is built into the protein and protoplasm of
The nitrogen cycle is the pathway along which nitro-
the animals.
gen moves through living and non-living components
7 When the plants and animals die and decay, the
of the ecosystem, so that the same atoms of nitrogen are
nitrogen compounds in their proteins and proto-
used over and over again.
plasm are converted by bacteria into ammonium
Below are the different ways in which the nitrogen
compounds. The ammonium compounds are con-
atoms may be recycled in nature.
verted, first by bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas,
1 The atmosphere is a large reservoir of nitrogen,
into nitrites, then by those of the genus Nitrobac
which forms about 78% of air by volume. The ni-
ter into nitrates. These nitrates can again be
trogen of the air may become part of a plant, an ani-
absorbed by plants.
mal, or of soil, as will be seen presently.
8 Nitrates in the soil can be converted directly into
2 When there is lightning, the electrical discharge
atmospheric nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria.
in the air brings about the production of oxides of
Thus, atoms of atmospheric nitrogen can pass into
nitrogen. These oxides of nitrogen dissolve in rain
plants, animal, soil and back to the atmosphere.
water as it falls through the air, forming dilute
In this cycle, the same atom may have been part
nitric acid. On reaching the soil, the nitric acid
of free atmospheric nitrogen, then a part of a plant
forms nitrates of various metallic elements.
protein, an animal protein, and a nitrate in the soil
3 Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil con-
or part of a bacterium.
vert the atmospheric nitrogen into various nitro-

NITROGEN
IN AIR
symbiotic nitrogen
fixing bacteria in
root nodules of
leguminous plants

electrical NITROGEN IN
discarges PLANTS (protein)
death feeding
denitrifying in air during
bacteria thunderstorms
ORGANIC NITROGEN IN
REMAINS PLANTS (proteins)
absorptior AMMONIA
AND excretion
decay
AMMONIA
COMPOUNDS

certain nitrifying bacteria free-living

other e.g nitrosomonas nitrogen
INTRATES nitrifying bacteria in soil
STREAMS, erosion IN SOIL NITRITES (nitrogen
bacteria
RIVERS, SEA fixation)
e.g. nitrobacter
leaching

UNDERGROUND WATER

Fig.8.6 Nitrogen cycle in nature

133
Carbon cycle drates, lipids and proteins and use these to make
Carbon dioxide forms about 0.03% of the atmosphere compounds in their own bodies. The carbon ori-
by volume. The proportion of the air that is carbon di- ginally present in atmospheric carbon dioxide thus
oxide remains more or less constant because certain passes into animals through plants.
processes in nature use up carbon dioxide while others 3 When plants and animals respire, they give out
produce it. These are shown in Fig. 8.6. carbon dioxide. The carbon in carbon compounds
Carbon atoms may be recycled in nature as follows: of plants and animals, such as carbohydrates, lip-
1 Green plant, in sunlight, absorbs atmospheric car- ids and proteins, is thus returned to the atmo-
bon dioxide and uses it to take sugar by the pro- sphere in the form of carbon dioxide.
cess of photosynthesis. Starting with sugar, plants 4 When plants and animals decay, some carbon
can make other compounds in their bodies, such compounds in their bodies break down and give
as proteins, lipids or complex carbohydrates. The off carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
carbon in atmospheric carbon dioxide thus be- 5 The burning of plant material (such as wood) and
comes part of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and animal materials converts the carbon compounds
other compounds in plants. in them to carbon dioxide.
2 When animals feed on plants, they take in the car- 6 Dead plant and animal material may be subjected
bon compounds of the plants including carbohy- to heat and pressure over a long time, to form coal.
When coal burns, carbon dioxide is produced.

carbondioxide
in the
atmosphere
photosynthesis

combustion
(domestic cooking, respiration
internal combustion
engines)

respiration
carbon
decay, compounds
burning in plants
wood

feeding

carbon
carbon compounds compounds
in fossil fuels in animals
(e.g. coal, gas,
petroleum)
heat death death
carbon
pressure compounds
in dead
organic matter

Fig.8.7 Carbon cycle in nature

134
Activity 8.3 To show that carbon
gas given
dioxide is absorbed off by the
plant
and oxygen released inverted
test tube
during photosynthesis
Materials required water
Three beakers, test tube, funnels, water plants. saturated
with CO
²
Procedure sunlight
beaker
1 Set up three sets of apparatus, as shown in Fig. 8.8.
Distilled water is put in A. B and C are then filled
with water saturated with carbon dioxide.
2 Place C in a dark cupboard and A and B in bright elodea
sunlight, until some gas has collected in one of the
test tubes. plasticine
funnel
3 Test the gas in the test tube with a glowing splint, support
to find out if it is oxygen. for funnel

Fig.8.8 To show that carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen

released during photosynthesis

Tabulate your results as shown:

Flask Carbon dioxide Sunlight present Oxygen present

present
A No Yes

B Yes Yes

C Yes No

What do your results say about the requirement for car- water vapour in air
bon dioxide in photosynthesis?
decay
Water cycle ev
condensation, percipitation as rainfall

ap
excretion ora
Water has a cycle in nature. The same water is used over tio
and over again. When rain falls, some of the rain water respiration
n

runs off the ground into streams and rivers. Some of the
rain water sinks into the ground until it reaches rocky
layers through which it cannot flow. Then it moves
decay animals
sideways along the surface of the rocky layer until it
breaks out, as a spring, at a point of low resistance. The respiration
spring may flow into a river and the river into an ocean.
Some of the rain water which has sunk into the transpiration
soil is absorbed by plants. As plants transpire, they
lose water vapour into the atmosphere. Evaporation of
water takes place from all free water surfaces, includ- plants
ing streams, rivers and oceans. The water vapour from
vegetation, streams, rivers, and ocean rises into the at-
water in seas,
mosphere. The higher it rises into the atmosphere, the rivers, lakes,
cooler it becomes, until it condenses into rain drops soil etc.
which fall again as rain.
Fig.8.9 Water cycle

135
Activity 8.4 To show the presence one before it in the line. Interrelated food chains
form a food web.
of water in expired air • The number of individuals in a food chain de-
creases from one trophic level to another. This
Materials required gives rise to a pyramid of numbers.
Dry strips of cobalt chloride paper. • Organisms derive energy from the food they eat.
A food chain is therefore a line along which energy
Procedure flows in an ecosystem.
1 Take two strips of dry cobalt chloride paper. (Co- • Total energy in organisms decreases from one tro-
balt chloride paper is blue when dry and pink phic level to another. This results in a pyramid of
when wet.) energy. Only about 10% of energy is transferred
2 Place one dry strip on a dry table in front of you. from one trophic level to another.
3 Hold the second dry strip in front of your nose and • In an ecosystem, there are transformations of en-
breathe on it. ergy and energy losses.
4 Observe the time it takes for each of the two strips • Laws of thermodynamics apply to an ecosystem.
of dry cobalt chloride paper to turn pink. What
do you infer from this result?
Revision questions
1 An ecosystem consists of ____________.
Activity 8.5 To show that water is A non-living materials
B abiotic and biotic components
given off during tran- C producers and consumers
spiration D producers, consumers and decomposers
E air, water and soil
Materials required 2 Which of the following is least likely to be in-
Strips of dry cobalt chloride paper, glass slides. volved in a food chain or food web?
A Humus
Procedure B Mineral salts in the soil
1 Take a strip of dry cobalt paper, which is blue, C Trophic level
from its container. Place it quickly on the lower D Pyramid of numbers
surface of a leaf attached to a plant (e.g. panax, E Energy flow
hibiscus), growing in the school compound. 3 In the nitrogen cycle, nitrates in the soil can be
2 Quickly cover the dry cobalt chloride paper with a converted into atmospheric nitrogen by ________
glass slide, to protect it from atmospheric mois- _________________.
ture. Also place a glass slide on the upper surface A denitrifying bacteria
of the leaf opposite the glass slide on the lower B nitrosomonas
surface. Hold the two glass slides together firmly. C nitrobacter
3 Does the cobalt chloride paper turn pink? D nitrogen fixing bacteria
4 Explain your results and suggest a control experi- E thunderstorm
ment you might try. 4 The amount of energy transferred from one tro-
phic level to another is about ________ .
A 1%
Summary B 10%
This chapter has taught the following: C 20%
• An ecosystem or ecological system is a natural D 5%
unit consisting of living and non-living things in E 50%
which there is a cyclic interchange of materials 5 Describe one method of measuring primary pro-
between the living and the non-living components ductivity.
e.g. a pond, a forest. 6 a) Distinguish between pyramid of energy and
• All the living things in an ecosystem form a com- pyramid of numbers.
munity. The community is made up of producers, b) Which of them has a consistent shape and
consumers and decomposers. why?
• A food chain is a linear feeding relationship among 7 Discuss energy losses in the biosphere.
organisms in which one organism feeds on the 8 Explain the relevance of the laws of thermodynam-
ics to ecological systems.

136
Chapter 9 Relevance of biology to agriculture

Introduction Classification of plants

Agriculture is the practice of farming, and it involves Scientists study plants. They obtain knowledge which a
the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock. It is farmer may apply to improve production. In chapter 1,
the occupation of the majority of the Nigerian popula- you learnt that classification of plants and animals helps
tion. us to study them. Here we shall learn how plants are
When man first inhabited the earth, he was a classified in botany and in agriculture, in order to study
wanderer, who went from place to place hunting ani- them effectively.
mals, and gathering wild leaves and fruits for food.
With time, man learnt to domesticate animals as well
as to plant and tend crops. This was the beginning of
Botanical classification
In a botanical classification, plants fall broadly into two
agriculture. Farming helped man to live a settled life
groups, the flowering plants and the non-flowering
in communities. Most of the food eaten by man comes
plants. Each of these groups may be sub-divided into
from farms. However, some human food items notably
smaller groups.
fish, crayfish, crabs and some snails, come from oceans,
rivers and other bodies of water.
Today, the demand for food is high since there is Agricultural classification of plants
a continuous increase in the world human population. This is based on:
The implication of this is that there are more and more i) the product obtained from the plant;
people to feed, and less and less land for food produc- ii) the part of the plant that is useful;
tion. As much food as possible should be produced on iii) the economic importance of the plant.
each piece of land. Plants are therefore classified into the following groups:
Science and technology help man to increase the a) root crops
production, preservation and storage of food. For in- b) vegetable crops
stance, tractors, which are products of technology, help c) cereal and grain crops
man to cultivate large areas. Of all branches of science, d) legumes
however, biology is the closest to agriculture. Biological e) fibre crops
knowledge is applied in improving agriculture in many f) oil crops
ways such as in providing adequate nutrients for crops g) latex crops
and livestock, in controlling pests and diseases, in de- h) beverages and stimulants
veloping improved varieties of crops and livestock, in i) fruit crops
controlling pests and diseases, in developing improved j) spices
varieties of crops and livestock, and in food preserva- k) forage crops
tion and storage. l) cash crops
In this chapter, we will study how plants are clas- A crop is any plant that is cultivated by man for its
sified, the effects of agricultural activities on the envi- usefulness.
ronment, pests and diseases of agricultural importance,
ways of improving crop yield, methods of preserving
and storing food, as well as the problem of population
growth and food supply.

137
plant kingdom

thallophyta (simple embryophyta

plants; some have
chlorophyll, others (advanced plants)
do not)

lichens bacteria bryophyta tracheophyta

algae (have
chlorophyll, fungi
i.e. holophytic) (mushrooms, hepaticae musci
moulds) (liverworts) (mosses)

pteridophytes angiospermae
(ferns) (seeds enclosed):
e.g: okro,
maize
gymnospermate
(bears naked
seeds on cones:
e.g: pines,
spruces)

Fig.9.1 Early botanical classification of plants

Root crops dustries or exported to other countries for foreign ex-

These are plants with underground organs modified change, e.g. cotton, sisal and jute for making fabrics,
for storing food. Some of them are annuals while others sacks, paper, and ropes.
are biennials. They include cassava, sweet potato, yam,
and Irish potato. Oil crops
These crops are cultivated for the oils stored in them.
Vegetables crops Such oils are used for making cooking oils, lubricants,
These are cultivated for the roots, stems and leaves varnishes, paints and soap. The oils may be used locally
which are useful either as food or economically. Com- or exported. Examples of oil crops include groundnut,
mon examples include okro, garden egg, pumpkin, wa- oil palm, shea butter and coconut.
ter melon, cabbage, lettuce, amaranthus, carrots, onion
and tomato. Latex crops
These produce a lot of fluid called latex which is im-
Cereal and grain crops
portant as a raw material in making rubber and other
They are cultivated for their seeds. These include rice,
synthetic products, e.g para rubber.
maize, guinea corn and millet.

Legumes Beverages and stimulants

These are cultivated for their fruits and seeds which The vegetative parts, fruits or seeds of these crops serve
are rich in protein. They are cultivated for human con- as raw material for beverages and stimulants e.g. cocoa,
sumption, as fodder crops for feeding livestock and to tea, coffee, kola and tobacco.
enrich the soil with nitrates. Examples include ground-
nuts, soya beans, cowpea and beans. Fruit crops
These are cultivated for their fruits that are edible. They
Fibre crops include oranges and other citrus crops, pawpaw, man-
These are produced for their economically important go, guava, cashew, avocado pears, pineapples, plantain
fibres which may be used as raw materials in local in- and bananas.

138
Spices Activity 9.1 Classifying various
These may have medicinal properties and some are
also used as spices to add flavour to food, e.g. pepper, plants using botanical
thyme, onions, curry leaves and ginger. and agricultural tech-
Forage crops niques
These are pasture and fodder crops on which farm ani-
mals graze. Farm animals derive carbohydrate, protein, Materials required
mineral salt and vitamins from forage crops, e.g. grass- About twelve different specimens of plants collected
es and legumes. from the school garden and compound.

Cash crops Procedure

These are crops cultivated for export to earn foreign Students will work in pairs.
exchange. Local industries may also use them. They 1 Classify each plant specimen using the botanical
include cocoa, oil palm, benniseed, soya beans, cotton, classification (refer to Fig.9.1). Record your results.
kola, rubber and groundnuts. 2 Classify each plant specimen using the agricul-
tural classification. Record your results.
Give one example of a plant which falls into two pos-
Classification based on life cycle sible groups using the agricultural classification.
Plants are classified on the basis of the duration of their
life cycle into annuals, biennials and perennials.
1 Annuals are plants which complete their life cycles
in one growing season within a year, e.g. maize, Effects of agricultural activi-
2
yam, melon, cowpea, tomato.
Biennal plants: In some regions of the world,
ties on ecological systems
there are biennial plants. The biennial plant com-
pletes its life cycle in two growing seasons; it pro- Activities of man have effects on the environment. The
duces vegetative parts such as roots, stems and effects of some agricultural activities on ecological sys-
leaves in the first season and in the second gro- tem are examined below.
owing season, it produces more vegetative parts,
manufactures and stores food, produces flowers
and fruits. Bush clearing
3 Perennials are plants that complete their life cy- Bush clearing has many adverse effects on ecological
cles in many years and live for many years, e.g. systems.
mango, orange, and oil palm. 1 Clearing removes the plant cover over the soil.
2 It exposes the soil to direct sunshine, thus increas-
ing the temperature of the soil.
3 Increasing temperature of the soil speeds up the
Classifications of plants on the basis rate of humus decay.
of size 4 Removal of plant cover over the soil exposes the
Plants are classified on the basis of the size of the full soil to erosion.
grown plant, into herbs, shrubs and trees. 5 Mineral salts in exposed soils are subjected to leach-
1 Herbs are small plants with fleshy stems, e.g. Tali- ing.
num triangulare. 6 Useful soil organisms in exposed soil may be washed
2 Shrubs are medium sized plants with woody away or displaced to other places.
stems e.g. croton, hibiscus plant. 7 Prolonged exposure of soil surface may lead to de-
3 Trees are big plants with woody trunks and sertification in areas of low rainfall.
branches, e.g. silk cotton, iroko, mahogany trees.
Under adverse conditions, a big plant may be medium
sized, and a medium- sized plant may be small.

139
growing
plants
dead twigs
and leaves
topsoil

humus

subsoil

Fig.9.3a) Early stage of gully erosion

rock

Fig.9.2 Soil profile

Bush burning
Bush burning is harmful to the ecological system for
several reasons.
1 Bush burning causes humus on the soil surface to
be burnt, thereby bringing about loss of soil fertil-
ity.
2 Useful organisms in the soil, such as putrefying
bacteria, nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
earth worms and fungi that bring about decay are Fig.9.3b) An erosion site
burnt by bush fires, thus causing loss of fertility.
3 Bush burning makes the soils to be exposed, and
promotes soil erosion. Fertilisers
4 Bush burning may cause useful crops in the area Fertilises are chemical compounds that are artificially
such as oil palm or orange trees to be burnt. prepared for increasing soil fertility. A chemical fertil-
iser is usually described by its nitrogen, phosphorous
and potassium (NPK) content, since these are the es-
Tillage sential elements most often deficient in soil. Excessive
Tillage has good and bad effects on the ecological sys-
use of fertilisers has adverse effects on the ecosystem.
tem. Minimum tillage is good.
1 It may kill useful soil organisms that come into di-
1 It breaks up the soil surface and loosens the soil
rect contact with the fertiliser.
for roots of young plants.
2 If washed into nearby rivers and streams, fertilisers
2 It makes water that rises up by capillarity through
pollute the water, lead to alga bloom, may kill
pores in the soil to accumulate at the tilled surface
aquatic organisms and make the water unfit for
layer, where young planst absorb the water.
human use.
3 It mixes humus into the soil. However, tilling
3 Use of chemical fertilisers over a long time may
increases soil erosion, and removes plant cover
lead to development of poor soil structure.
over the soil.

140
Pesticides farmer cultivates a piece of land for a few years,
These are chemicals used to control plant pests and dis- then, as the yields become low, he abandons the
eases. They may be herbicides for controlling weeds, land completely and moves to another place. This
insecticides for controlling insect pests, mollusicides is possible where human population is small, and
and fungicides for controlling molluscs and fungi re- land is abundant.
spectively which destroy crops and animals. In the bush fallowing system, a farmer culti-
Excessive use of such chemicals has adverse ef- vates a piece of land for a few years and leaves the
fects on the ecosystem as shown below. land to fallow for 6 to 12 years. If the period of
1 Pesticides pollute the atmosphere because most fallow is short (such as two years) essential ele-
of the chemicals are aerosols. ments in the farm become depleted, and harvests
2 Insecticides may kill useful insects such as butter- become poor. Frequent change to new pieces of
flies and bees that pollinate flowers. land implies clearing of vegetation every two
3 Pesticides may pollute the soil, and cause the death years and encouragement of erosion.
of useful soil organisms like earthworms. 4 Nomadic herding
4 Plants including those eaten by man may absorb In this non-settled type of animal husbandry, a
pesticides from the soil and become contaminat- farmer keeps grazing animals only. This happens
ed. in arid areas with low rainfall and small natural
5 Herbicides may kill crops if they are not selective. pasture. The farmer leads his animals to wherever
pasture is available. There is tendency for over-
grazing to occur, which causes erosion.
Effects of different kinds of
farming on the ecological Types of farming with favourable
system effects
The following are methods of farming that have fa-
vourable effects on the ecological system:
There are several kinds of farming, some of which have
adverse effects, and some have favourable effects on 1 Crop rotation
the ecological system. Crop rotation is the practice of cultivating plots of
land every year in such a way that the crops fol-
low in a definite order. For instance, cassava,
Types of farming with adverse ef- maize, yam and legumes follow in definite se-
fects quences. The advantages are that:
The types of farming with adverse effects on the eco- a) The same land is cultivated every year;
logical system include the following: b) The nutrient level of the soil is maintained,
1 Monoculture because different crops absorb essential ele-
Monoculture is the practice of growing the same ments to different extents;
crop on the same piece of land from year to year. c) Nitrogen is added to the soil by legume;
The crop may be an annual, such as yam, or a pe- d) The legume may be ploughed into the soil as
rennial, such as oil palm. The disadvantages are: green manure.
a) The same crop removes the same kind of nu- 2 Mixed cropping
trients, year by year leading to impoverish- In mixed cropping, more than one type of crop is
ment of the soil. cultivated on the same land at the same time. This
b) The soil structure may be destroyed, leading to method, if well planned, makes good use of nutri-
erosion. ents in the soil, for deep-rooted plants can be
c) Plant pests and diseases spread rapidly and planted with shallow-rooted ones. Again pests
easily in a monoculture. and diseases of one crop do not spread very easily
2 Continuous cropping where there are crops of different kinds together.
Continuous cropping means cultivating the same 3 Mixed farming
piece of land from year to year This leads to ex- Mixed farming involves growing crops and keep-
haustion of the essential mineral salts in the soil, ing livestock. Product of the crop may be used to
low productivity and erosion. feed the animals, and the faeces of the animals may
3 Shifting cultivation/bush fallowing be used to manure the farm for the crops.
Shifting cultivation is a kind of farming in which a

141
Activity 9.2 Discussing the effects of man’s activities on ecological
systems
Procedure
Students are organised to work in groups of four or five per group.
1 Each group discusses the effect of one human activity on natural ecosystem in the locality.
2 At the end of the discussion, all groups write respective findings in a tabular form on the board such as shown
below.

Table 9.1 Effects of human activities on natural ecosystems

Human activity Effects on natural ecosystems

1 Bush clearing

2 Bush burning

3 Tilling

4 Cultivation of hill slopes

5 Spraying insecticides on crops

Pests and diseases of agricul-

b) Some eat young stems and terminal buds
causing the plants to have stunted growth, e.g.
tural importance

the variegated grasshopper eats young shoots
of yam.
c) Some pests eat stamens and pistils of flowers
Pests and diseases are important in agriculture because of crop plants, preventing pollination and
they hinder crops and livestock from attaining their op- seed formation, e.g. grasshoppers.
timum yield or production. d) Some pests eat the storage organs of crops, e.g.
yam beetle eats yam tubers, and termites eat
Pests cassava tubers.
e) Some insects tunnel into stems of crops and
Pests are organisms that are troublesome or cause
damages to man, livestock and crops. Types of pests weaken the plants, e.g. bitter leaf beetle.
of crops include mammals (especially rodents), some
birds, insects, nematodes, snails and fungi. 2 Piercing and sucking insects
Some insect pests of crop plants have mouth parts
adapted for piercing and sucking. These include
Insect pests of crops capsids, shield insects, scale insects, aphids, cotton
There are many insect pests which cause many kinds stainer and mealy bug. They cause damage to
of serious damages to standing crops or stored agricul- crops in the following ways:
tural products. a) Some pierce into young stems and suck cell
1 Biting and chewing insects sap. This weakens the plant and reduces both
Some insect pests have biting and chewing mouth the growth and the yield. Sometimes the stem
parts, e.g. locusts, grasshoppers, mantids, termites. or leaf becomes distorted, e.g. mealy bug
Some of the kinds of damage they cause to crops sucks cell sap from cassava.
are described below.
a) Some eat leaves of crop plants and reduce pho-
tosynthetic tissue and hence the yield, e.g.
grasshoppers, locusts, and caterpillars eat
leaves of maize, guinea corn, and yam.

142
Table 9.2 Mammalian pests of crops

Pest Crop affected Effects Control

Bush rat eats groundnuts, destroys the crops clearing vegetation

yam, cassava around the farm,
weeding to remove
hiding places

Grass cutter eats shoots of rice, reduces farmers’ shooting; weeding

tubers of cassava harvest to remove hiding
places

West African eats tubers of yam consumes yam, trapping, shooting

ground squirrel and cassava in cassava crops,
farms causing losses to
farmers

Monkey eats maize in farms reduces farmers’ shooting, chasing

harvest away by man.

Table 9.3 Birds that are pests of crops

Bird Crops affected Effects Control

Bush fowl feeds on corn, damages crops and scare-crows,

groundnuts, cassava in causes loss of part mechanical devices that
early morning of the yield make a noise
and evening

Guinea fowl feeds on loss of part of scare-crow, or loud

groundnuts yield noise made by
knocking two sticks or
cans

Village weaver feeds on maize and damage to maize use of explosives

bird rice grains in the and rice, and loss and spraying
field of yield of poisonous
chemicals from
aircraft

Quelea bird feeds on ripening colonies that spraying with

grains of maize, number up to a chemicals from
rice, guinea corn million can wipe aircraft
and millet out all grains in
farms in an area in
a few days

143
b) The pests may pierce into young developing
seeds or fruits and suck the contents, causing Life cycles of insect pests of
seed or fruits formation to fail, e.g. cotton
stainer sucks materials for developing okro
plants
fruits.
c) Pests inject poisonous chemicals in their saliva Knowledge of the modes of life and life cycles of insect
into host plants, and harm the plants. pests helps in the control of the pest.
d) Piercing and sucking pests transmit disease- The life cycles of the grass-hopper (Orthoptera)
causing organisms, such as viruses, from one and the aphid (Hemiptera) are described as representa-
plant to another, and thus help to spread dis- tives of their respective orders.
eases.

3 Pests of stored products

Life cycle of the grasshopper
Adult grasshoppers are found in areas with grass, in
The maize weevil (Sitophilus zea) is described as an gardens and farms, where they feed on leaves with bit-
example. This weevil belongs to the order of bee- ing and chewing mouthparts. In the breeding season,
tles (Coleoptera). It has mouth parts for boring. In- the male mounts on the female, holds it firmly with the
festation begins in the field before harvest, and aid of styles and inserts sperms into the female repro-
continues in the store. ductive system. The female stores the sperms in a spe-
The adult female lays eggs singly in a cavity cial pouch, until she is ready to lay eggs.
in grain which she makes with her boring mouth- When the female is ready to lay eggs, she digs
parts. She then seals up the egg in the cavity. The a hole in the ground with the ovipositor and depos-
egg hatches into larva which feeds on the stored its about 30 eggs in the hole. The sperms in the sperm
food in the grain. The larva changes into a pupa pouch fertilise the eggs as they pass out to be laid. Af-
in the cavity and finally the adult emerges in about ter the eggs have been laid, the female secretes a liquid
four weeks. over the eggs, which hardens into a protective case.
When the maize grains are harvested and After some time, the eggs hatch. Metamorphosis
stored, infestation continues. A new generation of is complete. The eggs hatch into nymphs, which look
adults emerges about every four weeks. From in- like adults but are small. They moult about five times
fested stores, the adults fly to fields where they to become adults.
cause new infestation. The adults can feed on
maize or other grains, but the larvae feed on maize
grains only.
The maize weevil causes considerable dam- egg
age to the maize crop. Unless control measures
are taken, more than 50% of the crop harvested imago
nymph
may be lost to weevil damage.
(a) egg

(b) larva

(d) Imago

nymph

(c) pupa
Fig.9.5 Life cycle of a grasshopper

Life cycle of an aphid

Aphids are small, usually green, sometimes black in-
sects in the order Hemiptera. They live together in large
numbers, on host plants such as orange, rose and bean
Fig.9.4 Life cycle of maize weevil

144
plants. stand adverse conditions and hatch to produce winged
The piercing and sucking mouths parts consist of males and females. Some of these move to fresh hosts.
four needle-like styles for piercing, a tubular labium for There, the females reproduce by parthenogenesis once
sucking, held in a labrum. It inserts the phloem tissue more to produce wingless females.
of plants and sucks juice rich in sugar. Aphids do much harm to crops in the following
The aphid reproduces by both unfertilised and ways.
by fertilised eggs. Under favourable whether and food 1 They suck juice from the phloem tissue and there-
conditions, the female lays unfertilised eggs, which by weaken the crops, and reduce their yield.
hatch into mainly wingless females and few wingless 2 The piercing of the plant tissue causes physical
males. Reproduction by unfertilised eggs is called par- damage.
thenogenesis. 3 As they suck juice from one plant to another, they
When conditions are unfavourable, some winged transmit viruses that cause diseases, such as swol-
males and females are produced. These mate and the len shoot of cocoa.
female lays fertilised eggs. The fertilised eggs with-

winged male

membranous
wing
dry season
winged female or adverse
conditions

fertilised
egg

many
wingless female
female nymphs
nymphs
parthenogenesis
rostrum

wingless
male
nymphs

Fig.9.6 Life cycle of an Aphid

Methods of control of pests of plants by legislation. For instance if the economy of a

It is necessary to study the biology of a pest, includ- country depends on tomatoes, that country may
ing its feeding habits, life cycle and interactions with its prohibit the importation of tomatoes, so as to avoid
host and environment in order to determine the stage at introducing new pests or diseases.
which it is best to control it. Control measures include
those described below.
1 Prohibitions (preventive measure)
Prohibitions involve forbidding the introduction
of materials, likely to carry pests or disease organ-
isms into an area or country. It is normally done

145
Table 9.4 Common insect pests, their effects on crops and control

Pest Mode of feeding Nature of damage Crops attacked Control

Grasshopper biting and eats leaves of maize, beans, application of

chewing garden flowers yam, guinea corn, insecticides
and crop plants millet, etc

Yam beetle biting and eats the yam tuber, yam application of
chewing reduces yield insecticide before
planting

Termite biting and eats the stem of cassava, yam, application of

chewing cassava or tuber, flowers insecticide before
reduces growth planting
and yield

Cotton stainer piercing and weakens plants, okro, cotton application of

sucking damages insecticide.
developing fruits
and seeds

Aphids piercing and weakens and may citrus plant, e.g. use of contact
sucking kill plants, causes orange rose plant, insecticide
distortion of parts, beans plant
transmits disease
virus

Mealy bug piercing and weakens the cassava, pepper planting resistant
sucking plants and reduces varieties; use of
the yield insecticides.

Maize weevil boring and eats and damages stored maize use of fumigants or
chewing stored maize other insecticides

Bean weevil boring and eats and damages stored beans use of fumigants or
chewing stored beans other insecticides

2 Quarantine (preventive measure) ies of maize (such as yellow hybrid maize) are more
Quarantine is the practice of keeping an imported resistant to weevil attack than other varieties.
material in a closed apartment for a period of time 4 Cultural practice (preventive measure)
for observation. The period of quarantine is long Some farming practices reduce pest attack. Such
enough for any pest or disease in the material to practices include:
be noticed. If such a pest or disease in the material a) Planting at the time pests are usually few;
is found, the material is returned to the country of b) Crop rotation so that the host crop is replaced
origin or destroyed. by other crops for some years;
3 Pest resistant varieties (preventive measure) c) Correct spacing of crop stands, so as to dis-
Farmers are advised to plant pest or disease resis- courage spread of pests;
tant varieties of crops, to minimise pest or disease d) Regular weeding to remove weeds that may
attack. For instance some varieties of cassava are act as hiding places or hosts for the pests;
resistant to mealy-bug attack, while some variet- e) Ploughing to bury seeds of pests inside the
ground.

146
5 Drying (preventive measure) to standing crops to prevent the attack of pests,
Proper drying of some products before storage or they may be applied to kill pests after an attack
(e.g. beans, maize) reduces the water content of has started.
the stored product to such a low level that weevils
cannot easily live on them. Pesticides must be applied with care, for reasons
6 Biological control (treatment measure) given below.
Where pests have already attacked, one of the con- a) Application of pesticides in excess causes pollution
trol measures is to use organisms that feed on the of the environment.
pests (natural enemies) to reduce pest numbers, b) Persistent pesticides must not be used.
e.g. ladybird beetles or wasp’s larvae feed on c) Many herbicides are harmful to man and must be
aphids. Biological control has to be done with care applied by trained people, with adequate protec-
so that the introduced organism does not itself tion.
become a worse problem than the pest it is to elim- d) Pesticides may kill useful species (e.g. bees that
inate. pollinate flowers) in addition to the pests.
7 Chemical control
Chemicals used to control pests are called pesti-
cides. They include herbicides for control of weeds,
Diseases of agricultural importance
insecticides for insects, fungicides for fungi and
nematicides for nematodes. Each type of crop or farm animal suffers from specific
Some insecticides are solid (e.g. Aldrin, Vertox diseases which are agriculturally important because
85, Furadan), some are liquid or liquid suspension diseases cause reduction in yield of crops and livestock,
(e.g. Gammalin 20, Didimac 25). Some insecticides or their death. Many diseases of agricultural impor-
are applied as vapour, especially to stored prod- tance are caused by fungi, viruses, bacteria, protozoa
ucts (e.g. carbon tetrachloride, dichloro ethane and nematodes. Some of these are shown in Tables 9.5,
(ethylene dichloride). Chemicals may be applied 9.6 and 9.7.

Table 9.5 Some diseases of plants and animals caused by fungi

Disease How it spreads Symptoms and Prevention and

effects control
‘Rust’ of maize, guinea spores of the fungus yellow or brown plant resistant varieties;
corn, millet are scattered by the patches on leaves, crop rotation
wind reduces yield

Blackpod disease of spores of the fungus brown spots on pods, cut infected pods and
cocoa are spread by the wind pods are damaged bury or burn, spray
and eventually plants with appropriate
turn black; yield is chemicals (e.g. 0.4%
reduced perenox or 1% Bordeaux
mixture)

‘Blast’ of rice spores of the fungus small grey brown plant resistant species
are spread by the wind spots or patches on
leaves; there may be
dark rings on nodes;
severely attacked
leaves shrivel and
dry up

147
Aspergillosis (fungal inhalation from loss of appetite, sanitation (clean
pneumonia or contaminated litter or thirstiness and fast buildings, litter
pulmonary mycosis) of feed; also a hatchery- breathing and equipment; use
poultry borne disease disinfectant); eliminate
affected birds

Favus of poultry contact with infected yellowish white scaly disinfect litter and
birds lesions on the skin of equipment; apply
the head and comb; formaldehyde plus
loss of feathers or vaselin 1:20
broken ones on the
neck
Foot rot of sheep contact with infected sores on the skin of dip feet of sheep
marshy pastures the feet between the in dilute copper(II)
hooves; difficulty in tetraoxosulphate(VI)
walking (copper sulphate) solution

Table 9.6 Some diseases of plants and animals caused by viruses

Disease How it spreads Symptoms and effects Prevention and control

‘Mosaic’ of cassava, transmitted from one yellowing, mottling, plant resistant varieties
tobacco, pepper, garden plant to another by distortion and curling
egg plant insects such as aphids of leaves; reduced
and leaf hoopers or by leaf area and reduced
wind amount of food
synthesised; rosette
formation (excessive
branching, stunted
growth)

Swollen shoot disease transmitted by mealy mottling, distortion of cut down infected
of cocoa bug leaves, reduced yield of trees and burn; destroy
cocoa vectors

Fowl pox transmitted by some high temperature, vaccinate when birds

mosquitoes, i.e. Aedes, scrabs all over the are 1 to 2 weeks old;
culex, stegomyia head (comb, wattles, remove sick birds
nostrils, eyes, ears);
nasal discharge if lesion
around nostrils, tear
production and closing
of eyelids if lesions
appear on the eyelids

148
Newcastle’s disease direct contact with attacks respiratory vaccination of birds
of chickens, turkeys, contaminated food, and nervous systems, usually twice (when
ducks, pigeons water, litter, faeces or average incubation birds are 1 day to 2
other objects. Infected period is 5 days; weeks and 5-6 weeks
birds give out mouth, difficult breathing, old); strict sanitation,
nasal, eye and faecal gasping, weakness; e.g. clean equipment,
discharges which signs of nervous dip feet in disinfectant
spread contamination problems include before entering pen;
trembling, partial or eliminate infected
complete paralysis poultry
of wings and legs,
twisting of neck
Rinderpest of cattle by inhalation, by high fever, inflamation vaccination
direct contact with of lining of mouth,
contaminated secretions nostrils and eyes;
and excretions of lesions inside the lower
infected animals lip and lower surface of
tongue; lesions on skin,
diarrhea

Foot and mouth contact with vesicles filled with clear vaccination; in case of
disease of cattle contaminated saliva, fluid in mouth mucosa; outbreak slaughter and
food and other vesicles rupture leaving bury infected animals;
materials raw bleeding surfaces; quarantine; invite
lesion on skin between veterinary officer for
toes; lameness due to professional help
lesions and salivation
due to mouth soreness

Table 9.7 Some diseases of plants and animals caused by bacteria

Disease How it spreads Symptoms Prevention and control

‘Soft rot’ of vegetables, infection occurs reduces parenchymatous avoid bruising of

e.g. carrots, onions through wounds tissue of the storage plants harvest; destroy
organ to a watery, slimy refuse dumps to
mass prevent them from
becoming sources of
infection

Bacterial ‘wilt’ of infection occurs mostly vascular system crop rotation; plant
tomato, potato through wounds becomes brown, resistant varieties
adventitious roots may
develop along the stem,
leaves droop, wilt and
die

‘Blight’ off cowpea infection occurs mostly chlorotic areas appear in disinfect seeds before
through wounds parts of leaves, general planting
chlorosis of younger
plants, kills the plant

149
Fowl typhoid contact with faeces of diarrhea with yellowish keep pens clean,
affected birds; may be or greenish discharge, inoculate birds when
transmitted through dehydration, loss of 5 to 6 weeks old,
eggs weight, reduced food in outbreak invite
intake, slightly bluish veterinary officer
combs, drowsiness, for proper curative
ruffled feathers treatment of birds,
remove and destroy
infected birds

Tuberculosis of cattle, inhaling the bacteria coughing, damage to vaccination; remove

poultry, swine in air-borne droplets; respiratory system, and isolate infected
taking infected milk, laboured breathing, animals; adopt hygiene
food or water; repeated weakness, weight loss measures – clean and
exposure to infected disinfect feeding and
animals drinking troughs; in
case of outbreak invite
veterinary officer to
give curative treatment

Anthrax of cattle ingestion or inhalation muscular tremors, high vaccination; good

of contaminated food, temperature, rapid sanitation; in case
soil, vegetables, grass, pulse and respiration; of outbreak invite
water diarrhea, marked veterinary officer
depression, bloody to give curative
exudates from nasal, treatment; treat
rectal, vaginal and infected pasture;
mouth openings; infects disinfect pen and
man; attendant should equipment
not allow any exudate
from the animal to get
into any wound or
opening on his body

Activity 9.3 Observing the effects Table 9.8 Observed pests and diseases of common plants and
farm animals
of pests and diseases
on plants and animals Crop Pest Effects
Cassava (a) (a)
Procedure (b) (b)
1 Observe the pests and diseases of common crop
plants and farm animals, and their effects. Write Maize (a) (a)
them down in a table. (b) (b)
2 During the next lesson, write your results as it is in
Pepper (a) (a)
Table 9.8 below, on the board for a class discus-
(b) (b)
sion.
Beans (a) (a)
(b) (b)

150
Livestock Disease Effects 2 Applying fertilisers
Chemical fertilisers may be added to the soil in recom-
Poultry (a) (a)
mended amounts to maintain adequate level of fertility.
(b) (b)
Organic manure may be used in place of or in addition
Pigs (a) (a) to chemical fertilisers, for this improves soil structure in
(b) (b) addition to providing plant nutrients.

Sheep (a) (a) 3 Use of correct cultural practices

(b) (b) Some known cultural practices are:
Cattle (a) (a) a) Planting at the correct time;
(b) (b) b) Giving adequate spacing between crop stands;
c) Removing all weeds;
d) Crop rotation.
Food production and storage 4 Plant-breeding to develop improved varieties of
Adequate food production is very important in a coun-
try because: plants
1 food production keeps a major part of the popula- Through plant breeding, improved varieties of plants
tion in our country employed; with desirable qualities are developed. Improved va-
2 adequate food keeps people well fed, healthy, rieties are usually disease resistant or high yielding or
contented and happy; early yielding.
3 food may be exported to earn money. Examples include high yielding and disease resis-
tant cassava; budded, early yielding oranges, and man-
goes.
Ways of improving crop yield
Factors that affect production of crops include soil fer- 5 Plant protection
tility, availability of adequate water to crops, suitable Protecting crops from pests and diseases increases their
temperature, areas of land under cultivation, correct yield.
timing of planting and good cultural practices (such
as spacing of stands), protection of crops from weeds, 6 Putting more land under cultivation
pests and diseases and planting of high yielding variet- Where land is available, more land can be cultivated to
ies. Some ways of improving crop yield are described increase farm yield.
below.

1 Soil convservation Causes of wastage

Soil conversation is using the soil in such a way as to Every year, a part of the crop harvest is wasted and lost.
maintain its fertility. This includes: After the labour that goes into food production, it is un-
a) Preventing soil erosion, e.g. by terracing; fortunate that some of the food is wasted. Wastage is
b) Mulching; caused by several factors.
c) Crop rotation; and
d) Avoiding bush burning. 1 Incomplete harvesting
Rice, yams, cocoyams, groundnuts and other crops are
usually not completely harvested. Some part of the
potential harvest is left (through oversight or careless-
ness) in the field to waste.

2 Damage of harvest by weather

The weather may damage part of the harvest. In the
rainy season, some maize grains mature, germinate and
waste in the field before harvest. Fruit-bearing banana
and plantain stems may be blown down by wind and
some of the fruits are wasted. The wind may dislodge
some rice stands in the field causing the grains to fall
on the ground or into water on the ground and waste.

Fig.9.7 Terracing

151
3 Late harvesting 2 Warm and suitable temperature.
Many fruits become overripe, fall off and are wasted if 3 Food
they are not harvested at the right time, e.g. mangoes, 4 Other suitable conditions such as PH and osmotic
pawpaw, avocado pear. If some fruits, e.g. okro are not pressure of surrounding liquid.
harvested in time, they become unsuitable for eating, The principle of food preservation is to make the food
and are wasted. unsuitable for the growth of microorganisms that spoil
it. Some methods of preserving food are:
4 Pest damage
Pest damage may begin in the field and continue in 1 Heating
storage. For example, maize, rice, beans are eaten by This is based on the principle that very high tempera-
pests in the field and also in storage. ture kills microorganisms. Heating or boiling food reg-
ularly prevents food from spoiling. This is good for all
5 Poor preservation cooked food.
Harvested crops need to be properly preserved, other-
wise they rapidly deteriorate or decay. Tomatoes, car- 2 Freezing
rots, vegetables, fresh maize, fresh fruits among others This is based on the principle that cold temperature
must be properly preserved or they depreciate and chills food and inactivates microorganisms of food de-
rot. Maize and rice must be well dried, or they become cay.
damp, hot and mould when stored. Refrigeration slows down the growth of micro-
organisms but does not kill the organisms. Foods pre-
6 Poor storage served by freezing include meat, fish, and yoghurt
Harvested crops must be properly stored, otherwise while those preserved by refrigeration include fruit and
wastage will occur. Yam for instance, must be stored in vegetables.
cool, dry, airy barns, or else, it will decay.
3 Salting (and addition of sugar)
This is based on the principle that sugar or salt, if
Activity 9.4 To demonstrate how added in large quantities, would increase the osmotic
food can deteriorate in potentials of the food. This would cause any micro-
storage organism already present in the food to lose fluid by
exosmosis, become plasmolysed and eventually die. It
Materials required would also prevent the entry of other microorganisms
Slices of bread, petri dishes or watch-glasses, cupboard. into the food. Food preserved by this method includes
meat and fish.
Procedure
1 Cut a slice of bread to a convenient size, and put 4 Smoking
it in a petri dish A. This dries up moisture in the food and covers the food
2 Cut a similar size of the same bread, of the same with carbon, a protective chemical substance. This is
size, put it in another petri dish, B. good for fish and meat.
3 Put petri dish A in a cupboard,in the laboratory.
4 Put petri dish B in a refrigerator. 5 Drying
5 Observe the appearance and smell of each of the This is based on the principle that heat of the sun or
two slices of bread daily for one week. fire causes water to evaporate from food thereby leav-
What have you observed? Record them in your note- ing the food to dry. Microorganisms which bring about
book. Give reasons for your observations. spoilage of food cannot thrive in such dry food. This
method is good for food such as pepper, melon, cocoa
and beans.
Methods of preserving food
These methods include heating, pasteurisation, freez- 6 Irradiation
ing, drying, salting, smoking, irradiation, addition of In this case high–energy radiation is applied to the food
chemicals and fumigation. to kill the microorganisms that are already present in
The following factors if present in food make the it and to prevent the entry of new ones. The rays used
food a suitable breeding environment for micro- organ- are mainly ultra violet rays. This method is good for
isms of food spoilage. They include: preserving meat, fish, and fresh juice and even for pre-
1 Water and moisture. serving containers used for storing water.

152
7 Addition of chemicals
These kill the microorganisms of spoilage thereby pre- Population growth and food
venting the food from going bad. The chemicals used
include vinegar ethanoic (acetic acid), sulphur dioxide
supply
and phenyl methanoic acid (benzoic acid). The meth-
od is good for preserving vegetables, fruits and fruit A population is a group of organisms of the same spe-
drinks. cies, living in a defined area. A population may grow
or decline in number. Since the origin of man, human
8 Fumigation population on earth has been growing. However, the
This is chemical dusting or the spraying of chemicals or pattern of this growth is a cause for worry.
fumigants on stored grains or in the storage houses like Estimates of human populations on earth have
silos where they are kept. This is good for preserving been made for various periods going back to thousands
grains such as stored maize, millet, rice, sorghum and of years BC. From such estimates, it has been found that
for preserving beans. between 12 000 BC and AD 1650, the population grew
slowly, and doubled, on the average, in the course of
9 Pasteurisation 2000 years. Between AD 1650 and 1850 human popula-
In this method, food is subjected to high temperature tion took 200 years to double. Between AD 1850 and
and pressure for some time to kill the micro organism 1950 human population took 100 years to double. At
in the food and to expel air from the food before sealing the present rate of human population growth, it takes
the container. If by chance new microorganisms gain 35 years for population to double.
entry into the container, they cannot get air for respira- In 1970,the total world population was 3 631 mil-
tion. Canning and bottling are based on this method. lion (3.6 billion). More people means more mouths to
feed. Indeed, food production can increase, but there
10 Canning are constraints to indefinite increase in food produc-
Some food materials are sealed in tins, heated to a tion.
specified temperature for each food, and then cooled. 1 In some countries, there is not much land left for
The heat kills putrefying organisms in the can. Suitable farming. Such land as is left may be rocky, hilly,
chemical preservatives may also be added to tinned sloppy or desert, not very suitable for agriculture.
food. Fish, tomato, peas, and baked beans are among 2 Some countries are close to the upper limit of pro-
commonly available tinned foods. duction of each crop per hectare.
3 In Nigeria, land for farming is available, but young
people dislike farming.
Some methods of storing food 4 Mechanisation has helped to increase agricultural
After preservation, food may be stored for varying
output in industrialised countries. In Africa,
lengths of time. Methods of storing food include the
mechanisation is difficult because tractors are too
following:
expensive for the farmers. In some cases land hold-
1 Keeping dried food materials in bags in a room,
ing are small and mechanisation is unprofitable.
e.g. rice, maize;
5 Peasant farmers have little capital to improve
2 Tying in a barn, e.g. yam;
production.
3 Keeping in a cool moist shade, e.g. cocoyam;
6 In Africa, storage techniques and facilities are still
4 Hanging over a wood fire or on a shelf over a fire-
poor.
place, e.g. maize cobs, dried fish, dried meat (in
a covered basket);
5 Keeping in tins, e.g. palm oil;
6 Keeping in a store at room temperature, e.g. tinned
fish, tinned tomatoes;
7 Keeping in a refrigerator, e.g. fresh milk, fresh fish,
meat, vegetables and fruits.

153
Reproduction and population
growth
Population increases in two possible ways, namely:
1 By reproduction, to produce offspring.
2 By movement of human beings from other coun-
tries into a country (migration). Migration into a
country is immigration, while migration out of it
is emigration.
Of these two, by far, the more important is re-
production. In the world today, Africa and Latin
America have the highest population growth
rates.
4 000 If a father and mother have two children, when
the parents die, the children will replace them.
There will be zero population growth. In Nigeria,
many families have children ranging from about
1970 4 to about 5, though some families have two chil-
3 500
dren or less. Nigeria’s population, estimated at
about 80 million in 1986 and 120 million by the
year 2000 was expected to reach about 200 million
by the year 2020.
3 000 If parents control the number of children they
1960
have, human population increase will be con-
trolled. This is the reason for advocating family
planning. Family planning means that parents
2 500 decide to have just the number of children they
1950 can afford to feed well and educate.

2 000
Relationship between availability of
food and human population
There is a close relationship between population and
1 500 food supply. Thomas Robert Malthus (1776-1834), an
English minister and social economist, first expressed
this relationship in what is called the Malthusian hy-
pothesis. He published a paper in 1798 entitled An es-
1850
say on the principle of population as it affects the future of
1 000
mankind. In it, he stated that human population grows
up to the limit of possible food supply. He observed
also that human population increases by geometrical
progression while food supply increases by arithmeti-
500 1650 cal progression. Hence, in time, population outstrips
food supply. At that point, population growth stops,
hunger, malnutrition, starvation and death follow, re-
ducing the population to a level the food supply can
0 support. Some called his hypothesis the dismal theo-
3000 2000 1000 1 1000 2000
BC BC BC AD AD AD rem. It sensitised people to the fact that a population is
sustained by available food. It also started arguments
and investigations which have continued till today.
Fig.9.8 Graph showing human population growth since the
30th century BC

154
Fig.9.9 Distribution of human population in Africa

Activity 9.5 To demonstrate the 5 Provide only half of the food and water for addi-
tional two weeks and stop providing food or wa-
effect of limited food ter after that.
on a rat population in 6 Observe the rats every week, count the number
of rats in the cage and observe their condition and
a cage behaviour.
7 Describe any changes in the number of rats, and
Materials required in the behaviour of the rats from the time food and
A large metal cage, two adult male and two adult fe- water were plentiful to the time they were not
male rats, rat food, water, container for rat food, con- enough or available at all.
tainer for water. What explanation would you give for what happened
during each stage in the experiment?
Procedure
1 In a large metal cage, put two adult male and two
adult female rats.
2 In the cage put one container for food and one for
water.
3 Fill the food container with rat food and the water
container with water.
4 Replenish the food and water for six weeks.

155
Fig.9.10 Apparatus for demonstrating the effect of limited food on a rat population

Effects of food storage crop failure or disrupt farming activity. Food

stored in time of plenty will save people from
Many countries have learnt, through experience, to
store food against periods of scarcity. Each state in Ni- starvation at such times of scarcity of food.
geria has a Grains Board, a body set up by government 4 Food stored by one country can be used as aid to
and charged with the responsibility to store grains dur- another country which is in need. Food may be
ing periods of scarcity. In technologically advanced donated on humanitarian grounds to refugees.
countries, individuals, states within a country, and na- 5 Storage of food helps workers in food processing
tional bodies store food for various reasons. The effects industries to have employment throughout the
of food storage are summarised below. year.
1 Prevention of hunger in off- harvest periods
Food is normally plentiful during harvest time. If
some of it is not stored, soon part of the harvest
Summary
will be eaten up by man, and much of the remain- This chapter has taught the following:
der will be wasted through spoilage and pest • Our knowledge of biology is basic to practices and
damage. Then there will be hunger. Food storage advancements in agriculture, especially in the ef-
prevents such hunger during off- harvest periods. fort to feed the world.
2 Maintaining stable food prices throughout the • Biology classifies plants in various ways; includ-
year ing a classification based on the agricultural char-
Food is cheap during harvest periods and tends to acteristics of plants.
be expensive in off-harvest periods. Food storage • Soils are also classified, each class by its special
improves availability of food throughout the year characteristics which indicate its suitability, or
and help to maintain stable food prices all the year otherwise, for agriculture.
round. • Continuous cropping alters the character of the soil
3 Preparation against natural disasters or war and may reduce its suitability for agriculture. Man
Drought, flood, earthquake, locust invasion or continuously makes efforts to enrich the soil to
other natural disasters, as well as war, may cause support cropping.

156
• Man competes with pests of all types for his farm
crops, on the field and in storage. There are many
methods used in the control of pests. Such control
methods must be safe for man, his animals and his
environment.
• The population of the world is rising. This means
that more food must be produced and well pre-
served. A safe and acceptable way of keeping a
check on the growth of the human population will
also reduce the problem of providing food.

Revision questions
1 The usually rich soil for agriculture has a mixture
of sand, silt and clay in roughly equal amount
together with humus. This type of soil is called the
_____________.
A garden soil
B loamy soil
C impervious soil
D clay soil
E none of the above
2 The soil will lose its fertility most rapidly through
______________.
A erosion
B addition of lime
C use of compost
D grain farming
E root farming.
3 Biological control of pests depends on
_____________________________.
A the predator-prey relationship in the ecologi-
cal community
B how much biology the farmer knows
C the plant and animal relationship in biology
D the presence of poisonous organisms and ani-
mals on a farm
E the relative population of plants and animals
on a farm.
4 What are pesticides? Describe the correct and safe
use of any common pesticide in the home.
5 Briefly suggest ways by which the Nigerian peas-
ant farmer may improve his agricultural yield.
6 Describe four different ways of preserving food.

157
Chapter 10 Microorganisms around us

Introduction Sterilising petri dishes, watch glass-

In this chapter, we shall learn about living organisms
es and test tubes
The petri dishes, watch glasses and test tubes which
that are too small for us to see with our naked eyes, are to be used in these experiments must not only be
but which have far-reaching effects on the lives of man, washed very clean, but must also be made microbe-
other animals and many plants. These organisms are free, to save the experiments from the interruptions of
known as microorganisms (micro = very small) or mi- strange microorganisms. This is done by heating them,
crobes. Knowledge of these minute organisms came under pressure, in a pressure cooker or an autoclave.
down to us through such scientists as Antony Van Where none of these facilities is within easy reach,
Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch man who invented the mi- sterilisation can be achieved through ordinary boiling,
croscope and later discovered these microorganisms, in the following way:
which he then called ‘little animals’. Other scientists Fill a large saucepan with water, up to about two-
like Spallanzani, Pasteur, Robbert Koch, Lord Lister thirds or three-quarters full. Put all the clean petri dish-
and Fleming later carried out notable work on microor- es, watch glasses and test tubes into the water and boil
ganisms, which considerably improved our knowledge for about fifteen minutes. Wipe each of the glassware
of them. dry, using a sterilised cloth, or simply let them drain
Because these organisms are invisible to the naked dry and use them immediately.
eye, we do not notice how numerous they are around
us. It is known that they are so many that their total
weight on earth is more than twenty-five times the to- Preparing a culture medium
tal weight of all visible animals (that is, vertebrates and Two of the usual media used in growing microorgan-
invertebrates on land and in the sea) put together. It isms are malt agar and potato-dextrose agar. Local food
should therefore not surprise us that a number of them formulae, such as Farex, Nutrend, custard and cornflour,
affect our lives in very different ways. which are cheaper and more readily available, may also
be used.

Classification of microorgan- Malt agar medium

Malt agar can be prepared as follows:
isms 1 Weigh 10 g of maltose or malt extract in a sterile
watch glass.
Microbes belong to one or another of the following 2 Dissolve it in 500 cm3 of distilled water in a sterile
groups of organisms 1) bacteria, (2) viruses, (3) fungi, beaker.
(4) protozoa and (5) algae. From this list, we can see 3 Weigh 10 g of Agar-agar granules in a sterile watch
that microorganisms belong to various groups of living glass and add these to the malt solution in the
things. Of these, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi beaker.
are the most frequently discussed or studied. 4 Heat and stir all the while with a glass rod and
with a thermometer standing in the solution. Con-
The culture medium tinue until the temperature rises to about 900C
For many of the activities in the next three chapters of and the solution becomes viscous and translucent.
this book, you will require a sterile growth medium on 5 Pour the hot agar into petri dishes, as required
which microorganisms can germinate and grow. and cover up.

158
Food powder culture medium The following activity shows that microorganisms exist
The teacher might decide to use either Nutrend or Farex. in air.
These are tinned food formulae often used for weaning
babies.
1 Boil 500 cm3 of distilled water in a sterile beaker.
Activity 10.1 Growing microorgan-
2 Remove from the burner and allow beaker to cool isms from air
to about 700C.
3 Add about four tablespoonfuls of either Farex or This experiment may be carried out in six groups. Each
Nutrend to the water and stir. group should attempt to grow microorganisms from
4 With a spatula, spread it on petri dishes and a specified environment, in a sterilised petri dish. Six
smoothen their surfaces. groups, A-F, will each work in one of the following
5 Cover the petri dishes immediately and keep in a places:
cupboard or oven. A inside a living room
B in the laboratory
Custard jelly culture medium C in an open field
1 Dissolve four tablespoons of custard powder in D in a kitchen
500 cm3 of distilled water, inside a sterile beaker. E in the classroom, and
2 Break up all lumps and stir to a well-blended yel- F in a lavatory.
low suspension.
3 Heat suspension till it nearly boils, still stirring.
cover petri dish
4 Pour into petri dishes and cover up.

Cornflour paste culture medium

1 Prepare a thin paste of cornflour with distilled
water in a sterile beaker.
2 Heat the paste, stirring as it boils, to avoid lumps.
3 Put off flame when the paste thickens.
4 Spread the paste in sterilised petri dishes, with a culture medium
spatula, and smoothen its surface.
5 Cover up each petri dish and leave in an oven. Fig.10.1 A covered petri dish containing a culture medium

Microorganisms in air Procedure

Your group will be provided with a sterilised and cov-
Caution on Activities 10.1 - 10.5 over students’ safety
ered petri dish containing a culture medium.
Fears have recently been expressed over the activities in
1 Do not remove the lid of the petri dish until all
Activity 10.1 to Activity 10.5. It is feared that students
members of the group have arrived at the particu-
might inadvertently breed microorganisms that could
lar location to be tested for the presence of micro-
hasten the speed of cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, etc.
organisms. Once there, one member of the group
These activities teach necessary lessons.
removes the lid and keeps the dish open for about
The following precautions might therefore be tak-
five minutes, to allow the microorganisms in the
en:
surrounding air to alight on the medium, before
1 Do not open up any of the cultured petri dishes
closing it up again.
at all; rather, seal them with tape and label them
2 Label the petri dish using the test location number
‘BIOHAZARDS’.
earlier allocated.
2 Have a thorough look at such details as size of
3 Return to the laboratory and leave the petri dish
microorganisms, colours, growing patterns and
in a safe cupboard.
general appearances with a good hand lens X8 or
4 A covered, sterilised culture medium in a petri
X10. Do not mount them under the power of a
dish labeled ‘G’ should be used as control for the
microscope for observation.
entire experiment. This dish is not to be opened
3 Teachers should dispose of culture plates at the end
up for microorganisms to alight on.
of experiments as follows: slit the tapes holding
5 On the fourth day, observe each of the culture
the petri dish and cover together in a strong bleach
media in petri dishes A-C, for changes in colour,
solution. Open them inside the bleach and leave
pattern of growth of microorganisms and general
for a couple of days. Then wash and re-use.
appearance. Also observe the differences between

159
the microorganisms in dishes A-F and the control 6 Write your observations in the form of a table, as
dish G. follows.
6 Observe, under low-power microscope, slides of
materials from dishes A-G, prepared by your Group Source of water used Observation
teacher. Note the structural details of each type of
microorganism. A
7 Record your observation in your notebook. B
C
D

E Control (no water)

7 Compare the petri dishes A, B, C and D. What sig-

nificant differences can you observe between the
microorganisms in the various waters?
8 Is there any difference between the sizes of the
microorganisms in tap water and stream water?
Can you explain the difference?
Fig.10.2 A colony of microorganisms on a culture medium
From the last two activities, we have made the other-
wise tiny, invisible organisms tangible. The process of
growing microorganisms in a sterile growth medium is
Microorganisms in water referred to as culturing.
We have found, from our activities, that these
Activity 10.2 Are there microorgan- invisible organisms live in the air and water, but it is
known that they are found in virtually all habitats, in-
isms in water? cluding soil, humus, decaying organisms, plants and
animals, including man.
We shall find an answer to this question through an ac-
tivity similar to the previous one. The class will work in
four groups trying to find out if there are microorgan- Activity 10.3 Microorganisms in
isms in: (A) a pond, (B) a river, (C) a stream, and (D) tap our foods
water. Each group is given a sterilised, covered petri You have probably seen a piece of bread that had
dish with a culture medium in it. Water samples from turned greenish-black, or a piece of cooked yam that
sources A, B, C, and D are made available, in labelled had, after a few days, turned orange. Did you ever find
bottles, in the laboratory. out what caused such colour changes? The following
investigation should provide the answer.
Procedure Procedure
1 Use a pipette to take a few drops of water from the The teacher should split the class into six groups, A-F.
bottle assigned to your group. Each group will carry out one of the following activi-
2 Open one petri dish, containing the culture medi- ties.
um, just wide enough to take the trip of the 1 Group A: Put a small piece of boiled fresh maize
pipette. Leave a drop or two of the water sample cob (with the maize grains removed) in a petri dish
on the medium. Replace the lid of the petri dish and cover it. Label the petri dish A.
instantly, to prevent microorganisms in the air fr- 2 Group B: Put a small slice of cooked yam in a petri
om settling on the medium. dish, cover it and label it B.
3 Label the petri dish A, B, C, or D, according to the 3 Group C: Moisten a slice of bread with some drops
source of water in it, and leave it in a safe cupboard of water, enclose it in a watch glass or petri dish,
in the laboratory for about three days. cover it and label it C.
4 Set up a control dish, to which no water drop is 4 Group D: Slice a small portion of ripe pawpaw,
added. Label this E. place and cover it up in a petri dish labelled D.
5 After three days, observe your set-up for changes 5 Group E: Put a small morsel of ‘eba’ (garri paste) in
in colour and pattern of growth of the microorgan- a watch glass dish, cover it and label it E.
isms. 6 Group F: Break a coconut into pieces, leave a fleshy

160
piece in a petri dish, cover it and label it F. neath our nails and even on our skin, when we fail to
7 All the set-ups should be kept in a clean drawer wash and scrub our body regularly.
in the laboratory. After three days, inspect each of For this, activity, the class should be divided into
the dishes A to F. Note the general appearance and three groups and each group supplied with a culture
colours of the microorganisms growing on them. medium in a sterilised petri dish.
Also find out, by touch and sight, what has be-
come of the substances on which they grow. Procedure
8 Draw the following table in your notebook and Group A
write down your observations. 1 Use a tooth-pick or a short piece of washed broom-
stick to remove the remain of food around the
Petri dish / Food enclosed Observation gum of your teeth.
watch glass 2 Open the petri dish containing the culture medi-
um just wide enough to take your tooth-pick.
A Drop the food remains on the medium and cover
B it up immediately.
3 Label the petri dish A and leave it on a table or
C inside a cupboard.
D Group B
E 1 Collect the dirt underneath your long nails with a
sharpened matchstick, tooth-pick or pin.
F 2 Open your culture medium in a petri dish just
wide enough to take the match-stick. Drop the
Note where more than one species of microorganisms nail-dirt on the medium and cover it up quickly.
are thriving on any of the food substances in A-F. 3 Label the dish B and place it next to petri dish A.

Questions Group C
1 What common change(s) can you observe on all 1 Partially open the petri dish of culture medium.
the specimens? Slowly breathe out on it through the mouth, four
2 What colour(s) and other general appearance(s) to six times and close it up immediately.
does each specimen exhibit? 2 Label the petri dish C and place it next to speci-
3 What happens if we leave them a few days longer. It mens A and B.
is likely that we often eat microorganisms with our
food. Why do they not grow inside us? Control
You will notice that the usual culture medium has not Use the common culture medium in a petri dish which
been used for the growth of all the microorganisms that should not be opened at all. Label it D and place beside
germinated on the various foods in this experiment. petri dishes A-C.
The culture medium is replaced by these foods. This Results
confirms that the culture medium is a type of rich food After three days, inspect the petri dishes A-D and re-
medium for the germination of microorganisms. cord your observations on a table like the one shown
All the food specimens used in Activity 10.3 had a here.
considerable water content. Moisture is a condition for
the germination and growth of microorganisms.
All exposed foods are open to the attack of micro-
organisms but those found on foods are mainly fungi
and bacteria. Foods left under the influence of bacteria
for a long time usually become unfit for human con-
sumption, because they have been partly digested and
their nutritive contents have therefore degenerated.

Activity 10.4 Microorganisms in our

bodies
A number of microbes are harboured within and Fig.10.3 A partially open petri dish
around us, in our mouths and alimentary tract, under-

161
Petri dish Content Observation

A Microbes in mouth
B Microbes under nails

C Microbes from expired breath

D Control

Is there growth of microorganisms in all four petri lodged from the body of the carrier onto the food and
dishes? Can you explain why if there is no growth in may be eaten by man.
any of the dishes? Are the growths of microorganisms
in petri dishes A, B, and C of equal vigour? Explain the
difference in growths, with reference to the sources of
Location of microorganisms in car-
the microorganisms. riers
Microorganisms are responsible for human dis- The carriers of microorganisms are called vectors. These
eases like tooth decay, ringworm and athlete’s foot. microorganisms cause diseases in man. The diseases
Dangerous microorganisms can be picked up from they cause do not affect the vectors that carry them. The
latrines and toilets when we use such rooms and mi- vectors are usually the secondary hosts while man is
crobes from under the nails are often eaten with food. regarded as the primary host. The microorganisms are
For these reasons, the habit of washing the hands with found in the vectors because they need an environment
water and soap after leaving the toilet must be cultivat- (usually in the vector)for them to develop to a level that
ed. Nails should always be trimmed or cleaned, teeth would be infectious to man. This phenomenon of dis-
well cleaned with a good tooth brush and our bodies ease causing organism having two hosts is known as al-
regularly washed with soap and sponge. These mea- ternation of hosts. Common vectors of microorganisms
sure help to remove from our body those materials on include mosquitoes, and the tsetse fly. The housefly is
which microorganisms survive. The wearing of clean a carrier but not a vector because the microorganisms
clothes also helps to keep microorganisms at bay. do not develop inside the housefly. When the housefly
Later in this chapter, we shall learn about micro- perches on rubbish, the microorganisms in the rubbish
organisms that are taken in with food and drink, those become attached to the hairs on its body. These micro-
that could be breathed in with air and some that are organisms (bacteria) are shaken onto food left uncov-
directly injected into human blood by vectors like mos- ered and on which such house-fly perches; this causes
quitoes and tsetse flies. Meanwhile, it is useful to know disease in man when the food is eaten. Anopheles mos-
that microorganisms are capable of living on human quito transmits plasmodium (a protozoan) that causes
bodies, or of gaining entry into the body through open- malaria fever to man through biting and sucking blood
ings like the mouth, nostril, cut on skin or by injection from man.
through the skin. Many microorganisms are harmful, Disease-causing microorganisms carried by vec-
causing several diseases, some of which are fatal, while tors include the following:
some others in our bodies are useful in the various life 1 Protozoa, e.g. plasmodium, trypanosoma, and
processes. entamoeba.
2 Viruses
3 Bacteria
Carriers of microorganisms 4 Rickettsiae.

One other way in which microorganisms could be car-

ried from place to place is by certain insects whose Beneficial effects of microor-
hairy or spine-packed bodies incidentally carry the
microbes. Examples of such insects, which are called ganisms
carriers, are houseflies and cockroaches. These live in
latrines, food stores, kitchen, cupboard, dung hills and In nature
such other places where microbes, including disease- Microorganisms such as blue-green algae and bacte-
causing organisms, abound. The carriers pick up the ria living freely in the soil or symbiotically in the root
microbes and bring them to exposed human foods on nodules of legumes have the ability to fix atmospheric
which they themselves normally feed. In the course nitrogen to form nitrates which enrich the soil.
of feeding, some of these dangerous microbes are dis-

162
Fungi and bacteria are decomposers. They break and D, according to the parts named in (1) above.
down the dead remains of plants and animals respec- 3 Take a fifth petri dish of culture medium, but do
tively and by so doing help in the recycling of mineral not open it. Label it E and leave it as control.
elements. Bacteria also decompose the excretory waste 4 Place the five petri dishes safely in a cupboard or
products and faeces of animals. on a table.
5 After three days, observe the changes in petri dishes
A-E. Record your observations on a table like the
In medicine one below.
Penicillium is a fungus which is used to make the an-
tibiotic penicillin. This drug is used to cure diseases
caused by bacteria.
Do microorganisms grow in all the petri dishes? What
In industries explanation can you give for the absence of microorgan-
Yeast ferments sugar solution in anaerobic conditions, isms in any of dishes A-E? Describe the colour, general
to form alcohol. This is applied in the baking and brew- appearances and growth pattern of the microorganisms
ing industries. The carbon dioxide produced when in dishes A to D.
yeast is mixed with dough, makes the dough rise when
the dough is heated in the oven. While in breweries, the
alcohol produced in alcoholic fermentation is distilled
and processed to make beer and other alcoholic drinks.

Part Colour Pattern of growth General

appearances

A
Proboscis

B
Legs

C
Abdomen

D
Wings

E
Control

Activity 10.5 Carriers of micro- Summary

organisms
This chapter has taught the following:
Procedure • Microorganisms exist in air, water, food and in
1 Kill a housefly using a broom and with a pair of and around us as animals.
scissors or razor blade detach its (A) proboscis • Microorganisms exist as bacteria, viruses and pro-
(B) legs, (C) wings, and (D) hairy abdomen. tozoa; some are algae while others are fungi.
2 With a pair of forceps, carefully place each of A-D • They are microscopic and can be seen with the aid
on culture medium, in separate petri dishes. of microscope as growing clumps on food or on cul-
Immediately cover them and label them A, B, C, ture media.

163
• Some microorganisms can live on our bodies,
some on neglected food left in our mouths and oth-
ers on our ordinary foods. They can also enter our
bodies through our mouths, nostrils, cuts on the
skin and by being injected into our bloods by vec-
tors. Many of this cause us harm because we do not
obey the rules of hygiene and some live in our
bodies to help our living.
• Microorganisms can be transmitted from place to
place by ‘carriers’.

Revision questions
1 The presence of microorganisms was tested for in
such locations as (i) inside a living room, (ii) in the
laboratory, (iii) in an open field, (iv) in a kitchen,
(v) in a classroom, etc. In what particular medium
do these microbes exist? _____________________.
A On the floor of these locations
B In the air over these locations
C In the dust over these locations
D Within water in these locations
E All of the above.
2 Which particular feature of a housefly helps it
most to be a ’carrier’ of microorganisms? It has
________________________.
A wings
B thin legs useful only in alighting
C hairs all over its body
D two compound eyes
E three distinct body divisions
3 Which of the following habits is a means of keep-
ing microorganisms from thriving on our bodies?
______________________________.
A Trimming our nails regularly.
B Taking three meals regularly.
C Wearing beautiful dresses.
D Walking with smart steps.
E Working hard at one’s job.
4 Prove, by experiments, that microorganisms exist
in (a) the air, and (b) pond water.
5 Name five parts of the human body on which mi-
croorganisms can develop. For any three of these
parts, state the name of the diseases, the type/
group of microorganism(s) responsible, its source
and two of its symptoms on the sufferer.
6 Make a list of at least ten foods and household
materials of which you have observed microor-
ganisms growing. Why do these organisms not
grow on all other household good? Prove, by a
simple experiment, that the housefly is a ‘carrier’
of microbes.

164
Chapter 11 Microorganisms in action

Introduction 3 With the culture medium partly open, use the loop
to pick up a little bit of prepared culture. Place
this in the middle of the petri dish and close it
In the last chapter, we found that microorganisms immediately. Label it and place it safely on a table
abound in air, soils water, plants and animals, includ- or in a cupboard. Note the time of day when the
ing man. We also identified some of them by their experiment is set up.
growth patterns and colours. We will now study the ac-
tivities of microorganisms, including their growth and
how they affect man, for good or ill.

Growth of microorganisms
Microorganisms, like all living things, increase in size
and multiply in number, using either the culture me-
dium provided or any suitable surface, such as moist
bread or a piece of ripe pawpaw, as surface of food.
They can also increase in mass. Such an increase in size,
mass or number, is regarded as growth.
Let us now carry out an experiment which will
demonstrate growth in microorganisms.

Activity 11.1 Measuring growth Fig.11.1a) An inoculating loop

in microorganisms
Materials required 4 After twenty–four hours, examine the petri dish
A well covered petri dish of sterilised culture medium, again. Measure the rate of the mass or colony of
any microorganism already growing on a medium, the microorganisms in the dish. This should be
an inoculating loop, a transparent square paper, graph done as follows. Use cellophane or transparent
paper. paper marked in squares. Place the paper over
the particular colony to be measured and count,
Procedure underneath it, how many squares it has covered.
1 Into the central portion of a sterilised culture Record your result. Repeat the count three times,
medium, introduce any microorganisms already find the average count and record it, for the first
known to you. day.
2 Use an inoculating loop, (as in Fig. 11.1a). Put the 5 Take the similar counts for each of the first seven
looped end into blue flame for a few seconds, to days after planting the colony. Record your counts
sterilise it. Then allow it to cool. on a table.

165
6 Plot your count for the seven days on the vertical
axis of a graph, against the age (in days) on the Are microorganisms benefi-
7
horizontal axis.
Complete the graph by drawing the curve or
cial to man?
line described. It is common knowledge that microorganisms inflict
diseases like tetanus, tuberculosis and syphilis on high-
Questions er living organisms. However, many other microorgan-
a) What do you notice about the number of squares isms, including bacteria and fungi, are very useful to
counted from day to day? Interpret this observa- us in the production of such foods and drinks as butter,
tion. cheese, bread and alcoholic drinks. Besides, without
b) Why do you think we placed the microorganism these organisms, the soil would not be able to support
on a culture medium to start with? any plant, for lack of nitrates. Let us confirm, by means
of the following experiments, that some microorgan-
transparent isms are indeed useful to us.
paper marked petri dish lid
in squares
Activity 11.2 Observing the be-
haviour of palm wine
Materials required
Two bottles of palm wine bought, one on day one and
the other on the following day.

Procedure
a colony of On the first day of the experiment, purchase a bottle
growing micro-
petri dish organisms of fresh palm wine. Label it A. leave the bottle open
and observe what goes on from the top of the bottle for
culture medium some ten minutes. Attempt to cork the bottle and ob-
serve what happens after some time. Leave this bottle
Fig.11.1b) Measuring growth in a microorganism
of palm wine open, on a table, until the following day.
On the next day, obtain a similar bottle of palm wine.
c) What type of curve does your graph show? Label it B. Taste samples of the contents of bottles A and
d) From your observations in respect of the daily B, note how sweet each one is. Also take note of the
counts, how can you describe growth? foaming abilities of bottles A and B and the sediments
e) Use the method used in this activity to determine at the base of bottle A.
the growth rate of another microorganism.

to filter
pump

C D F

lime lime
potassium water
hydroxide water
E
fresh palm wine
Fig.11.20 Observing fermentation of palm wine

166
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
From your microscope examination of yeast cells, it
nucleus should now be clear why the yeast content of palm
vacoule
wine increases with time.

(a) a yeast cell

Activity 11.3 Production of alcohol
from glucose
Materials required
A 400 cm3 beaker, about 20 g of glucose, 180 cm3 of dis-
tilled water, two small beakers, yeast.

Procedure
1 Weigh about 20 g of glucose. Mix thoroughly in a
400 cm3 beaker with 1800 cm3 of distilled water.
(b) yeast cell after spore (c) yeast multiplying 2 Pour the sugar solution into two small beakers,
formation by budding until each is about half-full. Label the beakers A
and B. Add some yeast to beaker A while beaker B
Fig. 11.3 Yeast multiplying by budding. is used as control. After twenty-four hours,
observe each beaker and smell the contents.
a) Do you perceive any difference in smell be-
1 Was there any difference in the sweetness of the tween the contents of the two beakers?
samples of specimens A and B? What do you think b) What does the content of beaker A smell like?
is responsible for any changes between A and B? c) Compare the smell of the content of beaker A
2 What was noticeable in specimen A when ob- with that of some ethyl alcohol in a beaker on
served for ten minutes on the first day? What do the teacher’s table.
you think was happening to the palm wine? Are they similar? What conclusion can you
3 Test the gas given off from the palm wine for carbon draw from your observation?
dioxide using the apparatus shown in Fig. 11.2.
If the limewater in tube F turns milky, it does so only The yeast added to glucose solution in the last activity
because the gas escaping from flask E is carbon dioxide. merely acted as a catalyst in its fermentation. Alcohol is
Put one or two drops of the contents at the base of the main product of such fermentation.
bottle A on a slide and cover it up with a cover slip. Ex- Many other microorganisms are also useful to
amine very carefully under the low power of a micro- man. Fungi and bacteria are the main agents of decay
scope. Can you find any microorganisms in the speci- of plants and animals. They are also important in the
men? Are they living organisms? Why do you think so? formation of humus, which returns useful nutrients into
The microorganism observed in the palm wine sample the soil for plant growth. Similarly, man depends on
is yeast. Viewed under the microscope, some yeast cells the activities of saprophytic bacteria and other micro-
can be seen multiplying by the process of budding. organisms for the decomposition of faeces into soluble
This microorganism is a fungus. It secretes an enzyme, substances in septic tanks used in the modern sewage
zymase which acts as a catalyst in bringing about the disposal.
fermentation of the sugar in the palm wine. Swelling on the root of leguminous plants like
Thus, on the first day, the palm wine contained beans, peas and crotalaria, which are called nodules,
a lot of sugar and was, therefore, much sweeter than are known to contain bacteria which are capable of con-
a sample which was preserved till the following day verting ordinary nitrogen of the air into nitrates. As we
when much of its sugar had broken down into alcohol saw earlier, nitrates are very useful nutritive substances
and carbon dioxide. for all plants.
Palm wine kept for a day or two loses its sweet- A number of fungi and bacteria are used in the
ness while its alcohol content increases thereby making production of antibiotics. These are substances which
the wine stronger. have anti-microbial effects but are not harmful to man.
This process of fermentation is represented by the They either kill bacteria outright, or stop them from
equation: growing and reproducing. Penicillium is a good ex-

167
on the evil powers of their enemies. Very few people
are ever believed to have died because they succumbed
to the attack of a serious disease which they contracted
by chance. Science, on the other hand, always gives an
explanation for death, on the basis of cause-and-effect.
Thus, illness may occur through direct infection by
tap root pathogenic microorganisms, or through indirect infec-
tion through a vector. Illness may also occur through
heredity. All may lead to death.
nodules Hereditary diseases are those which pass from
parents to their children at birth. A common example of
this kind of diseases is the sickle-cell disease or haemo-
secondary philia.
root Some diseases are caused by a deficient supply of
vital food substances such as vitamins. Such diseases
are known as deficiency diseases. Other diseases, such as
asthma, are caused by substances in the air, to which
our bodies react adversely. Various types of skin rash
may be caused by foods which irritate our bodies. Such
diseases are described as allergies. Some diseases are
inadvertently contracted where people do their nor-
mal daily jobs. For instance asbestos factory workers
or coalminers develop various lung diseases from the
factories because they continuously breathe in dust.
Diseases of this kind are described as occupational.
Fig. 11.4 Nodules of a bean plant However, many human diseases are borne by mi-
croorganisms, through various media-air, food, drink-
ing water, soil, vectors (insects, rats, fleas and dogs), or
ample of a fungus used in producing the well known by direct contact with sufferers.
anti-microbial drug penicillin. Streptomycin and Chloro- Cholera is a good example of a disease spread
mycetin are other examples of antibiotic drugs made from person to person through the medium of food or
from bacteria. All these are used to stop the growth of water. It is transmitted by a bacterium. Cholera can be-
harmful bacteria in the human body. Some antibiotics come an epidemic disease, since it spreads fast within
are used in raising young animals and poultry. One of a human population. It principally affects those who do
these, aureomycin, is used in increasing the growth rate not keep simple rules of hygiene, such as the washing
in pigs, by controlling disease-causing microorganisms. of hands after leaving a toilet or latrine, or those who
Yeast and bacteria are rich sources of enzymes like defecate in open places from where water can wash the
amylase and invertase. They are also rich sources of B stool into nearby streams that are used for drinking.
vitamins. Careless exposure of food to flies, drinking unboiled
Palm wine is used to make bread ‘rise’, because of or unfiltered water, or depositing garbage from homes
the yeast it contains. Bread is made spongy and easily on dung hills, open roads, gutters or such other open
digestible because of the holes in it. These are created places, can also cause the spread of epidemic diseases.
by the bubbles of carbon dioxide produced by yeast. Cholera patients develop a light to severe diar-
Industrially produced yeast is often used for this pur- rhoea, which causes frequent stooling and vomiting.
pose, in place of palm wine. Their bodies are soon dehydrated and such patients
Some bacteria are used in butter and cheese mak- may die within a day or two if not properly attended to.
ing, while others are used in the manufacture of vine- Poliomyelitis is a microbial disease caused by a
gar, lactic acid and citric acid, all of which are extremely type of virus. If the virus escapes into water, those who
useful in the food industry. drink such water will soon be infected with a disease
that causes the paralysis of the body muscles, often af-
Harmful microorganisms fecting one half of the body. The patient loses control
over his muscles and therefore cannot use such muscles
as freely as before. Serious deformities of the limbs usu-
Very often in our society the death of people is blamed ally result from attacks of this disease.

168
Food and water-borne diseases can then inhale or swallow them and become infected.
Microbes may be taken in with food or water. The dis- Diseases such as influenza, measles, pneumonia, etc.,
eases caused by them can, therefore, be avoided by which are contracted in this way, are described as drop-
strictly obeying the rules of hygiene. Some of these are let infection diseases. This is the reason why open and
as follows: unchecked spitting, sneezing, coughing and blowing of
1 Do not drink impure water; water remains impure noses are dangerous habits.
if it is not boiled or filtered. A chemical like alum
may also be added to domestic drinking water, to Vector-borne diseases
make all the suspended particle settle. Clean dri- Certain diseases are carried to sufferers only through
nking glasses or cups should always be used for animals, known as vectors. Without the vectors, the dis-
drinking water. eases do not have a means of passing from one person
2 Food should only be handled with clean hands to the other. Vectors are animals which carry disease
and always put in clean utensils. pathogens from a sufferer to another person. A well
3 Hands should be thoroughly washed after getting known example of vector-spread diseases is malaria.
out of toilet, as there are chances that several dan- The malaria vector is the anopheles mosquito, which
gerous microbes may have settled on them. transmits the pathogens from person to person, as
4 Fruit and vegetables should be properly washed it feeds on their blood. It should be understood that
or boiled before consumption. Unwashed fruits pathogen transmission is not a deliberate act. Mosqui-
are a ready source of contamination. toes may feed on human blood without ever bring-
5 Food should be properly covered, to keep out flies, ing about malaria. However, whenever they feed on
which may have earlier alighted on faeces, or de- a malaria patient and suck up some of the protozoan
caying materials. pathogens, these develop in them and may later be
6 Meat should be obtained from healthy animals, transmitted to uninfected persons when the infected
hygienic sellers and a clean environment. It must mosquitoes bite them.
also be thoroughly boiled to kill all germs. Other vectors like the tsetse fly, body louse and
Can you determine, from a study of Table 11.1a, which dog also transmit various diseases, as shown in
is the major causative organism of food or water – borne Table 11.1c.
diseases? How common are those diseases caused by All the vectors named in the table, except the dog,
the other named pathogens in the area in which you are arthropods. The first three are insects, with special
live? adaptations of their mouth-parts for piercing and in-
jecting pathogens into the bodies of animals.
Air-borne diseases Of the three types of pathogens named here, the
Table 11.1b shows some diseases carried by microbes Rickettsiae are the least known. These are tiny, rod-
which are transmitted by air. It also provides some shaped microorganisms but are neither viruses nor
information about the pathogens, their hosts and the bacteria.
symptoms and effects of the diseases they cause.
The table shows that viruses are responsible for
relatively more air- borne diseases than bacteria. Also
observe, from the table, which of these two pathogens
spreads its diseases to other groups of animals apart
from man.
Smallpox, one of the air-borne diseases of micro-
organisms, used to be a very fatal disease. It could eas-
ily be contracted through contact with infected people.
The pathogen could also be breathed in from infected
air. One of the achievements of medical science is the
eradication of this disease, achieved many years ago.
The viruses and bacteria which spread air- borne
diseases are extremely light organisms. They are blown
into air along with tiny drops of moisture from the
mouth, nose, throat and lungs, when infected animals
and humans breathe, sneeze, cough, or blow their nos-
es. Healthy people within the reach of such microbes

169
Table 11.1a) Diseases of water and food-borne microorganisms

Disease Microorganism Medium of Host and Symptoms

causing it transmission age range

Poliomyelitis Virus Water Humans Loss of control of

of all ages, muscles/paralysis
mainly
children

Infective Virus Food and Human Enlarged liver, fever,

hepatitis water children headache and jaundice
and young
adults

Amoebic Protozoa Food and Humans Heavy vomiting and

dysentery water of all ages diarrhoea

Typhoid Bacteria Food, i.e. Humans High temperature with

vegetables, milk, of all ages diarrhoea or constipation
shellfish and
water

Diphtheria Bacteria Food, milk and Humans of Pain in limbs

water all ages

Paratyphoid Bacteria Food, Humans of High temperature

vegetables all ages but with less severe
and meat diarrhoea/constipation
than for typhoid

Sore throat Bacteria Food, milk Humans of Pain in the throat

all ages particularly while eating
or drinking

Diarrhoea Bacteria Food, meat Humans of Tiredness and frequent

all ages stools with blood

Tuberculosis Bacteria Food, meat Cattle and Persistent dry cough and
humans of sweating at night
all ages

Bacilli Bacteria Food, vegetables, Humans of High temperature and

dysentery shell fish all ages frequent stools

Food Bacteria Food, milk, Humans of Headache, nausea, liquid

poisoning bread, ice-cream, all ages stools with mucus
pastry, salads

Cholera Bacteria Food, milk and Humans of Mild to very severe

water all ages diarrhoea with vomiting

170
Table 11.1b) Diseases transmitted by air-borne microorganisms

Diseases Microorganisms Host and age Symptoms and effects

involved range

Pneumonia Bacteria Birds, cows, pigs Pain in the chest,

and humans of all breathlessness and
ages cough

Tuberculosis Bacteria Cows and humans of Persistent dry cough

all ages and profuse sweating
at night

Meningitis Bacteria Children and Stiffness of the neck and

(cerebrospinal young adults joints, headache, and
fever) severe fever

Measles Virus Children High constant

temperature, skin rash,
headache, cold and
cough

Common cold Virus Humans of all Fever, headache and

ages running nose

German measles Virus Humans of all Rashes on the face,

ages swollen glands on the
neck

Influenza Virus Humans of all Headache, shivering,

ages high temperature and
general pains

Small pox Virus Humans of all Skin rashes and small

ages blisters. High fever,
sometimes leading to
death

Chicken pox Virus Humans of all Itchy skin rash

ages

Whooping cough Bacteria Humans of all Cold, high fever, cough

ages and vomiting

Table 11.1c) Diseases spread by vectors

Diseases Microorganism Vector Host Symptoms

causing it and effects

Malaria Plasmodium(protozoa) Anopheles Humans of Shivering, high

mosquito all ages fever, with
irregular bouts of
sweating.

171
Yellow fever Virus Aedes Humans High
mosquito and temperature,
monkeys headache,
backache,
vomiting and
jaundice.

Sleeping sickness Trypanosome Tsetse fly Humans Persistent feeling

(trypanosomiasis) (protozoa) of sleepiness,
fever and
headache.
Tick typhus Rickettsia Tick Humans Typhus fever,

Flea typhus Rickettsia Rat flea Humans fever, muscular

pains, high
temperatures and
sudden splitting
headaches.
Rabies Virus Dog Humans Swelling of
and dogs lymphatics in
region of dog’s
bite. Choking and
breathlessness,
fever, mental
derangement,
vomiting,
secretion of
sticky saliva and
barking like a
dog.

salivary tube
eye labium
stylets

antenna
sucking tube

labium

host’s skin

Fig. 11.5 (a) Head of a female mosquito (b) Mouth parts of a female mosquito

172
Summary 6

a) State three different media through which
microorganisms could reach animal hosts.
b) For each medium, name (i) two diseases,
This chapter has taught the following: (ii) the type of microorganisms causing each
• The growth activities of a microorganism shows one, (iii) their respective hosts and (iv) the
that growth represents an increase in size, weight symptoms of the disease.
or number of body units.
• Microorganisms can be very useful to man in the
food and drinks industries, in the manufacture of
antibiotics and as sources of some enzymes and
vitamins as well as for increasing the growth rate
of some animals.
• Microorganisms may also be harmful to human
beings and other higher animals. They cause vari-
ous types of diseases which can be contracted
from various media, including the air, our food
and drink, as well as through vectors and by
contact with infected persons.

Revision questions
1 Yeast is a microscopic organism because it
_____________________.
A ferments palm wine
B moves at regular periods
C can be carried by the air
D lacks chlorophyll
E is very tiny in size
2 Anopheles mosquito is a vector because
_________________________.
A it carries all diseases from person to person
B it transmits malaria to non- sufferers with
every bite
C it transmits malaria when it carries the patho-
gen plasmodium to non-sufferers
D it inflicts the disease malaria only on people it
chooses to impart it to
E it is the most notorious of all the animals that
transmit malaria
3 Freshly tapped palm wine X, is sweeter than a
day–old palmwine Y because __________________.
A X has not yet undergone fermentation
B Y contains far more yeast; sugar is formed
inside fresh palm wine X
C the alcoholic content of Y is not high
D water content of Y is higher
E more carbon dioxide has been lost from X
4 Describe an experiment to show that a known
microorganism is capable of growing.
5 Which microorganism is involved in sugar fer-
mentation? State the equation for sugar fermenta-
tion and the importance of the process to man.

173
Chapter 12 Towards better health

Introduction Materials required

Each group will be supplied with two covered petri
dishes containing a sterile culture medium.
We have learnt that microorganisms are responsible for
many diseases of man, other animals, as well as plants. Procedure
In this chapter, we shall see how to control the spread of 1 Using a sterile inoculation loop, transfer a known
these microbes, either directly by applying conditions microorganism from an established culture to a
that would make it difficult for them to live and mul- number of points on the surface of petri dishes.
tiply within their hosts, or indirectly by attacking their One of the petri dishes should then be labelled
vectors. We shall also discuss the importance of good A1, B1, C1… The other dish, to be used as control,
health to individuals and communities and what can should be labelled A2, B2, C2, etc., depending on
be done to maintain it. the group.
2 Group A: Place culture A in an oven whose tempera-
ture is regulated to 1500C. Alternately, put into a
Control of disease-causing refrigerator with temperature regulated to 00C.
microorganisms 3
Leave the culture A2 on a safe table.
Group B: Apply one or two tablets of penicillin on
marked portion of B1 and leave it beside culture
Our present day knowledge of the control of microor- B2 safely on a table.
ganisms is due largely to the work of earlier scientists. 4 Group C: Add drops of Dettol, an antiseptic, on the
Louis Pasteur, for instance, first demonstrated that mi- surface of culture C1 and mark the the spots cov-
crobes were killed or rendered inactive at certain tem- ered by it. Both C1 and C2 should then be left, side
peratures. Fleming showed that the growth of bacteria by side, on a table.
was impeded when they shared a common substratum 5 Group D: Place a culture D1 in a desiccator; put D2
with the fungus penicillium. on a safe table.
Other means of stopping the growth or develop- 6 Group E: Use a pipette to place some drops of strong
ment of microorganisms are now known to include the saline water on E1 and mark the extents covered
use of dehydration or dryness, antiseptics, disinfec- by the drops. E1 should then be placed side by
tants and high salinity or saltiness. These can be shown side with E2 on a table.
experimentally. 7 Commence observation two days after setting up
the experiment and observe daily for five days. A
daily record of observation should be entered on
Activity 12.1 Checking the growth a table prepared for this purpose as follows:
of microorganisms
For this activity, the class should work in five groups,
identified as A-E. Group A will use high temperature,
group B antibiotics, group C antiseptics, group D de-
hydration, and group E high salinity.

174
Observation in days

II III IV V

High/low A1 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Temperature A2 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Penicillin B1 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

(antibiotics) B2 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Dettol C1 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

(antiseptics) C2 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Desiccator D1 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

D2 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

High E1 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Salinity E2 ……….... ……….... ……….... ………....

Obtain results from the other groups and complete the in hospitals, to prevent them from becoming septic.
table in your practical notebook. Examples of antiseptics are hydrogen peroxide, iodine
tincture, potassium permanganate, common salt and
Questions camphor. They are so used because they do not damage
1 In which of the cultures was there any growth of human tissues, although they kill off pathogens. Anti-
microorganisms? septic soaps also inhibit the growth of bacteria.
2 What are the general effects of each of the treat-
ments on the microorganisms contained in the re- Disinfectants
spective petri dishes? These kill off microbes and are much stronger than an-
3 What conclusion can you draw after comparing tiseptics. They are so strong that they cannot be used
dishes A1-E1 with their respective controls? on wounds in the same way as antiseptics are. Exam-
ples include solutions of formaldehyde, carbolic acid,
Izal containing phenol, creolin, lysol and cresol. They
Control substances and methods are used for sterilising floors, clothing ,hospital instru-
Based on the conclusions of the last experiments, we ments, sick rooms, etc. Thus they serve to prevent mi-
can discuss the control of disease-causing microorgan- croorganisms from attacking our bodies.
isms.
Very high or very low temperature
Antibiotics A 19th century French scientist, Louis Pasteur, showed
The use of antibiotics in our hospitals today is the fi- that very high temperatures of about 1500C, could
nal result of the work of the English scientist, Alexan- destroy microorganisms living in milk, wine or meat
der Fleming, who incidentally observed that bacteria broth. This process of heating any mixture or solution
could not grow side by side with the fungus penicil- to high temperature in order to kill off the microbes has
lium, another microorganism. Penicillin is the antibiotic since been known as pasteurisation. Very low tempera-
prepared from penicillium and today there are several ture also has the same lethal effect on microorganisms.
other antibiotics used to cure such diseases as dysen- It renders them inactive, or freezes them to death, and
tery, pneumonia, typhoid fever and tuberculosis, all of so stops their pathogenic effects. Any substance kept in
which are caused by bacteria infection. Some of these a freezer is therefore preserved from the attack of mi-
are septrin, chloramphenicol, aureomycin. croorganisms.

Antiseptics Common salt

Antiseptics destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria and Common salt is sprinkled on some food items to pre-
viruses on the body. They are often applied to wounds serve them. One example of this is the locust bean

175
preparation (ogiri or daudawa) used in Nigerian soups. Importance of vectors
Salt is similarly used to preserve meat or fish over long Two things really distinguish a disease vector from a
periods. It does this by destroying all the microorgan- mere carrier.
isms that could have caused decay.
1 The method of picking up the microbes
Isolating patients with infectious diseases This, in mosquito, for example, is by piercing with
Some diseases may be contracted merely by com- its mouthparts, the skin and muscles of a malaria
ing very close to, or touching people who are suffer- patient and drawing his blood to feed itself. In
ing from them, or by breathing in air that patients of this habit, the mosquito differs from the housefly,
these diseases have breathed, sneezed, or coughed out. which merely passively transfers microbes from
Examples of such diseases are tuberculosis, chicken infected materials to the food of uninfected peo-
pox and measles. People suffering from these diseases ple.
should be isolated, i.e. kept away from other people or 2 Active involvement in the development of the
left in special hospitals for these diseases. In this way, microorganism
uninfected people are protected. Part of the life-cycle of plasmodium takes place in-
side the mosquito. The mosquito sucks up, along
Immunisation with the sufferer’s blood, male and female gameto-
Immunisation involves the introduction, into the cytes of plasmodium. The sexual reproduction of
blood, of some de-activated microbes of a given dis- plasmodium thus takes place inside the mosquito,
ease against which protection is desired. The presence and each fertilised egg transforms into many sporo-
of such microbes causes the blood to produce reason- zoites, which find their way back into human
able amount of antibodies specific to that disease. This blood when the mosquito feeds again. This ar-
ensures that the body is equipped to deal with any at- rangement ensures that at least some of the nu-
tack by organisms of the disease over a given period. merous sporozoites produced will find their
In medical language, the recipient is said to become im- way into fresh human hosts.
mune to the disease concerned, over the period. Anyone Vectors are usually not affected by the multipli-
who wishes to travel to another country is first expect- cation of microorganisms in them. They are thus
ed to be immunised against such diseases as cholera, both a breeding ground and a means of distribu-
chicken pox and yellow fever. This serves to reduce the tion of disease pathogens.
likelihood of these diseases being carried to other coun-
tries by such a traveller. Yellow fever inoculation gives
protection against the disease for about seven years, Control of vectors
while cholera vaccination remains effective in the body The diseases carried by vectors have no means of in-
for about six months only. fecting man except through vectors. If, therefore, vec-
tors could be effectively controlled, the diseases that
Personal hygiene they carry would have been put in check.
Personal hygiene is one of the means of keeping mi- To effectively control a vector or pest of any kind,
croorganisms off our bodies and environments. This is it is necessary to study its habit, behaviour and life his-
achieved through regular baths with soap and sponge, tory.
brushing the teeth with chewing sticks or tooth brush-
es, wearing clean clothes, washing or boiling fruits or Mosquito
vegetables before eating and washing the hands regu- All these have been properly studied in mosquito.
larly. The adult anopheles mosquito hides itself against a
dark background or in a dark corner during the day,
emerging only at night for its blood meals. It lays eggs
Drugs in standing water, wherever this occurs. These eggs
The use of drugs for the cure of diseases is a well- hatch into larvae after one to three days. The larva is
known medical practice. Prophylactic drugs are used a worm-like creature which breathes atmospheric air
in preventing diseases while curative drugs are used to over the water surface, by means of the breathing tube
destroy pathogens like bacteria, fungi and protozoans located on its tail region. It turns into a pupa after three
in the bodies of patients. Drugs for viral diseases are or four days. The pupa also lives in water and tends
not yet widely known. Patients of diseases caused by to sink into the water whenever it does not swim. It is,
microorganisms are therefore usually advised to imme- however, active and frequently swims up to the water
diately see a medical doctor in a hospital. surface to breathe through short breathing trumpets on

176
the head region. The pupa does not feed at this stage. It unless its victim is virtually motionless, as in sleep.
turns into an adult within two to seven days. The adult Armed with this knowledge, let us now see how
is a shy creature, which does not venture in for its bite this vector can be controlled.

sexual reproductive phase of plasmodium in anopheles mosquito

sexual phase of plasmodium in

female anopheles mosquito sporozoites
sporozoites infest formed from
the salivary glands the zygote
of mosquito in mosquito

mosquito bites man zygote male gamete fertilises

and injects plasmodium the female gamete
sporozoites into his blood inside mosquito

male
sporozoites gamete female gamete taken
enter up by mosquito
liver cell

cycle in human liver

some merozoites
sporozoites divide form gametes in
into merozoites blood plasma
in liver
merozoite enters
red blood cell
red blood cell bursts
reinfect other red releasing merozoites
blood cells

new merozoites
cycle in red blood develop
cells of man
merozoite grows
(signet ring stage)

merozoites cytoplasm
divides
merozoit nucleus divides

Asexual reproductive phase of plasmodium in man

Fig. 12.1 Life cycle of plasmodium

177
Control of developmental stages pecially during the day.
1 Kerosene may be poured on the surface of the b) Walls of bedrooms should be painted with
water in which the larvae or pupae of mosquito light-coloured paints, preferably white or
live. Other oils may also be used. The oil lowers the cream, to expose the perched insect.
surface tension of the water, so that tiny creatures
can no longer hang onto the surface for breathing.
The kerosene or oil also blocks the breathing tubes
Tsetse fly
Another important vector in tropical Africa is the tsetse
of larvae and breathing trumpets of pupae. Oil
fly, which transmits trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness
prevents atmospheric oxygen required by the lar-
through the causative microorganisms, trypanosoma.
vae or pupae from dissolving in the water.
The tsetse fly belongs to the same insect group, the
2 Since they develop only in water, all the water
Order Diptera, as the common housefly. This suggests
containers in which mosquitoes can develop
to us what its life history should be. The other disease
around human dwellings should be removed or
transmitted by tsetse flies is nagana, a sleeping disease
turned upside down to avoid standing water. Gut-
of cattle and horses, which could also be fatal if not
ters should also be cleared, for the free-flow of
given timely and adequate treatment.
water currents.
3 Whenever mosquito larvae or pupae are found in
Life history and mode of life
gutters they should be physically removed, along
The tsetse fly does not lay its eggs. After mating, the
with the mud or sand at the bottom of the water,
female retains the single egg that is fertilised inside.
using a spade or hoe, and the sand dumped on
It retains it for about eight days, after which the egg
dry land. All the larvae or pupae will die off or be
hatches into a larva, which is then ‘born’. It is a white
eaten by ants.
cylindrical larva, with two knobs which carry respira-
4 Introduce fish or tadpoles into water where mos-
tory pores. This larva bores a tunnel inside which it
quito larvae or pupae are developing. They will
sheds its skin several times.
be fed upon by these ‘guests’.

Control of adult stage

flagellum
1 Adult mosquitoes should be killed, either physi-
cally or by spraying with insecticides.
2 Adult mosquitoes may be prevented from biting undulating membrane
by:
a) using mosquito-proof nets around beds, or
over windows and doors;
b) burning mosquito coils which disturb their nucleus
keen sense of smell. This can only be done in
a well-aerated room; Fig. 12.2 Trypanosoma
c) applying skin creams or lotions whose smell
is repulsive to mosquitoes.

Preventing the development of pathogens

The malarial pathogens may be prevented from devel-
oping within the human body by:
1 Using medicines called prophylactics which pre-
vent the development of pathogens in blood, e.g.
Daraprin. Prophylactic drugs usually have to be larva
taken regularly, e.g. Daraprin should be taken once
a week;
2 Taking medicines which are capable of curing the
malaria by destroying the pathogens in blood,
e.g. Chloroquine, Camoquine, Fansidar and many
others. adult
3 Applying the knowledge of the behaviour of adult
mosquitoes. pupa
a) Any bush around a building should be cleared
to remove the hiding places of mosquitoes, es- Fig. 12.3 Tsetse fly

178
The larva turns into a pupa some ten days later Importance of maintenance of good health to a com-
and undergoes several moults over a period of three munity
weeks, after which it becomes a full grown adult or 1 Individuals in a community will work hard and
imago. This then climbs out to the soil surface, allows improve their standard of living if they are
its wings to dry and flies away to a shady place. The tse- healthy.
tse fly cannot stand strong light and is usually found in 2 If individuals are healthy, they will spend less on
the shady areas of forests, savannahs and river banks. medical bills; health and wealth are related.
The fly feeds on the blood of mammals, birds and 3 Some diseases are communicable. If some individu-
reptiles. Some of these animals, e.g. antelopes, do not als in a community suffer a disease, others may
suffer from trypanosomiasis. They merely serve as res- become infected; hence maintenance of good health
ervoir for the pathogen, from which the uninfected tse- is a common concern.
tse fly picks up the microorganisms. Like plasmodium,
trypanosomiasis also undergoes its multiplication phase
Ways in which communities maintain good health
inside its vector. The numerous ineffective units thus
1 Refuse disposal
produced then move, from the stomach wall of the fly
2 Sewage disposal
into the salivary glands, for transmission into a new
3 Protection of water
host.
4 Protection of food
5 Control of diseases
Control measure
Knowledge of the life history, habitat and behaviour of
the tsetse fly has led to the development of the follow- Disposal of refuse
ing methods for the control of the fly. Fig. 12.4 shows some ways of disposing of refuse. The
1 Preventive measures dustbin, a large bucket with a lid, is used for collecting
a) Places where the tsetse fly could possibly rest all the house refuse and is one item that every house-
and breed, such as shady areas near towns or hold should have. The modern usage of the dustbin
beside river banks should be cleared. involves placing of special black cellophane refuse pa-
b) Farmers should be encouraged to breed cattle per or plastic bag inside the dustbin. At the end of each
which are resistant to nagana. day, the contents of the dustbin are tied up in the large
2 Curative measures paper bag and left in a barrel on an agreed spot from
a) The tsetse fly can be brought into a country by where the refuse van carries it away for disposal.
moving objects such as cars and bicycles; such When next you see a refuse van, take note of its
vehicles from suspected places should be size and its gadgets for collecting and compressing a
sprayed with insecticides before entry into the large quantity of garbage into small size.
country.
b) Resting places of tsetse flies during the day
should be sprayed with insecticides.
c) Sleeping sickness should be promptly treated
with appropriate drugs once its symptoms
are diagnosed.

Public health
The well-being of every individual in a community can-
not be maintained solely by personal effort. No matter
how clean an individual is, if his neighbours and mem-
bers of his household live unhygienic lives, he will him-
self soon fall victim of one microbial disease or another.
The maintenance of health should therefore be
viewed as a matter of common concern among individ-
uals, communities, nations and the world as a whole.
Effective public health administration in a community
is achieved in a number of ways. Some of these are as
follows:
(a) A dust bin

179
Modern toilets are the safest, most hygienic ways
of disposing of sewage. Waste is deposited, first into
water inside the toilet bowls and then flushed off into a
large, underground septic tank. This system can work

(b) An incinerator

Fig. 12.4 Methods of waste disposal

The incinerator is a small building designed specially

for the drying and burning of refuse. A fire is lit at the
lowest opening and dry refuse is dumped in at the up-
per end, where some allowance has also been made for
the escape of smoke. A well-kept incinerator may last
for several years.
One other method, not in widespread use, is the
burial of garbage and refuse. In spite of the heavy la-
bour involved, it is an equally efficient method of dis-
posing of garbage as the more popular methods earlier
described. Fig. 12.5a) Sewage disposal: A flush toilet

Sewage disposal properly only where there is free-flow of pipe-borne

Sewage includes faeces and urine, as well as waste wa- water to fill the cistern. The septic tank is ultimately
ter from kitchen and laundries. Not only is the mere filled up, but this takes a considerable length of time,
sight of sewage quite offensive, it is also a source of se- during which the sewage settles and the solid waste or
rious microbial diseases affecting man. Efforts should sludge is acted upon by anaerobic bacteria. The prod-
therefore be made by every individual and every com- ucts of this bacterial action may finally be collected,
munity to see that sewage is properly disposed of. compressed into cakes and used as fertilisers. The liq-
There are various methods for the disposal of sew- uid effluent above it is allowed to drain into a soak-
age. Three usual methods are described: away pit. In large cities with densely-populated areas,
Pit latrines are common in rural areas because of the the septic tank is further modified. All sludge is direct-
lack of pipe-borne water. If pit latrines are well covered ed into a central sludge plant which makes fertilisers
with lids and used hygienically; they can be a safe dis- from it, while the effluent is pumped into a system that
posal method for human waste. makes the water harmless and empties it into a pond,
Bucket toilets, if regularly emptied, are also a lake or the seas.
safe way of disposing of human waste. They should be By using this method, man is saved from the bad
emptied into large, covered pits, dug far away from hu- smell and the danger of contamination by sewage, be-
man habitation. fore it is disposed of or converted into useful materi-
als.

180
ing and cholera. Imported food, especially tinned or
canned foods (e.g. tomato puree, fish, milk products),
wall should be certified consumable before they are released
gas release into the market. Health officers from the Ministry of
pipe Health should also inspect cattle which are slaughtered
water
cistern for sale in various abattoirs, in order to declare those
that are disease-ridden unfit for consumption. Health
officers should also make sure that only hygienically
maintained environs are approved as public eating
places.

bowl
Control of diseases
Community efforts in respect of disease control are
usually supervised by the Ministry of Health. The first
duty of the ministry is to educate the public on the
general rules of health, many of which are often over-
septic tank soak away pit looked or forgotten by our people. Some of such rules
are as follows:
1 Maintenance of a clean domestic surrounding: en-
Fig. 12.5b) Working of flush toilet
vironmental exercises are aimed at achieving this.
2 Discouragement of spitting or the blowing of nos-
es, onto the street or into the public drains, etc.
Protection of water 3 Discouragement of urinating or stooling in open
Organisms that cause cholera, diphtheria, poliomyeli- places.
tis, infective hepatitis, amoebic dysentery and typhus 4 Provision of child immunisation services, at the
are all carried in impure water, as we saw in Chapter General Hospitals and local health centres, against
8. These diseases can therefore be largely checked by measles, tetanus, whooping cough and poliomyeli-
the provision of treated water through a modern pipe- tis.
borne water system for the community. 5 Encouragement of the burning of domestic and
One method of procuring the water for such a industrial waste in incinerators.
distribution is by the damming of a nearby river and The Ministry of Health also takes special care about
channelling the water collected into a reservoir. From infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis.
the reservoir, the water passes into large tanks, called The spread of these diseases is checked by isolating the
sedimentation chambers, where all the large particules patients in special infectious diseases hospitals where
in the water settle and are removed. Clear water then specially trained medical officers take care of them.
moves on to filter chambers where much smaller par-
ticles still suspended in it are removed. The addition of Health organisations
a chemical like alum can hasten these two processes, as The Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) and the Ni-
it can make very tiny and light dirt particles stick to- gerian Red Cross Society are two Nigerian organisa-
gether, for easier sedimentation or filtration. The water tions which have plans for the maintenance of good
is further treated with chlorine, to kill the organisms health among the Nigerian public. In addition to these
contained in it. Finally, the water is pumped through are such international organisations as the World
pipes from the reservoir to the various homes in the Health Organisation (WHO), the United Nations In-
community. ternational Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the
By comparing the treatment and transport of pipe- International Red Cross and International Red Crescent
borne water to what obtains where pipe-borne water is Societies, all of which are specifically committed to the
not available, it becomes evident that pipe-borne water people’s good health. These international bodies were
is safer for drinking. founded at various times and for different purposes.

Protection of food
The community should also try to protect the foods of
its members in order to prevent a spread of food trans-
mitted diseases like diarrhoea, sore throat, food poison-

181
The World Health Organisation The International Red Cross and
The WHO is a special agency of the United Nations
Organisation (UNO) and is therefore, financed by all
International Red Crescent Societ-
member countries of the UNO. Its primary concern is ies
the maintenance of world health and it works towards These are the two current arms of a voluntary interna-
the achievement of this by: tional health organisation, first proposed by Jean Henri
1 keeping the health statistics of the world. This can Bunant, a Swiss, in 1859. The organisation now has
help national health authorities to see whether a branches in over one hundred countries of the world.
diseases (e.g. cholera) is spreading or receding at In times of war, they concern themselves with
any time, so as to be prepared to apply emergency the:
control measures, if necessary, 1 care of the injured,
2 providing experts to train and advise the health 2 provision of emergency aid to those in distress,
personnel in member countries, 3 negotiation of the exchange of prisoners of war
3 producing medical publications, between countries,
4 providing means for warning all member coun- 4 provision of transport for the evacuation of refu-
tries in the event of the outbreak of an epidemic. gees,
5 providing drugs and vaccines in cases of emer- 5 welfare of prisoners of war.
gency, In peace time, they concern themselves with the:
6 assisting national health organisations in the 1 provision of general first aid,
control of diseases and vectors, 2 prevention of accidents,
7 helping in maternal and child health care, 3 training of nurses ‘aides,
8 setting and recommending safe standards for 4 maintenance of maternal and child welfare
drugs, clinics,
9 setting international quarantine regulations. 5 provision of help to victims of natural disasters
One of the notable achievements of the WHO has (earthquakes, floods, etc) .
been the eradication of small pox at the end of a Branches of these international associations exist in our
mass vaccination campaign from 1967 to 1978, country and they pursue similar or identical goals.
against the deadly viral disease. The Nigerian Medical Association has the addi-
tional responsibility of caring for the needs of medical
doctors in our country to provide adequate medical
services in our hospitals.
The United Nations International Health organisations generally stress the need for
Children’s Emergency Fund the prevention of diseases, through improved public
The UNICEF, another special agency of the United Na- health services. They also provide aid for those afflicted
tional Organisation, was also set up to deal with world by diseases or natural disasters.
health needs, especially those of children.
Among other things, the UNICEF seeks to:
1 provide for the emergency needs of children in
devastated areas, Summary
2 improve the nutrition of under-nourished children;
3 feed destitute children; This chapter has taught the following:
4 supply vaccines or equipment to prevent or control • Disease-carrying microbes can be controlled or
diseases that especially affect children, such as killed by means of antibiotics, antiseptics, disin-
whooping cough, diphtheria, poliomyelitis and fectants, very high or low temperatures, common
tuberculosis, salt, isolation of sufferers, drugs, immunisation,
5 provide children’s clothing and other needs, and personal hygiene.
6 assist in the improvement of the health of moth- • By knowing what vectors are, their importance
ers and their children by providing training pro- and nature of their habitats, life history and
grammes and necessary equipment. behaviour, the diseases that they transmit can be
The recent campaign in Nigeria for the application checked or controlled.
of the Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) in the con- • Individual persons cannot, without the contribu-
trol of diarrhoea in children is an example of the tions of their communities (through the provision
useful work being done by the UNICEF. of good public health services), maintain a perfect
health system.

182
• Health organisations nationally and internation-
ally function in various ways to control diseases,
and they have their common and various aims.

Revision Questions
1 The vector for the organism that causes sleeping
sickness diseases is _______________.
A plasmodium
B trypanosome
C tsetse fly
D mosquito
E trypanosomiasis
2 Setting international quarantine regulations is the
exclusive function of the _____________________.
A International Red Cross Organisation
B UNICEF
C Immigration Department
D World Health Organisation
E Nigerian Medical Association
3 Briefly describe the various ways in which you
would protect yourself from malaria.
4 a) What is immunisation?
b) State three diseases which are preventable by
immunisation and name their causative or-
ganism.
c) Describe five other ways in which diseases
causing microorganisms may be controlled.
5 Why is it important for a community to cooperate
in maintaining the health of its members? Describe
four ways in which the community may maintain
the health of its members.

183
Chapter 13 Aquatic habitats

4 Density
Introduction The density of seawater is about 1.028, while that of
pure water is 1.00. The high density of seawater enables
The habitat of an organism is that type of place in
the eggs of some marine organisms and various organ-
which it normally lives. Habitats may be classified into
isms to float in it.
two main kinds, aquatic and terrestrial. Aquatic habi-
tats are those which consist largely of water while ter-
5 Pressure
restrial habitats relate to land.
Water pressure increases at the rate of one atmosphere
for every ten metres or so increase in depth. At a depth
Aquatic habitats are of three kinds:
of about 1000 m, the pressure would be about 100 atmo-
1 Marine or saltwater habitats;
spheres. Animals which live deep down in the ocean
2 Estuarine or brackish-water habitats and
must therefore be adapted to resist such high pressures.
3 Freshwater habitats.
6 Temperature
The marine habitat The temperature of the sea changes less quickly than
that of land. However, temperature falls with increase
Marine habitats contain saltwater and include oceans in the depth of the sea. In tropical waters, when the
and saltwater lakes. The shore and the water of the temperature of the surface of the sea is 30oC, the tem-
open sea or lake together make up the marine habitat. perature at a depth of 15000 m is about 4oC.

7 Oxygen concentration
Characteristics of the marine habitat The concentration of oxygen in seawater is highest at
the surface where the atmospheric oxygen dissolves
The marine habitat has the following characteristics:
in the water. As green plants carry out photosynthesis
1 Size
in surface waters where light is present, they release
The marine habitat is usually a large body of water. In
oxygen into the water. Oxygen-concentration decreases
West Africa, the available marine habitat is the Atlantic
with depth and, in very deep parts of the oceans, oxy-
Ocean, which is very large.
gen concentration is low.
2 Chemical composition
8 Hydrogen-ion concentration
Seawater contains many kinds of dissolved ions, in-
Sea water tends to be alkaline, with pH of about 8.0 to
cluding sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
8.5 near the surface.
phosphate, iodine, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate and
nitrate ions. Of the salts present in sea water, sodium
9 Stability
chloride occurs in the largest amount.
The marine habitat is stable when compared to most
terrestrial habitats. The body of water is usually very
3 Salinity
large, and its chemical composition does not alter very
The total salt concentration of water is known as its
much in spite of the addition of freshwater from rain or
salinity. The salinity of seawater is high. The average
rivers. Its temperature does not fluctuate rapidly and
salinity of seawater is 35 parts of salt per thousand (ab-
the water does not dry out.
breviated as 3.5%).

184
10 Waves, ocean currents and tides between the earth and moon, caused by their spins.
Waves, ocean currents and tides are all movements of Generally, there are two high tides and two low
water. Waves are temporary movements of the surface tides per tidal day. The moon travels in its orbit round
waters of the sea, which can take place in any direction. the earth in the same direction as the earth rotates. As
Waves are caused by winds blowing against the surface a result, it takes 24 hours 52 minutes, or one lunar day,
of the water. They bring about the mixing of seawater, for the sequence of two high tides and two low tides to
especially in the layers near the surface. Waves also beat be completed, or 6 hours 13 minutes between one high
against the shore and sometimes cause it to be eroded. tide and succeeding low tide. The time, either 12 hours
An ocean current is a movement of the surface water of 26 minutes or 24 hours 52 minutes, between high and
low tides are known as the tidal period. In few cases,
for example parts of the Gulf of Mexico, there is only
one high tide and low tide per day. These are called
daily tides or diurnal tides.
The highest level reached by a high tide is called
the high tide level while the lowest level reached by
a low tide is called the low tide level. The difference
between the high and the low tide levels is the tidal
range or amplitude. In the open sea, the amplitude is
about 0.3m. The rise of the level of seawater at high tide
causes the water to flow into lagoons and estuaries.
In the Lagos lagoon, the amplitude varies from about
0.3m to about 1m. In a narrow estuary, the rise level of
water may be as much as 16m.
The maximum gravitational pulls of the moon and
the sun on the earth are exerted when the moon and the
Fig. 13.1 Waves on the atlantic ocean
sun are both pulling on the earth along the same line.
This happens at new moon and full moon. The highest
the ocean which has a dominant direction. Of the causes tides are recorded at these times and are called spring
of ocean currents, the most important are the prevailing tides. (Please note that there is no connection between
winds and the differences in density due to variations the spring tide and spring which is a climatic season in
in temperature or salinity between areas of water. The the temperate zone).
rotation of the earth also causes some deflections in When the positions of the moon and the sun form
ocean currents. Ocean currents affect the distribution a right angle at the position of the earth, then the gravi-
of marine organisms. For instance, the Gulf Stream is tational pulls of the moon and the sun do not add up,
a warm current which flows up the eastern coast of but detract from each other. The tides that occur at this
North America, then it flows eastwards to Western Eu- time are called neap tides. These have the lowest high
rope. It enables several warm-water living organisms tides and low tides. In all other locations of the moon
to live beyond their normal limit of distribution. relative to the earth, the heights of the tides lie between
Along the sea coast, it is readily observed that the neap and the spring tides.
the level of the sea is not constant. If the physical level Tides affect those organisms that live at the edge
of the sea is marked at a particular time, it will be ob- of the sea by alternately flooding them and exposing
served, after three hours, that the water level will have them to dry air. They also affect life in lagoons and estu-
risen above, or fallen below the marked level due to aries by both raising and lowering the level of the wa-
tidal action. ter and by making the water in these habitats brackish.
Tides are the alternate rise and fall of the surface Brackish water lies between fresh water and salt water
of the sea, approximately twice a day. They are caused in its salinity, which itself varies with the tides.
by water distortions resulting from the combined
gravitational pull on the earth and on the water at the
surface of the earth, by the sun and moon (the latter
to a greater extent, because of its relative nearness).
Water being a fluid is readily pulled out of shape, caus-
ing bulges in its level. This distortion is actually caused
by the net result of the mutual attraction of the sun,
moon, and the earth, along with the centrifugal force

185
supratidal
zone euphotic zone
littoral intertidal
high tide level
zone low tide level
zone
subtidal disphotic zone
zone 200 m
end of continental
bathyal zone shelf
200 m - 3 000 m

3 000 m
benthic abyssal zone
zone 3 000 m - 7 000 m

aphotic zone

7 000 m

hadal zone
> 7 000 m

Fig. 13.2 Major ecological zones of the marine habitat

Major ecological zones of the area where water splashes when the waves
break at the shore.
marine habitat b) Intertidal zone: This is the zone along the
substratum between the high tide mark and
the low tide mark. It is submerged and exposed
It is convenient to consider first the ecological zones of twice daily, and is subject to much wave ac-
the substratum or land at the bottom of the body of wa- tion.
ters, and then the ecological zones of the open sea. c) Subtidal zone: This is the zone along the sub-
stratum from the low tide mark to the end of
Land at the bottom of the body of the continental shelf where the sea is about
200m deep. This zone is never exposed.
waters 2 The benthic zone (the deep sea bed) is made up
The substratum or land at the bottom of the body of of the following zones:
waters is made up of the shore and the sea bed. The d) Bathyal zone: This zone extends from the end
substratum can be subdivided into two big zones. They of the continental shelf down to a depth of
are: about 3000m.
1 The littoral zone or land near the coast is made e) Abyssal zone: The abyssal zone extends from
up of the following zones: the end of the bathyal zone to a depth of
a) The supratidal or splash zone: The supratidal around 7000m.
or splash zone is really not part of the marine f) Hadal zone: This zone is the substratum of
habitat, but of the terrestrial habitat. It is the very deep water, beyond 7000m.

186
The open sea water 5 Aphotic zone: This is a zone of no light. No photo-
The open sea water covering the substratum is made synthetic organisms occur in this zone. Animals in
up of the following zones: this zone do not depend on sense of sight. Some
1 Neritic zone: The neritic zone is the water above of the animals have fluorescent organs that emit
the continental shelf. It is generally shallow, warm, light. Many of the animals are carnivorous.
penetrated by light, and rich in dissolved gases
especially oxygen.
2 Oceanic zone: The oceanic zone is the water be- Distribution of organisms in the
yond the continental shelf. The oceanic zone is also
divided horizontally into three zones based on the
marine habitat
The different ecological zones in the marine habitat
extent to which light penetrates into water.
present a wide variation in ecological factors. For in-
3 The euphotic zone: This is the zone that is illumi-
stance, waves are stronger in the surface water of the
nated by light. It starts from the surface of the wa-
sea than in deep water. Light intensity generally de-
ter and extends to a maximum depth of 200m. The
creases with depth to about 200m. Deep sea water is
depth to which light penetrates is affected by the
totally dark.
turbidity of the water. Waves cause reflections of
Each ecological zone of the marine habitat has its
light which reduce the penetration of light into
own peculiar features and problems of life. In view of
the water. In the euphotic zone, photosynthetic
these variations in ecological conditions, different or-
phyloplankton abound, so do zooplankton and
ganisms live in specific zones of the marine habitat to
nekton that form food chains.
which they are adapted.
4 Disphotic zone: This is a zone, of dim light. In
this zone brown algae, red algae, fish crustacean
and other animals occur.

a) Sand crab b) Ghost crab

c) Shore slater d) Periwinkle (Littorina punctata)

Fig. 13.3 Some organisms of the marine spratidal zone

187
Organisms of the splash zone tion they are exposed only for short periods each
Plants and animals which live in the supratidal or day. Other organisms occur between these two
splash zone are in fact terrestrial organisms. Occasion- extremes depending on their respective degrees
ally, they receive sprays of water when waves break of adaptation to exposure.
against the shore. Organisms in this zone are adapted Most of the seashore along West Africa is san-
primarily for life on land, but appear to require occa- dy. The seashore in Nigeria is an example of a san-
sional sprays of water to avoid desiccation. Plants of dy shore. In building the Lagos harbour, large stones
the splash zone include some grasses, and Ipomea. were piled up in two long lines, which are called
Some of the animals are amphibious, such as the the east mole and the west mole. The function of the
sand crab and the ghost-crab. They live in burrows moles is to break sea waves and provide calm water
which go down to the water level. The sand crab and in the harbour. These moles or harbour breakwaters
ghost crab have gills for gaseous exchange in water, are artificial rocky shores. Ghana and Cameroon
and also some spongy tissue which can be used for have natural rocky shores. Rocky shores and san-
gaseous exchange on land. On rocky shores along the dy shores have different organisms that live on
West Africa coast, animals of the splash zone include them.
Littorina angulifera and Ligavena gracilipes.
Organisms of the sandy intertidal
zone
Organisms of the intertidal zone Some organisms that live on sandy intertidal zones and
Living organisms in the intertidal zone are faced with their adaptations are described below.
some problems, some of which are the following: 1 Plants
1 Displacement by moving water There are few plants on a sandy intertidal zone because
The organisms in this zone are liable to be dis- they cannot secure a firm hold.
lodged and carried away by tidal water or beating
waves. Special features are needed to protect them 2 Astropecten (starfish)
from being carried away. This organism is an echinoderm which is common in
sandy sea shores. It has the following adaptations.
2 Desiccation a) At low tide, when the shore is exposed, the star-
At high tide, organisms in the intertidal zone are fish quickly digs into the sand with its numerous
covered by sea water. At low tide, they are ex- tube feet. This enables it to escape from predators
posed to air and sun’s heat. They are liable to dry and avoid desiccation.
out. b) The starfish has a protective colouration, as it is
coloured like the sand in which it digs in at the
3 Respiration shore.
Organisms of the intertidal zone need to continue c) It is able to continue gaseous exchange when it
respiration, both at high tide, when they are cov- is submerged as when the tide is out.
ered by water, and at low tide, when they are ex-
posed to air. 3 Donax pulcherimus (a bivalve mollusc)
The adaptations of this organism to life on a sandy
4 Flooding by fresh water shore are:
Organisms of the intertidal zone are subject to a) It is protectively coloured like the sand; this helps
flooding by fresh water when it rains. it to avoid the notice of predators;
b) It digs into the sand when exposed at low tide, which
5 Predators helps it to avoid desiccation;
At low tide, organisms of the intertidal zone need c) It encloses itself in its shell after digging into the
to be protected from predators. In the intertidal sand to avoid desiccation.
zone, there is a zoning of organisms. Those organ- d) It continues to carry out gaseous exchange when
isms which are most adapted to exposure occur not covered by water.
high up in the zone, near the high tide mark. In
this location, they are not covered by water for
long periods per day. Those organisms which are
least adapted to exposure occur low down in
the zone, close to the low tide mark. In this loca-

188
4 Terebra micans (a mollusc) 5 Hippa cubensis (mole crab, a crustacean)
Adaptations Adaptations
a) It quickly digs into the sand at low tide to escape a) It quickly digs into the sand at low tide to escape
from predators and avoid desiccation; from predators and avoid desiccation;
b) It encloses itself in its shell for protection from b) It has exoskeleton, which limits loss of water from
desiccation. the body;
c) It can carry out gaseous exchange both when sub-
merged under water and when exposed to air.

(b) Bivaive (Donnax Pulcherrimus)

(a) Starfish (Astropecten)

(b) Snail (Terebra micans)

(b) Mole crab (Hippa cubensis)

(b) Annelid worm (Glycera)

Fig. 13.4 Some animals of the sandy intertidal zone

189
6 Glycera (Annelid) 4 Sea anemones
a) At low tide, it withdraws into its burrow in the Sea anemones occur in low positions in the intertidal
sand, to avoid predators, and to protect itself from zone. They have the following adaptations.
desiccation. a) They are attached to rocks by their lower ends.
b) In the burrow it continues gaseous exchange b) At low tide, they withdraw their tentacles and
through its moist body surface. maintain a near spherical shape.

5 Sea urchin (Arbacia lixula)

Organisms of the rocky intertidal It is very firmly attached to rock by its adhesive tube
zone feet, so that it is not carried away by tidal water.
Organisms of the rocky intertidal zones include plants
and animals. The adaptations of some of the most com- 6 Crabs
mon of them are described below. a) Crabs move into cracks in rocks.
1 Plants b) They hold on tightly to the rocks at low tide with
a) Plants in rocky intertidal zone are usually their claws.
attached by means of a holdfast. Such plants c) They have gills for breathing when submerged
include the green sea lettuce, ulva, and dicty- and spongy tissue for gaseous exchange when
opteris, a brown alga. The attachment protects exposed to air.
the plant from being carried away.
b) Reproduction of the brown algae involves the 7 Worms
production of motile male gametes, for which These burrow into pockets of sand or debris in the
water is necessary. The thallus of a brown alga rocks.
has an adaptation for floating. For example,
the thallus of Sargassum, a brown alga has air 8 Shore fishes
bladders which make it float. These are small fishes which move into spaces between
rocks at low tide. They have:
2 Limpet, a mollusc (Siphonaria grisea) a) Flattered shape to be able to crawl into cracks in
a) The limpet attaches itself firmly to rocks by rocks,
its foot, and by suction. b) Adhesive devices or modified fins for holding on
b) It wears away its shell to fit exactly to the to rocks.
contour of the rock surface.
c) It pulls its shell to fit closely to the rock surface
so as to offer minimal resistance between it
Organisms of the subtidal zone
The organisms of the subtidal zone are always covered
and water, as the water flows over it.
by water. There is no sharp division between the organ-
d) It encloses water in the shell as the tide flows
isms of the intertidal and the subtidal zones. Several
out, to avoid desiccation.
of the organisms found in the intertidal zone are also
e) The water enclosed in the shell enables the
found in the subtidal zone such as astropecten (star-
limpet to continue normal aquatic gaseous
fish), Donax rugosus (a snail) and Terebra micans.
exchange at low tide.
The major factor that affects the distribution of or-
f) It stops feeding at low tide.
ganisms in this zone is the nature of the bottom which
g) It may move around when submerged, but at
may be fine silt, or sandy silt, or silty sand or coarse
low tide it returns to its ‘home’.
sand. Other animals of this zone include the large snail,
Semifusus morio, the cowrie snail, Cypraea stercoania,
3 Barnacles (Balanus tintinabulum or Chthamalus
polychaete worms and the amphioxus, Branchiostoma
dentatus)
nigeriense.
a) A barnacle is firmly cemented to a rock or other
Brown algae, such as Sargassium are attached to
support so that it is not carried away by tides.
the substratum by their holdfasts. Red algae occur at
b) It has a protective shell to prevent desiccation.
greater depths than the brown algae.
c) The barnacle encloses water in its shell to
avoid desiccation.
d) The water enclosed in the shell enables the
barnacle to continue gaseous exchange as it
does when submerged.

190
(a) Barnacle
(Balanus tintinabulum) (c) Limpet
(Simphonaria grisea)

(b) Barnacle (e) Sea anemone

(Chthamalus dentatus)

(d) Key hole limpet

(Fissurela nubecula)

(g) Sea Urchin

(Arbacia lixula)
(f) Wellk (h) Star fish
(Thais haemostoma) (Asterina stellifera)

(i) Crab

Fig. 13.5 Some animals of the rocky intertidal zone

191
(a) Crayfish

(c) Sting ray

(b) Plankton

(e) Cuttlefish
(d) Squid

(f) Slug

(g) Short croaker

(h) Flat sardine

Fig. 13.6 Some animals of the neritic zone (Not drawn to scale)

192
Organisms of the neritic zone water.
In the neritic zone, the water is comparatively shallow, f) It excretes excess salt out of the body through the
with a maximum depth of about 200m. This is the limit gills.
of the depth of water which light can penetrate. Sun- g) It passes out large amounts of hypotonic urine.
light and mineral salts are available and phytoplankton h) It has an air bladder for changing its position, up
flourishes in this zone. The phytoplankton constitutes and down in water. When it secretes gas into the
the first trophic level in various food chains. The neritic bladder its density decreases, and it rises up in
zones are rich in animal life and fish. Much commercial water. When it reabsorbs gas from the bladder, it
fishing takes place in this zone. sinks.
The adaptations of some organisms in the neritic
zone are now described. 5 Cartilaginous fish
Cartilaginous fish caught in West African Continental
1 Phytoplankton e.g. diatoms, dinoflagellates shelf waters include Scoliodon and sting ray.
Phytoplankton are plants which are carried passively by Adaptations:
water movements. Their adaptations for floating in- a) A cartilaginous fish has a streamlined shape.
clude the following: b) It has gills for gaseous exchange.
a) They are small in size. c) It has a tail for locomotion and fins for steering.
b) Some reduce their density by having mucilage d) The osmotic pressure of its body fluid is approxi-
around the cells e.g. diatoms. mately equal to that of sea water. This is achieved
c) Some have oil droplets in the cells to reduce den- through the dissolving of urea produced by the
sity. fish in its body fluid. There is then little tendency
d) They pump out heavy K+, Ca++ ions from vacuolar to gain water from or lose water to, the sea.
sap and replace them with lighter Na+ ions. e) Scales on the skin prevent loss or entry of water
e) Some achieve increased surface area by having into the fish.
projections from the cell wall e.g. Ceratium; f) The cartilaginous fish has a large liver which con-
f) Expanded shape helps them to be supported by tains a large amount of low density oil called squa-
water. lene. This oil helps the fish to have a low density
that enables it to float.
2 Zooplankton (animal plankton)
These include protozoa such as flagellates, small crus- 6 Squid (Loligo)
taceans, larvae of various organisms such as annelid The squid belongs to a group of molluscs called cepha-
worms, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms. Most feed lopods. The adaptations of this organism include the fol-
on phytoplankton. They are small in size, and have flat- lowing:
tened or expanded shapes, with light density to enable a) It moves very fast by pushing out water in a jet.
them float. b) It hides from its enemies by producing an ink
which colours the water.
3 Prawns and shrimps
Adaptations: Organisms of the oceanic zone
a) They have gills for gaseous exchange. In the oceanic zone, plankton abound in the upper re-
b) They have appendages for locomotion in water. gion of the water where light is present. Such plank-
c) The exoskeleton prevents loss of water. ton forms an important starting point for aquatic food
chains. The major species of fish caught by trawlers in
4 Bony fish the Atlantic Ocean around Lagos include shark, ray, sea
The bony fish caught in the Atlantic waters in West catfish, thread fin, big eye and croaker.
Africa include sardine, barracuda, lady fish, mackerel,
and croaker among others.
a) A bony fish has a streamline shape.
Organisms of the benthic zone
In deep water, the environment is stable. It is dark, oxy-
b) It has a tail for movement, and fins for steering.
gen concentration is low but not completely used up
c) It has gills for gaseous exchange in water.
because cold surface water from the arctic region which
d) It has scales, which prevent loss of water from the
contains oxygen flows under warmer water, to bring
body.
oxygen to benthic organisms.
e) The body fluid of the bony fish is hypotonic to sea
water. To prevent loss of water from the body to
sea water by osmosis, a bony fish drinks sea

193
(a) Shark

(b) Catfish

(c) Diatom
(a phytoplankton)
(d) Dinoflagellate
(a phytoplankton)

(e) Early larva of a crab (f) A copepod

(a zooplankton) (a zooplankton)

Fig. 13.7 Some organisms of the oceanic zone

194
(a) Deep sea angler fish
which has a luminous
bait at the end of its
fishing rod

(b) Deep sea squid with

luminescent organs

(c) Deep sea hatchet fish

with luminescent organs

(d) Octopus

Fig. 13.8 Some deep sea organisms

195
Temperature and salinity are stable. Water currents are Activity 13.3 Measurement of
mild.
There are no benthic plants. Animals in this zone habitat factors
such as fish have the following characteristics:
1 They have curious shapes. Materials required
2 They have large mouths. Thermometer, hygrometer, light meter, anemometer
3 They often have fluorescent organs believed to and pH meter.
attract their prey.
4 They can withstand high pressures. Procedure
5 They can withstand low oxygen concentration. Measure the following:
1 Temperature
2 Relative humidity
3 Light intensity
Practical study of a specific marine 4 Wind speed and direction
habitat 5 pH of the water.
The intertidal zone is recommended for a practical
study of the marine habitat because this zone can be
studied without the use of boats or other special equip- Activity 13.4 Observing the distri-
ment.
bution of organisms
Materials required
Activity 13.1 Making a drawing of Students work in groups of five students per group.
an intertidal zone One long rope and two pegs per group, pencil and
drawing paper. Use the transect-line method to study
Materials required the distribution of organisms in this zone.
Measuring tape about 100 m long, and drawing paper.
Procedure
Procedure 1 Use a rope and two pegs to set up a line at right
1 Visit the shore at low tide. angles to the shore.
2 Measure out a portion of an intertidal zone about 2 Begin from the high-tide mark and work carefully
20 m long at low tide. to the low-tide mark. Observe the distribution of
3 Make a plan of the habitat, indicating the low tide organisms along this transect-line. Identify and
level and high-tide-level. record each species the line touches.
4 Indicate in the drawing any features of biological 3 Each group should compare its result with
importance, e.g. hollows in the shore, containing those of other groups.
water at low tide.

Activity 13.5 Observing the

Activity 13.2 Identifying biotic adaptations of plants
components and animals
Materials required Procedure
Plastic bags and bottles for collecting samples. Observe and record the adaptations of plants and ani-
mals found in this zone.
Procedure
1 Look around in the habitat. Observe and identify
plant and animal species present.
2 Note the exact kind of place in which each was The estuarine habitat
found, and mark it in your plan.

An estuary is the mouth of a river where seawater mix-

es with freshwater to produce brackish water. Tides oc-
cur in estuaries because they are close to the sea.
There are different kinds of estuaries.

196
1 The mouth of the river may be an open estuary; or flow in and out of it.
2 A delta may be formed by the deposit of sand or
mud at the mouth of a river;
3 The estuary may be a lagoon.
Distribution of organisms in an es-
Some rivers in southern Nigeria, such as the Ogun, tuary
Osun and Osse have open mouths. River Niger has a The organisms found in an estuary include:
delta, and there is an extensive lagoon system in Lagos a) Marine organisms which can tolerate low salini-
State. The conditions in open river mouths, deltas and ties;
lagoons are similar in many ways. b) Fresh water organisms which can tolerate moder-
ate salinities;
c) Brackish water organisms which do not normally
Characteristics of the estuarine hab- live in fresh water or sea water.
itat The principal factors that influence the distribution of
a) The land is low lying. animals in estuaries are the salinity levels and the tol-
b) The land is flat or has a small gradient towards erance of the various species to them. In the lagoons
the sea. around Lagos, a zonation of organisms with salinity
c) The valley of the river is usually shallow at the gradient has been observed. Where the salinity remains
estuary. high all the time, polychaete worm, Mercierella, was
d) Freshwater flowing downstream in the river mix- found to be dominant among the species living in the
es with tidal seawater. stilt roots of red mangrove plants. Where the water was
e) The salinity in the estuary is intermediate between less saline, the oyster, Gryphaea, was dominant on the
sea water and freshwater. stilt roots of red mangrove, whereas where the salinity
f) Salinity of water in the estuary varies in the fol- varied to very low levels, the barnacle, Balanus, was the
lowing ways: dominant species.
i) Each day, there are two high tides. When the Typical estuarine or lagoon animals are those
tide flows into the estuary, the salinity increas- which physiologically are tolerant to variation in salin-
es. When tide flows out to the sea, the salinity ity. These include the hermit crab, fiddler crab, hairy
falls. mangrove crab, common lagoon crab, mud skipper, the
ii) During the rainy season, much water flows bloody clam, and the lagoon tulip.
down the river. Salinity in the estuary is re- On account of the tidal movements of water, es-
duced compared to the dry season. In the dry tuarine contain few plankton including diatoms and
season, river water subsides, the salinity of algae. Zooplankton and bacteria are also present. Some
estuarine water rises relative to that of the of the common species of plant and animals found in
rainy season. estuaries are described below.
iii) The salinity of estuarine water decreases from
the sea end of the estuary towards the source The red mangrove(Rhizophora racemosa)
of the river. The red mangrove is the main plant that grows on new
g) The flatness or small gradient of the land at the mud banks. Its adaptations are:
estuary causes the deposition of sand, silt or mud 1 The seeds germinate on the tree and the radicle
forming sand banks or mud flats. grows down to about 30 cm. Then the seedling falls
h) Temperature changes in estuarine water are small down, floats in water at an angle, alive for a long
because of frequent outflow and inflow of water. time, and is carried by tides, currents and wind
i) Depending on the degree of turbidity, sunlight until it reaches a mud bank. The rippling action
may reach the bottom of water in an estuary. of water pushes the root into the mud.
j) An estuary may overflow its banks causing the 2 The seedling has large cotyledons with stored
adjacent lands to be flooded frequently. food.
k) The soil at the bottom of, or close to an estuary is 3 The young seedling has no root hairs, but gives out
water logged and deficient in oxygen. numerous rootlets which absorb water and min-
l) Waves and current are mild compared with the eral salts. They also act as anchors in soft shifting
sea. mud.
m) Estuarine water has lower specific gravity than 4 The seedling grows fast. The stem grows up and
sea water hence marine animals which float in sea soon produces branches. The stem produces prop
water may sink and not do well in estuarine wa- roots below the first branches. These prop roots
ter. on reaching the mud, put out many spongy roots
n) An estuary is a disturbed area owing to the tidal which in their turn produce numerous rootlets.

197
The rootlets help the plants to stand in soft mud. 4 It has physiological tolerance to changes in salin-
The rootlets help also to stabilise the mud. ity.
5 From higher branches, the plant grows out drop
roots. These do not thicken. The drop roots contain Barnacles
spongy tissue with many air spaces. They are used Barnacles live in the brackish water in estuarine
for obtaining air. habitats. They show a zonation on the stilt roots of the
6 The plants have thick leathery leaves to reduce red mangrove trees.
loss of water by transpiration. 1 The animal is attached to stilt roots so that it is not
7 It is physiologically tolerant to saltwater. On ac- carried away by incoming or outflowing tidal
count of the above, the red mangrove is the first water.
coloniser of mud flats in estuaries. 2 It has a shell that covers and protects it from desic-
cation when exposed.
The white mangrove (Avicenia nitida) 3 It encloses water in its shell, so that it continues
The white mangrove occurs on salty, water- logged, with respiration with gills even when exposed at
oxygen deficient soil, close to the estuary. It has special low tide.
adaptation of survival in its habitat. 4 It has tolerance to changes in salinity which occur
1 The white mangrove has breathing roots (or pneu- in the estuary.
matophores) which grow upwards to about 15cm
above the soil. The breathing roots contain spongy Hermit crab (Clibernarius Africana)
tissue, used for obtaining air. It is adapted to this habitat in the following ways:
2 The plant excretes excess salt through the leaves. 1 It lives in the empty shell of a snail in the habitat.
3 The leaves are thick, and have thick cuticle to re- 2 Its body remains in the shell for protection but its
duce transpiration. legs can emerge for a short distance.
4 The cotyledons are fleshy and contain stored food. 3 It has specially modified legs for holding tightly to
5 The plant has a wide variety of pollinators. the shell.
4 It has physiological tolerance to variations in salin-
Paspalum vaginatum ity in its habitat.
Plants that live in or near sea or brackish water of-
ten show features of plant of dry areas. This is because
the high osmotic pressure of the soil water makes it dif-
Practical study of an estuary
A convenient part of an estuary should be selected,
ficult for them to absorb water.
such as a shallow part of the open estuary, or a portion
Paspalum is a grass that occurs in estuarine habi-
of the intertidal zone.
tats.
1 The leaves are short and thick, to reduce transpira-
tion.
2 It colonises mud by vegetative reproduction.

Bulrush (Cyperus anticulatus)

This plant has green leafless stems up to 1.3m
high, used for making mats.

Mudskipper (Periophthalmus)
The mudskipper is a fish which has various adap-
tations to the estuarine habitat.
1 It has several methods of locomotion. It can swim
in water; it can crawl and hop on land with the aid
of its modified pectoral fins. It can flap over the
surface of shallow water or wriggle over soft mud
or up stilt roots of the red mangrove in search of
food.
2 It has gills for gaseous exchange in water. It has
accessory respiratory organ for gaseous exchange (a) Sand crab
when out of water.
3 It can crawl into spaces between rocks for protec-
tion.

198
3 Indicate in the drawing any feature of biological
importance.

Activity 13.7 Identifying biotic

components
Procedure
Look around in the habitat, observe and identify plant
and animal species present.
(b) The lugworm
Arenicola

Activity 13.8 Measurement of

habitat factors
Materials required
Metre rule, hydrometer, secchi disc, thermometer, light
object such as table tennis ball, two pegs, stopwatch,
measuring tape and pH meter

Procedure
Measure and record the following habitat factors:
1 Height of water at the time of the study
(c) The ragworm 2 Density of the water
Nereis 3 Degree of clarity of the water
4 Temperature
5 Speed of flow of the water
6 pH
7 Relative humidity of the air

Activity 13.9 Observing the distri-

bution of the organ-
isms
(d) Mudskipper
Procedure
1 Study the distribution of the organisms.
Fig. 13.9 Some typical estuarine organisms 2 Find out, as much as possible, about the factors
influencing the distribution of the organisms.

Activity 13.6 Making a drawing of Activity 13.10 Observing the adap-

an estuarine habitat tation of the plants
Materials required and animals
A long measuring tape, a pencil and drawing paper
Observe the adaptation of the plants and animals, in-
Procedure cluding means of attachment and means of surviving
1 Measure out a convenient portion of an estuarine changes in salinity.
habitat.
2 Make a drawing of the habitat.

199
Activity 13.11 Constructing food Characteristics of freshwater habitats
1 Freshwater habitats contain no significant amount
chains of salt.
2 The body of water is relatively small, compared
Construct some food chains based on the organisms
to oceans.
present in the estuary.
3 There is significant seasonal variation in freshwa-
ter habitats. For instance, some rivers and streams
The freshwater habitat dry up in the dry season. Those that do not dry
up completely have very much reduced volume.
Freshwater habitats are very often selected for ecologi- In the rainy season, the volume increases again.
cal study because they are conveniently close to a num- There is also seasonal variation in the degree of
ber of schools, which is hardly the case with marine turbidity and speed of flow of the water. In the
or estuarine habitats. The characteristics of freshwater rainy season the water tends to be more turbid
habitats are different from those of marine and estua- than in the dry season, owing to the addition of
rine habitats. The organisms are also different. debris to it by surface floods. The speed of flow is
greater in the rainy season than in the dry season.

sun
(energy source)

water

producers
(green plants) primary consumer
secondary consumer
(top minnow) (young tadpole)

mud humus tertiary consumer

(tiger fish)

Fig. 13.10 Organisms in a freshwater habitat

200
4 Freshwater habitats are usually shallow, or rela- 3 Floating plants
tively so, and light often penetrates through the Plants which float on the surface of the water
water to the bottom. include pistia straliotes (water lettuce), water ferns,
5 The temperature of a body of freshwater varies such as azolla and salvinia, lemma and wolffia
with depth and season. Since the body of water is (duckweeds), diatoms, chlamydomonas, and
not usually large, the difference between surface bluegreen algae. Plants which float submerged in
and bottom temperatures is not as great as that the water include spirogyra, ceratophyllun (hotn-
obtainable in the sea. wort) and utricularia (bladderwort).
6 Oxygen is usually available in all parts of the wa- 4 Zooplankton
ter, although moreso in the surface layers. Zooplankton is abundant in lentic freshwater,
such as ponds and lakes. The animal’s species
frequently comprising the zooplankton include
Types of freshwater habitats copepods, such as Cyclops and Daphnia (water
Freshwater habitats may be divided into two main
flea).
kinds, namely lentic water, which does not flow and
5 Active animals found on the water surface
calm and lotic water, which is flowing. Lentic fresh-
Active animals found on the water surface include
water habitats includes pools, ponds, lakes, while lo-
the water skater, and the whirling beetle.
tic freshwater includes springs, streams, and rivers.
6 Animals that live in the main body of the water
The dividing line between lentic and lotic water is not
Actively-swimming organisms, such as fishes,
often sharp, as parts of a stream or river may be very
live in the main body of water. Some freshwater
slow- flowing.
fishes are Tilapia, Clarias (mudfish), Labeo coubia
(African carp), Synodontis filamentosa (cat fish) and
Ecological zones of freshwater hab- Al-estes longispini (characin). Active animals which
itats can swim against water currents are collectively
The zone of lentic freshwater habitats is similar to those called nekton.
of the marine habitats, but there are no supratidal or in- 7 Animals found at the bottom
tertidal zones. The shallow part of the bottom is the lit- The animals that live at, or close to, the bottom of
toral zone while the deeper part constitutes the benthic the water include leeches, caddis fly larvae, larvae
zone. The littoral zone may be distinguished from the and pupae of mosquitoes, water snails, water spi-
benthic zone by the fact that the littoral zone has rooted ders, crustaceans such as crayfish, water scorpions,
vegetation at its base while the benthic zone does not, and water boatmen. Bottom dwelling organisms
although flowering plants may float at the surface. are collectively called the benthos.
In lotic freshwater habitats, there are two zones, 8 Amphibians
the pool zone, where the water is relatively slow and Toads and frogs live both on land and in freshwa-
calm, and the rapid zone where the flow is fast. ter. Toads may spend more time on land than in
water, but they still return to the water for repro-
duction.
Distribution of organisms in fresh- 9 Reptiles
water habitat There are snakes which live in water. Crocodiles
Many kinds of plants and animals live in freshwater live both in water and on land, but they breathe
and each species usually occurs in a particular zone of atmospheric air.
the freshwater. The following are some examples: 10 Birds
1 Plants at the waters edge Birds that wade in water in search of food include
Reeds and sedges grow at the edge of freshwater, the heron and stork. Ducks swim in water in search
rooted in the soil. of annelids, molluscs and other small animals as
2 Plants that are rooted in the mud in shallow food, while birds such as the king fisher dive into
water water to catch fish.
Plants which grow in shallow water, with well- 11 Mammals
developed root systems in the mud, include nym- The hippopotamus is a large mammal that lives in
phaea (water lily) cytosperma senegalense (water water. Other mammals that can swim include the
arum), crinum lily, ferns (e.g naphrolepis), comme- waterduck and giraffe.
lina grasses and sedges, costus sp and lpomea
aquatica.

201
Adaptive features of freshwater or- Activity 13.13 Identifying the
ganisms biotic components
Freshwater organisms share many adaptations with
marine and estuarine organisms relating to locomotion, Materials required
respiration, production and protection. Some special Metre rule, Secchi disc, thermometer, light object such
cases are mentioned below. as a table tennis ball, stopwatch, two pegs, a measuring
tape and a pH metre.
Floating plants Procedure
They have various devices for keeping afloat such as Measure and record the following habitat factors:
presence of air bladders, expanded shape and light 1 Height of water
weight. 2 Degree of turbidity, using a Secchi disc
3 Temperature of the water
Locomotion 4 Speed of flow of the water
Many freshwater animals have organs of locomotion. 5 pH.
For instance, the pond skater, Geris, has long legs with
which it skates on the water surface.

Respiration
Activity 13.14 Observing the dis-
Generally, freshwater animals obtain oxygen through tribution of the
gills. The water bug and the water boatman carry organisms
bubbles of air with them as they go below the water
surface to the bottom and use these as their air supply Materials required
under water. The bloodworm is a larva of a dipteran A long rope, measurement tape, pencil and drawing
fly, which is red in colour. Its red colour is due to the paper
presence of a high concentration of heamoglobin which
enables it to adapt to the low oxygen at the muddy bot- Procedure
tom where it lives. 1 Place a rope across the stream and tie each end of
Lung fishes, such as protopterus, obtain oxygen the rope to a peg.
through gills, but when the water dries out in the dry 2 Record each plant that occurs along the rope and
season, they dig into the mud and breathe air with its exact distance from your starting.
lungs until the rains come and the river or stream water 3 Make a drawing to show the cross-section of the
covers them again. stream and the locations of the plants along the
line represented by the rope.
Practical study of a stream 4 Observe and record where different animals are
found in the stream.

Activity 13.12 Making a plan of

a fresh water habitat Activity 13.15 Observing the ada-
Materials required ptations of the
A long measurement tape, pencil and drawing paper plants and animals
Procedure Observe and record the adaptations of a selected num-
1 Mark out a portion of a stream, about 20m long ber of plants and animals such as water lettuce, water
for class study. lily, Utricularia, Lemna, mosquito larva, water boatman,
2 Make a drawing of the stream. and Tilapia.

Activity 13.16 Constructing food

chains
Construct some possible food chains based on the or-
ganisms present in the stream.

202
Summary side their bodies because the freshwater may
dry up.
E more water evaporates into the atmosphere
This chapter has taught the following: from freshwater than from sea water.
• Aquatic habitats are subclassified into marine, 3 Which of the following factors affects organisms
estuarine and freshwater habitats on the basis of in all aquatic habitats?
the salt content of the water. A Salinity
• Marine habitats are the oceans and seas which B Tides
contain much salt. C Shape of habitat
• Freshwater habitats are streams, rivers, ponds and D Noise
lakes which do not contain significant amount of E Altitude
salt. 4 Of the following, the one that aquatic plants are
• Estuaries contain moderate amounts of salt. least likely to require is ______________________.
• The major ecological zones of the marine habitat A water storage tissue
include the supratidal, intertidal, subtidal, bathy- B air storage tissue
al, abyssal, hadal, neritic and oceanic zones. The C stomata
organisms in each zone are adapted to life in that D chlorophyll
zone. E carbon dioxide
• Estuaries are characterised by changes brought 5 With the aid of a large labelled diagram, describe
about by the tidal activity and the amount of fresh the major ecological zones of the marine habitat.
water flowing down the river into the estuary. 6 The estuarine habitat is in several respects interme-
Organisms in this habitat have to withstand varia- diate between the marine and the freshwater habi-
tions, in water salinity, density and depth. tat. Illustrate this fact with reference to named
• Freshwater habitats are relatively small in size features.
and experience significant seasonal variations. 7 Describe the effects of the following factors on the
Some freshwater organisms live at the edge of the distribution of organisms in freshwater habitats:
water, some float on the water, others live in the A Clarity of water
water while some are attached to the bottom. All B Depth of water
are suitably adapted to the places in which they C Speed of flow of water
live, within their respective habitats. D Nature of the bottom.
8 Give an account of the adaptations of either plank-
ton or organisms which live in the intertidal zone.
Revision questions
1 Freshwater is a body of water which
________________________.
A contains no suspended matter
B is good for drinking
C contains no significant amount of salt
D has no colour or taste
E has not been stored for a long time
2 Contractile vacuoles are present in freshwater
microorganisms such as paramecium and amoe-
ba, but usually not in marine microorganisms. The
reason for this is that ________________________
___________________________.
A freshwater organisms obtain oxygen mainly
through their contractile vacuoles.
B the concentration of salts in seawater is higher
than that in the body of the marine organisms.
C the concentration of salts in freshwater is lower
than that in the body fluids of the freshwater
organisms.
D freshwater organisms need to store water in-

203
Chapter 14 Terrestrial habitats

Introduction 6 The bodies of water usually contain much decaying

organic matter.
7 The decay of organic matter takes place on a large
Terrestrial habitats are land habitats. Habitats of differ-
scale in a marsh and this causes a decrease in the
ent kinds present different problems to living things.
oxygen content of the water. Under the mainly
Life is believed to have started in water, and in due
anaerobic conditions in the water or soil, foul-
course, organisms that were suitably adapted moved
smelling gases may be produced in which hydro-
on to land.
gen sulphide and methane may be present. The
In general, land habitats present more problems to
products of this decomposition change the chemi-
living organisms than aquatic habitats. Water, which is
cal properties of the marsh. For instance, some
essential for life, is readily available in aquatic habitats.
marshes are very strongly acidic.
On land, water may be scarce, unpredictable or even
unavailable, as in arid areas. Desiccation is a constant
threat to organisms on land. Gaseous exchange, sup- Formation of marshes
port of the body, excretion movement and reproduction Marshes are usually formed near rivers or other bodies
present more problems on land than in water. Ecologi- of water, such as lagoons. The land is low lying and its
cal factors such as temperature, wind and low relative elevation is a little, if any, above the level of the river or
humidity can be more harsh on land than in water. lagoon water. During the rainy season, the river over-
In this chapter, you will study four kinds of terres- flows its banks and its waters may flood the adjoining
trial habitats: marsh, forest, savannah and arid lands. land. The flooded land receives additional water from
You will learn about the ecological factors that operate rainfall. The land absorbs some or all of such water
in them, the organisms that live in them and how they until it becomes saturated, leaving a layer of water ly-
are distributed and adapted to live successfully in these ing on the surface. In the dry season, some of the water
habitats. covering the marsh evaporates, leaving pools of water,
separated from one another by patches of land.
The water in a lagoon may also flood the adjoin-
Marsh ing lowland, causing the formation of a marsh. At high
tide, when seawater flows into the lagoon, the lagoon
A marsh is a lowland habitat which is flooded at all
may be filled to overflowing, thus flooding the adjoin-
times, and in which grasses and shrubs grow. While
ing lowland. Again, during the rainy season, the rivers
a marsh is a terrestrial habitat, it represents, in many
flowing into the lagoon bring in a lot of river water to
ways, a transitional habitat between the aquatic and
overflow into the marsh.
terrestrial.
A marsh may also be formed when debris partially
fills up a lake.
Characteristics of a marsh
1 The habitat is a lowland.
2 The ground is flooded most of the time.
Types of marshes
Marshes maybe either saltwater or freshwater marshes.
3 The soil is wet, soft and water-logged.
In Nigeria, saltwater marshes are found in a belt along
4 Sometimes there are pools of standing water here
the Atlantic coast, which is influenced by the tides. Usu-
and there in the habitat.
ally, freshwater flowing down the rivers, which empty
5 The relative humidity in the atmosphere over the
habitat is usually high.

204
into the sea, mixes with tidal seawater in the estuar- Plants and animals that live in
ies, creeks and lagoon. In the dry season, the volume of
river water is relatively small, but in the rainy season, marshes
it is large. This large volume of river water mixes to- Plants found in saltwater marshes include various
gether with tidal seawater in estuaries, creeks and la- grasses and also algae that float on the water surface.
goons, filling them up and causing them to overflow The most common animals of saltwater marshes in-
their banks. clude the mangrove-crab, lagoon crab, hermit crab,
The water that floods the land near the estuar- mudskipper fish, bloody clam (Arca senillis) oysters,
ies, creeks and lagoons is a mix of fresh and saltwater, barnacles and angel-fish.
hence the marshes are called saltwater marshes. In fresh water marshes, the floating plants in
Freshwater marshes occur inland, just beyond the standing water include algae, water lettuce, Lemna and
limits of the saltwater marshes and beyond the areas Salvinia. Near the edge of the water may be found Cyr-
influenced by tides. In this zone, only the fresh-water of tosperma (water arum), various ferns and varieties of
the rivers overflows the river banks to flood the adjoin- sword grass. The animals include frogs and toads, as
ing lowland, forming freshwater marshes. well as fishes and birds that wade into the water to feed
on fish for example, the heron.

surface view side view

water level

(a) duck weed (Lemna sp)

(b) an aquatic fern (Salvinia)

(b) water lettuce (Pistia)

(d) mudfish
(e) toad

Fig. 14.1 Plants and animals that live in marshes

205
Adaptive features of plants and ani- Activity 14.4 Observation of the
mals in marshes distribution of organ-
In saltwater marshes, all the organisms have to be able
to tolerate the salinity of the soil or water. They also
isms
have to tolerate the low oxygen concentration in the
Procedure
soil and water.
Use the techniques you used to study aquatic habitats
In freshwater marshes, the plants show adapta-
to observe the pattern of distribution of organisms in
tions similar to those of freshwater plants. Saprophytic
the area.
organisms such as bacteria, which live on the dead or-
ganic matters in marshes, have to adapt to the mainly
anaerobic conditions here.
Activity 14.5 Observation of adap-
Practical study of a marsh tive features
Procedure
Activity 14.1 Making a plan of a Observe the adaptive features of selected organisms in
marsh the habitat.

Materials required
Measuring tape, pencil and drawing paper Activity 14.6 Construction of food
Procedure
1 Mark out an area of the marsh. chains
2 Make a drawing of the area marked out for study.
Procedure
Construct some food chains based on the organisms
Activity 14.2 Measuring of physical found in the habitat.
ecological factors
Materials required
Thermometer, pH meter, light meter, and a hygrom-
Forest
eter
A forest is a plant community in which tree species are
Procedure dominant. There are different kinds of forests, whose
Measure the physical ecological factors in the habitat, distribution is determined mainly by climate (particu-
such as soil temperature, air temperature, pH, light in- larly rainfall and temperature), but sometimes by el-
tensity, relative humidity. evation, soil factors and the activities of man, such as
farming, lumbering, cutting of firewood, bush burn-
Activity 14.3 Identification of ing, road construction and building construction. For-
est used to cover most of southern Nigeria but the area
plants and animals covered by forest has been reduced by human activity.
The rain forest is the major type of forest in Nigeria.
Materials required
Plastic bags and bottles for collecting specimens
Characteristics of the rain forest
Procedure 1 The rainfall is high.
1 Identify the plants and the animals in the habitat. 2 The tree species are usually mesophytes, with
2 Collect and preserve some of these. broad leaves. Mesophytes are plants adapted to
life in an area with neither an excess nor a shortage
of water.
3 Stems of trees have thin bark.
4 Tall trees have buttress roots which give addition-
al support to them and prevent falling caused by
strong wind.

206
5 Many reinforced trees produce flowers on the Strata in a rain forest
main stem, as the cocoa tree does. This is called The plants in a forest may be classified into five storeys
cauliflory. This is considered to facilitate pollina- or layers which are briefly described as follows:
tion, because the flowers are not easily blown 1 The top layer or storey is made up of the tallest
down by wind. trees, over 40m tall, called emergents. The crowns
6 Leaves of all trees have long drip tips to facilitate of the emergents do not normally touch one an-
dripping off of water. other.
7 The vegetation has a pattern of arrangement in 2 The second storey or layer is made up of tall trees,
storeys or layers. between 16m and 40m tall. Their crowns touch,
8 The topmost layer of leaves or canopy cuts off forming a continuous canopy below the emergents.
most of the light reaching the lower levels of veg- 3 The third layer is made up of small trees, less than
etation so that there is only dim light at the forest 16m tall, which also form a continuous canopy be-
floor. low the second or middle storey.
9 The forest floor is usually open with little vegeta- 4 Below the third layer of trees is the shrub layer.
tion. 5 At the forest floor is the ground layer which con-
10 There is usually a large amount of leaf litter on the sists of shade-tolerant plants, including mosses
forest floor. and ferns.
11 The rain forest usually has many climbing plants
such as wild yam, and epiphytes such as ferns.

emergents or
top layer of
tress
40 m or above

middle layer
of tree
16-30 m
lower layer
of tree
up to 16 m

shrub layer

herb layer

Soil

litter at ground level

Fig. 14.2 Profile of a tropical rainforest

207
Distribution of organisms in a for- or branches and the fig seeds may stick to such trees
or drop from the birds’ beaks into cracks on the barks
est of the trees, where they germinate. The young fig trees
In a forest, there is a vertical distribution of plants ac- grow roots which attach it to the tree. The roots con-
cording to their respective needs for light and their tinue to grow downwards until they reach the ground
respective abilities to withstand exposure. On the for- and attach the plant to the soil. Thereafter, the fig tree
est floor, there are shade-tolerant plants, such as ferns, continues to grow bigger and bigger, and produce more
which can do with little light, and prefer the protected, and more roots which clasp the tree on which it started
humid environment of the forest floor to the exposed life. Eventually, the fig tree may strangle the tree that
conditions higher up. At various levels, epiphytic or- helped it grow.
chids, ferns and herbs are found on the trunks and Climbers found on forest trees use their climb-
branches of trees where they are able to establish them- ing habit to reach the sunlight at the top of the forest.
selves in holes, the barks of trees or meeting points of There are many kinds of saprophytic fungi and bacteria
two or more branches. The mistle toe is one of the most which feed on the leaf litter on the forest floor.
light-demanding epiphytes and is usually found high Many forest animals live on the tree. They include
up in the trees, among the topmost smaller branches, monkeys, squirrels, snakes, bats, birds, lizards, tree
where much light is available. frogs and chameleons. Some forest animals, such as
The fig is another epiphyte found on forest trees. earthworms and beetles, live in the soil. Others, such as
Fig fruits are eaten by birds. The seeds are covered by a millipedes, ants and snails, live amongst the leaf litter
sticky thick juice by which they stick to the birds’ beaks. on the surface of the soil.
The birds may then wipe their beaks against tree trunks

(a) Fruit bat (b) Tree frog

(c) Flying squirrel (d) Chameleon

(e) Wood owl (f) Allied hornbill

Fig. 14.3 Some arboreal forest animals

208
Adaptations of forest plants 2Adaptations of climbing, such as:
Forest trees have adaptive features for life in their envi- a) Presence of opposable fingers, e.g. monkeys.
ronment. These include the following: b) Prehensile tails, e.g. chameleons.
1 They have well-developed root system to hold c) Sticky discs on fingers, e.g. geckos.
them in the soil and to absorb water. d) Grasping scales, e.g. snakes.
2 They have large amounts of strengthening tissues e) Ability to jump from branch to branch, e.g.
such as xylem, for support. monkeys
3 They have stomata and lenticels for gaseous ex- f) Grasping pads, e.g. tree frogs.
change.
4 They have broad leaves, since water conservation Food chains in a forest
is not a serious problem. Numerous food chains and food webs exist in a forest.
5 They have thin barks. The producers are the herbs, shrubs and trees. Her-
6 The leaves have long drip tips to facilitate drying bivores include insects, rats, squirrels and monkeys
of the leaf surfaces after rains. which eat the plants. Civet cats, toads, snakes and cha-
7 The trees have buttresses for additional mechani- meleons are some of the carnivores which eat the her-
cal support. bivores. Leopards and other higher carnivores eat the
8 Plants growing in the shade have broad leaves, lower carnivores.
which are thin, with few layers of mesophyll cells
for photosynthesis.
9 Cauliflory improves chances of pollination and
Effects of soil on forest
Soil factors such as depth of soil, chemical composi-
fruit production.
tion, pH and texture influence the nature of a forest
Climbing plants in the forest are adapted for climbing
and the tree species present. If a soil is fertile and deep,
by the use of hooks and roots. Many are thigmotropic
with a good water-holding capacity, the rainfall is high
and respond to touch of the support plant by twining
enough and other factors are favourable, the vegeta-
around it. Shade plants are adapted for carrying out
tion can be a dense forest. If however, the soil is chalky,
photosynthesis in dim light conditions.
highly eroded, shallow, or very rocky, the forest may
be poor even if rainfall and other climate factors are
Adaptations of forest animals favourable. Where soil conditions are peculiar, such
Animals that live on trees in forests have many kinds as where the soil is very acidic, only specially adapted
of adaptations for arboreal or tree life. These include: plants can thrive.
1 The ability to fly, e.g. birds, bats, flying squirrels.

(a) Black cobra

(b) Common hinged tortoise

209
(c) Bush tailed porcupine

(d) African civet

Fig. 14.4 Some ground dwelling forest animals

Practical study of a rain forest Activity 14.10 Observing the dis-

tribution of plants
Activity 14.7 Drawing a forest and animals
habitat
Procedure
Materials required Observe and record how the plants and animals in the
A long measuring tape, pencil and drawing paper habitat are distributed, as you have done before.

Procedure
Mark out and draw an area of the forest selected for
study. Activity 14.11 Observation of
adaptation
Activity 14.8 Measuring ecological Procedure
Observe and note down the adaptations of some select-
factors ed plants and animals to their forest habitat.

Materials required
Thermometer, hygrometer and light meter
Activity 14.12 Construction of
Procedure food chains
Measure ecological factors such as temperature, rela-
tive humidity and light intensity in the study area. Procedure
Construct some food chains based on plants and ani-
mals you identified in the habitat.
Activity 14.9 Identification of
biotic components
Grassland
Procedure
Identify the plants and animals found in the habitat.
Grassland is a plant community in which grass species
are dominant, but trees and shrubs may also be present.

210
Characteristics of grassland 2 Northern Guinea savannah
1 The rainfall is from moderate to low. This type of savannah is characterised by the presence
2 The distribution of rainfall throughout the year is of short grasses and some characteristic trees, such as
often such that several months are without rain. Isoberlina doka. The rainfall is low (500mm to 300mm
3 Sunshine is intense. per annum). The vegetation is shorter and more sparse
4 Bush fires are common in the dry season. than in the southern guinea savannah. The trees spe-
5 The soil is usually sandy. cies present also tend to be smaller in size and fewer in
6 The moderate rainfall and high temperature make number than in the southern guinea zone. Much of this
water conservation very necessary for plants and zone in Nigeria is thickly populated, and the vegetation
animals. has been very much affected by farming, housing and
other human activities, as well as by grazing of domes-
tic animals.
Types of grassland
Grasslands are classified into tropical and temperate, 3 Sahel savannah
depending on whether they occur in tropical or tem- This type of savannah occurs in Nigeria only on the
perate zones respectively. Temperate grasslands are eastern tip of Borno State, around Lake Chad. It is char-
given different names in different countries, such as the acterised by a poor vegetation of short grass and small
prairies in United States of America, the steppes in Rus- trees; rainfall is low and spread over only a few months
sia and Asia, the pampas of Argentina, the veldt of South of the year.
Africa and the downs of Australia. Tropical grasslands
are called savannah, such as in West Africa. 4 Derived savannah
In Nigeria there are different types of savannah: Owing to such human activities as farming, house con-
1 Southern Guinea savannah struction and bush burning, grasslands now exist in
This is characterised by very tall grass, with scattered certain parts of Nigeria where the climate could sup-
trees and shrubs. It occurs where the rainfall is fairly port a rain forest vegetation. This type of grassland,
high (250mm to 500mm per annum). In the rainy sea- which is maintained by human activity, is called de-
son, the vegetation is very rich and green, while in the rived savannah. In appearance, derived savannah re-
dry season it is dry and brown. Bush fires are common sembles southern guinea savannah but in essence it is
in the dry season. The common tree species are fire-re- artificial, for when human influence is withdrawn for
sistant. many years, the derived savannah reverts to a rain for-
est.

Grassland

Tropical Temperature

Savannah Steppes Pampas Veldt

(West Africa) (Russia (Argentina) (South Africa)
& Asia)

Fig. 14.5 Types of grassland

211
Distribution of plants and animals Procedure
Mark out and draw an area of the savannah selected
in the savannah for study.
In savannah vegetation, grass species are dominant.
Trees and shrubs are much less numerous than in for-
ests and are scattered thinly across the land. Grasses oc-
cur in the spaces between the trees. Activity 14.14 Measurement of
The savannah is very rich in animal population. In physical ecological
the soil, there are many animals such as termites whose
termite mounds dot the landscape. On the land, there
factors
are many herbivores, such as rats, squirrels, deer, por-
Materials required
cupines, gazelles, grass cutters and antelopes. Carni-
Thermometer, hygrometer and light meter.
vores include snails, cheetahs and leopards.
Procedure
Adaptations of plants and animals Measure and record ecological factors in the habitat
in the savannah including temperature, relative humidity and light in-
Plants in the savannah have adaptive features for the tensity.
conservation of water and for protection against bush
fires. These adaptive features include the following:
1 Presence of a thick bark, to reduce water loss by Activity 14.15 Identification of
transpiration and protect the plant from bush
fires;
plants and animals
2 Shedding of leaves in the dry season to reduce
Procedure
transpiration;
Identify the plants and animals present in the habitat.
3 Presence of underground stems, such as in grass-
es, to help them survive the dry season and bush
fires;
4 Physiological adaptation of the protoplasm to al- Activity 14.16 Observation and
low it to recover after desiccation (drying out).
5 Ability to regenerate new shoots immediately
distribution of
after bush fires. plants and animals
6 Habit of plants completing their life cycles and
forming seeds before the onset of the dry season Procedure
e.g. cereals, grasses. Observe and record how the plants and animals in the
7 Presence of long tap root system for absorption of habitat are distributed.
water from deep layers of the soil.
Animals of the savannah also have various adaptive
features. For instance, some savannah animals burrow
into the ground to avoid the high temperature at the
Activity 14.17 Observation of
ground surface and also to escape from their enemies. adaptations
Termites build nests whose design ensures that they re-
main cool all the time. Procedure
Observe and record the adaptations of selected plants
and animals to their habitat.
Practical study of a savannah
habitat
Activity 14.18 Observation of soil-
Activity 14.13 Mapping an area of texture
savannah Materials required
A small hoe or a machete for collecting sample
Materials required
Procedure
A long measuring tape, pencil and drawing paper
1 Take a sample of the soil and observe its texture.

212
2 Make an inference about its porosity and capacity Distribution of organisms in hot
to retain water.
3 Record your observations. arid lands
Only a limited number of plant species can live in arid
lands. These include some spcies of grasses, thorny
shrubs and plants of the cactus family. Date palms oc-
Arid lands cur around oases (areas where there is a local source of
water).
Arid lands are those in which water is very difficult to Few animals live in arid lands. These often live in
obtain, either because it is scarce or because it is frozen. burrows to avoid the harsh weather.

Types of arid lands

There are two main types of arid lands, namely:
Adaptations of organisms in arid
1 Hot arid lands, which are hot deserts and semi- lands
deserts; and Some of the principal adaptations of organisms in arid
2 The cold arid lands, which are cold deserts or lands are those designed to conserve water. Examples
tundra. of adaptation for water conservation by plants in arid
These two kinds of arid lands have very different char- lands include the following:
acteristics. 1 Some plants have underground stems which re-
main alive when the aerial parts die.
Characteristics of tropical arid lands 2 Cacti and other plants have little or no leaves, so
1 Water is very scarce because rainfall is very low as to check transpiration. The leaves are modified
(below 250mm per annum) and falls irregularly. into scales or thorns, or are entirely absent. The
2 Temperatures are very high by day and very low stems are green and carry out photosynthesis.
by night. 3 Some plants, such as cacti, store water in their
3 The soils are sandy or rocky. fleshy stems.
4 Sunshine is very intense, since there is little veg- 4 Some plants of arid lands have very long roots
etation to provide cover. which can absorb water from deep down in the
5 The vegetation is very poor. soil.
6 Winds are usually quite strong. 5 Some plants have sunken stomata or hairs on
In contrast, the tundra is very cold and the ground leaves to reduce transpiration e.g. Eucalyptus.
surface is covered with ice throughout the year, except 6 Some plants can complete their entire life cycle in
during the short summer. In discussing arid lands in the very short period when rains occur, and then
this section, the emphasis will be on hot arid lands. they die and survive the long dry season in the
form of seeds.

Chesium Desert grass

Euphorbia
deightonii

Fig. 14.6 Organisms of the hot arid land

213
The adaptations of animals of arid lands for water con- Activity 14.21 Identification of
servation include the following:
1 The camel can go a long distance and for several plants and animals
days with one drink of water.
2 Many desert animals excrete solid waste substanc- Procedure
es and hence avoid losing water as urine. Identify the plants and animals present in the area of
3 Desert rats use very little water and in fact depend habitat chosen for study.
largely on water present in the food they eat. They
can feed on dry seeds almost indefinitely without
needing to drink. Activity 14.22 Observing the dis-
4 Living in burrows and coming out to feed at night
when it is cool helps desert animals to minimise tribution of plants
water-loss. and animals
5 Sweat glands of desert animals are not very active
and this is a check against water-loss. Procedure
6 Reptiles in arid lands have scales which limit their Observe the distribution of the plants and animals in
water-loss. the area you have chosen for study.
Another major kind of adaptations found in animals of
arid lands is the adaptation for the regulation of body
temperature. For instance, many animals of arid lands
avoid the very high day temperatures by living in bur- Activity 14.23 Observing the ada-
rows. ptations of plants
and animals
Practical study of an arid hab-
Procedure
itat Observe and note down the adaptations of the plants
and animals in the habitat.
Activity 14.19 Mapping an arid
habitat
Summary
Materials required
A long measuring tape, pencil and drawing paper This chapter has taught the following:
• Terrestrial habitats include marsh, forest, grass-
Procedure lands and arid lands.
Mark out and draw a plan of the area of habitat to be • A marsh is a low land which is flooded from time
studied. to time and in which grasses and shrubs, but no
trees, grow. Marshes are of two kinds, saltwater
and freshwater. Marsh plants and animals are
adapted to withstand a waterlogged soil with
Activity 14.20 Measuring physical low oxygen content.
habitat factors • The tropical rain forest occurs where the rainfall,
relative humidity and temperature are high. In
Materials required forest vegetation, trees are dominant; the rain for-
Thermometer, hygrometer and a light meter. est vegetations are characterised by the existence
of layers or strata. The vertical distribution of plants
Procedure is controlled by their respective requirement of
Measure and record habitat factors such as tempera- light. Rainforest plants are mostly mesophytes.
ture, relative humidity and light intensity. Many of the animals are arboreal (i.e. live on or in
trees) and have suitable adaptations for doing so.
Soil conditions may change the nature of the tropi-
cal rain forest from one place to another.
• Savannah is tropical grassland found in West Af-
rica. It contains scattered trees but grass species

214
are dominant between the trees. The type of
savannah found in Nigeria includes Southern
Guinea savannah, Northern Guinea savannah and
Sahel. Southern Guinea savannah is characterised
by tall grasses, with marked seasonal variation in
appearance, green in the rainy season and brown
in the dry season. Northern Guinea savannah
has a lower rainfall and shorter grasses than the
Southern Guinea savannah. The Sahel has shorter
rainy seasons, lower rainfall and shorter grasses than
the Northern Guinea savannah.
• Arid lands are characterised by scarcity of water
and include hot arid lands, which are deserts or
semi-deserts and cold arid lands, which are the
tundra regions.

Revision questions
1 Which of the following is the most important char-
acteristics of an arid land? __________________
A High temperature during the day
B Few animals
C Low relative humidity
D Scarcity of water
E Poor vegetation.
2 Which of the following is an adaptation of savan-
nah plants for protection against bush fire? _____
__________________________________
A Production of flowers, fruits and seeds.
B Gradual shedding of leaves throughout the
year.
C Possession of sunken stomata.
D Rolling of leaves during hot days.
E Possession of a thick bark.
3 Which of the following is not associated with the
tropical rain forest? _________________________
A Epiphytes
B Emergent
C Littoral zone
D Arboreal habitat
E Canopy
4 State three characteristics of a marsh, how does a
marsh differ from
a) an aquatic habitat.
b) a terrestrial habitat.
5 Describe the structure of the adaptations found in
arboreal animals in the tropical rain forest.
6 What is savannah? Contrast savannah and tropi-
cal rain forest, with respect to
a) habitat factors
b) species present.

215
Theme 4
Continuity of life
Chapter 15 Reproduction in unicellular
organisms and invertebrates

One of the major ideas in biology is that life continues from parent to offspring and
from generation to generation. In the cell theory, you came across the idea that a
cell comes from a pre-existing cell.
Life continues through reproduction. In this chapter, you will learn how re-
production occurs in unicellular organisms and invertebrates.

of nucleus and cytoplasm is surrounded by a resistant

coat and is called a spore.
Introduction A spore is an asexual reproductive unit, formed
by a parent individual, consisting of one or a few cells
In Chapter 4, you learnt that reproduction is the pro-
and which is capable of giving rise to a new individual.
cess by which an organism gives rise to new individu-
When habitat conditions improve, the cyst breaks, the
als of the same species. This process leads to an increase
spores are dispersed and each spore develops into a
in the population and also a continuity of the species.
new individual.
While reproduction is a common characteristic of all
living things, details of how it occurs varies from one
species to another. In this chapter you will learn how Reproduction in paramecium
reproduction occurs in selected unicellular organisms
and invertebrates.
In paramecium, asexual reproduction by binary fission
occurs. In addition, there is sexual reproduction by a
Reproduction in amoeba process called conjugation.

In amoeba, reproduction occurs by asexual methods Binary fission

only (see chapter 4 for meaning of asexual reproduc- In paramecium, binary fission occurs in this way. The
tion). micronucleus and the meganucleus divide into two to
produce two micronuclei and two meganuclei. This is
Binary fission followed by a transverse division of the cytoplasm to
Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission. The form two new individuals, each containing one micro-
nucleus first divides into two, followed by a division nucleus and one meganucleus.
of the cytoplasm. At the end of binary fission, two new
individuals are formed from one parent individual. Sexual reproduction by conjugation
1 Two individuals called conjugants come together
Spore formation and lie side by side.
Sometimes, under adverse conditions, such as the dry- 2 The meganucleus of each conjugant disintegrates.
ing up of a habitat, amoeba forms a thick coat enclos- 3 The micronucleus of each conjugant divides into
ing itself. The amoeba with its thick coat, is called a cyst. two parts twice, forming four micronuclei. Three
Within the cyst, by repeated division, the nucleus and of the four micro nuclei in each conjugant disinte-
cytoplasm become divided into many units. Each unit grate. The remaining micronucleus again divides

216
into two. 6 When habitat conditions improve, the zygospore
4 One micronucleus from each conjugant migrates germinates, by splitting. A filament grows out and
into the other conjugant. In other words, the conju- divides by transverse cell walls into cells of a new
gants exchange nuclear material. filament.
5 The migratory nucleus of one conjugant and the 7 This kind of sexual reproduction is called conjuga-
stationary nucleus of the other conjugant fuse in tion. Conjugation is characterised by:
each individual to form a fusion nucleus. The two a) Pairing and temporary union between two
conjugants separate. They are now called ex-conju- individuals.
gants. b) Transfer of nuclear material from one individ-
6 The fusion nucleus in each ex-conjugant divides ual or cell to the other.
into eight parts, while the cytoplasm divides into c) Fusion of nuclear material from two individu-
four, to give four new individuals, each with a new als, or cells.
meganucleus and a new micronucleus. d) Production of new individuals from the zy-
gote (fused nuclear material).

Reproduction in spirogyra
Spirogyra reproduces by both asexual and sexual meth-
ods.

Asexual reproduction
A spirogyra filament may break up into a number of
pieces, each containing a few to several cells. This break
may be caused by water current, or animals or other
physical damage. The nucleus of each cell divides into
two, followed by a division of the cytoplasm. As a re-
sult, each cell forms two new cells, still held together
in the filament. At first, the new cells are small; as they
enlarge, the filament becomes longer. This type of re- gamete conjugation tube
production is also known as vegetative reproduction.

Sexual reproduction by conjugation

1 Two filaments come together side by side.
2 Projections arise opposite each other from oppo-
site cells in two filaments. The projections meet
and the separating walls dissolve, so that a con-
tinuous channel, called a conjugation tube, is
formed. zygote
zygospore
3 Meanwhile, the cytoplasm of each cell shrinks
away from the cell walls, and the contents of each Fig. 15.1 Conjugation in spirogyra
of the two cells round up to form a mass of proto-
plasm, now called a gamete.
4 One of the gametes, regarded as the male, migrates Reproduction in earthworm
through the conjugation tube into the other cell.
The gametes of the two cells fuse (that is, the nu- 1 Each earthworm contains male and female repro-
cleus of one fuses, with the nucleus of the other, ductive organs inside the body near to the front
while the cytoplasm of one fuses with the cyto- end. The male and female reproductive organs
plasm of the other). The fused gametes form a have separate ducts that conduct sperm and eggs
zygote. respectively to the surface of the body.
5 The zygote develops a thick wall and is now called 2 Although each earthworm is a hermaphrodite (has
a zygospore. The cell walls of the parent filaments both male and female reproductive organs) sexual
break up and the zygospore drops to the bottom reproduction occurs normally between two
of the pond, where it may remain dormant and worms, the sperm of one worm fertilising the eggs
survive adverse conditions such as drying of the of the other worm.
pond. 3 When two earthworms mate, they lie close together

217
with their clitella (singular clitellum) touching. compound eye
Each passes sperm into the other.
4 The egg cocoon is secreted by the clitellum. Each head
earthworm passes sperm from the other earth antenna
worm, and its own eggs into the cocoon. The thorax prothorax
cocoon slips over the body of the earthworm as
first pair
it is dropped off at the front end of the body into the of wings
soil.
5 Fertilisation of sperm and eggs occurs externally
abdomen
in the cocoon.
6 Earthworm eggs hatch in the cocoon. Young earth-
worms come out from the cocoon into the soil.

cercus
position of anus
style

Fig. 15.3a) Cockroach

mouth
egg capsule

chaetae
position
of female
opening
clitellum

male young
opening nymph

Fig. 15.2 Earthworm imago

Reproduction in cockroach
In cockroach, reproduction is only sexual.
older
1 Each individual is unisexual (either male or nymph
female).
2 Male and female cockroaches mate. Fertilisation is Fig. 15.3b) Life cycle of cockroach
internal. The female lays eggs enclosed in a capsule.
Each capsule is about 0.5cm long, and contains 16
eggs arranged in two rows of eight eggs per row.
The female carries this capsule about for some Reproduction in housefly
time, and eventually drops it in a dark place, such
as a cupboard.
Reproduction in housefly is sexual only.
3 After some days, the eggs hatch into light coloured
1 The sexes are separate, that is, each housefly is
nymphs, which look like adults but have no
either male or female.
wings.
2 The male and female mate.
4 Nymphs grow and moult six or seven times. They
3 The female pushes her abdomen into warm moist
gradually develop wings and become full grown.
organic matter to lay eggs, so as to protect the
5 The life cycle of the cockroach shows incomplete
eggs from desiccation. The eggs are laid in batches
metamorphosis.
of 100 – 150. They are white, oval, about 1mm

218
long and have thick rib-like rings down each
side. Depending on the temperature, they hatch Reproduction in garden snail
within 24 hours or less.
4 The larva is white, and bigger at the hind than at Reproduction in garden snail is sexual only.
the interior end. It has twelve visible segments, 1 Male and female organs are found in each indi-
but no legs. It feeds on liquid food and small par- vidual, but a land snail does not fertilise its own
ticles of organic matter. It has no eyes but appar- eggs.
ently detects light for it moves away from light. It 2 When the male and female mate, they exchange
grows to about 1cm in four to five days, moults sperm.
twice and migrates to a dry place where it changes 3 Fertilisation occurs later, internally.
into pupa. 4 The snail passes out batches of eggs, on to the soil.
5 The pupa is barrel shaped. As the larva changes 5 The young ones develop inside the eggs. When
to pupa, the skin darkens and hardens, forming the eggs hatch, fully formed young snails come out,
the pupal case. The pupa is inactive. After 3 or 4 each with its own shell.
days, the imago (young adult) breaks through the
pupal case and crawls out of the decaying organic
matter. At first the wings are folded, but they exp-
and within a few hours and the new adult can
fly.

compound eye
antenna

leg

Fig. 15.5 Land snail

haltere
claws Summary
This chapter has taught the following:
• Reproduction leads to an increase in the population
wings and continuity of species.
• In amoeba, reproduction occurs asexually by
Fig. 15.4a) Housefly binary fission and spore formation.
• In paramecium, reproduction occurs asexually by
eggs binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
• Spirogyra reproduces by both asexual and sexual
methods.
• Sexual reproduction occurs in earthworm.
• Cockroach reproduces by sexual method.
• Reproduction in housefly is sexual only.

imago maggot Revision questions

1 In amoeba, asexual reproduction occurs by
________________________.
A vegetative reproduction and metamorphosis
B egg laying and multiple fusion
C fusion of gamete
pupa D conjugation and budding
E binary fission and spore formation
Fig. 15.4b) Life history of the housefly

219
2 Conjugation is characterised by _______________.
A two individuals lying side by side
B exchange of nuclear material
C fusion of gametes or nuclear material
D production of new individuals from the
zygote
E all of the above
3 Which of the following does not occur in the sexu-
al reproduction of paramecium? ______________
A Micronucleus
B Meganucleus
C Conjugation tube
D Disintegration of nuclear material
E Fusion of nuclear material
4 Which of these does not occur in asexual repro-
duction? ________________
A Nucleus
B Cell
C Cell division
D New individuals
E Gametes
5 Compare and contrast asexual and sexual repro-
duction.
6 Describe the process of sexual reproduction in
cockroach.
7 List the differences between conjugation in spiro-
gyra and in paramecium.
8 Explain the following terms:
a) Zygospore
b) Cyst
c) Spore
d) Clitellum

220
Answers to revision
questions

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4

1 E 1 C 1 B 1 C
2 A 2 C 2 A 2 A
3 A 3 A 3 D 3 D
4 B 4 E 4 A
5 B

Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
1 B 1 D 1 C 1 B
2 C 2 E 2 D 2 B
3 D 3 C 3 E 3 A
4 A 4 C 4 A 4 B
5 E
6 C

Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12

1 B 1 E 1 E 1 C
2 A 2 C 2 C 2 D
3 A 3 A 3 A

Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15

1 C 1 D 1 E
2 C 2 E 2 E
3 C 3 C 3 C
4 A 4 E

221
Index

atropic movement, 66 autotrophic, 8- 9, 24, 49, 89, 97-98, 128

abiotic, 109-110, 122, 126 autotrophs, 49-50, 109
abscissic acid, 63 auxins, 63-64
abscission layer, 64 avoidance behaviour, 65
acellular, 21 avoiding reaction, 23, 65
acetabulum, 80 axial skeleton, 80
activator, 106 axis, 81, 83
active precursor, 106
active transport, 45-46, 51 bacteria, 7-9, 11, 22, 48, 50, 70, 79, 89, 97-98, 122, 128,
adventitious buds, 71 133, 138, 140, 147, 150, 158, 162-163, 167-171,
aerobic, 51-52, 54, 78, 175, 197, 206, 208
agents of decay, 167 ball and socket joints, 84
Alexander Fleming, 175 barometer, 114-115
alternation of host, 162 BDH soil indicator, 116
alveolus, 103, 104 Benedict, 50, 96
amoeboid movement, 69 binary fission, 70, 216, 219
amplitude, 185 binomial system of nomenclature, 7
amylase, 106, 168 biomes, 110, 122-126
anaerobic, 51, 53-54, 78, 206 biosphere, 108, 126, 131
anaphase, 57-59, 74-75 biotic, 109-110, 118, 120, 126
anapophyses, 82 community 122, 109
androecium, 76 boil, 158-159
anemometer, 114, 196 bones bound, 84
aneroid barometer, 114-115 brackish water habitat, 109, 197, 198
animal starch, 90 bucket toilets, 180
Antony van Leeuwenhoek, 158
apendicular skeleton, 80 Candela units, 114
apical dominance, 63 Carl Von Linne, 6,
aquatic, 5, 14, 56, 102, 109, 120, 122, 184, 193, 205 carnivores, 98- 99, 105
habitats, 109, 119-120, 184, 203- 204, 206, 215 carolus Linnaeus, 6-7
arboreal habitats, 110, 214- 215 carpals, 80
articular surfaces, 83 carriers, 162, 164
asexual, 9, 11, 14, 18, 23, 26, 70-71, 177, 216-217, 219, caudal, 80-82
220 celeoptile, 63
aster, 57 cement, 104
atlas, 81, 83 central pulp cavity, 103
atmosphere, 108-109, 113, 120, 126, 128, 131, 134-135, centromere, 57-59, 74-75
141 centrum, 81
autecology, 109 cervical, 80-81, 83
autherozoids, 26 rib, 81
autoclave, 158 Charles Darwin, 63
autotroph, 109 chemosynthetic, 9, 49-50, 97- 98

222
chemosynthetic autotrophs, 50, 97 ecological, 108, 110, 117, 119-120, 125-126, 131-132, 186-
chiasmata, 74 187, 203-204, 210, 212
chloroplasts, 4, 8, 10-12, 24, 26, 31-32, 34-35 systems, 109, 122, 128, 136, 139-142
cholera, 168, 176, 181 ecology, 108-109, 120, 200
chromatids, 57-59, 74-75 ectoderm, 5, 14-15
chromatin, 31 ectoparasites, 99-101
churning, 106 ectoplasm, 8, 10, 22, 24
class, 6-7, 9, 13-20, effluent, 180
clavicle, 80 egestion, 56
clones, 23 electron transport chain, 52
coccyx, 80, 82 emergents, 123, 207, 215
coenobium, 25- 26 emigration, 120, 154
collenchyma, 5, 84-86, 88 enamel, 104
colony, 18, 25-26, 35-36, 165, 198 endoderm, 5, 14-15, 85
community, 120, 122, 126, 136, 174, 179-183, 206 endoparasites, 99-102
conjugants, 24, 216, 217 endoplasm, 10, 22, 24
conjugation, 9, 23, 73, 216, 219, 220 endoskeleton, 18, 79-80, 82
tube, 217, 220 endosmosis, 40
consumers, 128, 130-132, 136 engulfing, 47, 78
coracoid, 80 enterokinase, 106
cortex, 84- 85 environment, 87, 108-109, 128, 131-133, 137,139, 157,
criterion, 6 162, 169, 193, 208-209
crossing over, 74 environmental factor, 110
crotalaria, 121 epidemic, 168
crown, 103-104 epidydimis, 77
culturing, 160 equator, 74-75
cycle, 10, 133-135, 139, 144, 176-177, 212-213, 218 ethylene, 63-64
cyst, 216, 220, euglenoid motion, 24
cytokinins, 63- 64 excretion, 2, 4, 15, 18, 21-22, 24, 27, 35, 47, 56, 94, 135,
204, 214
dactylus, 80 exoskeletons, 11, 61, 80, 82
day length, 114 exosmosis, 40, 152
decomposers, 128, 130-131, 136, 163 extensor, 84
dentine, 103-104 eye spot, 10, 12, 24, 26, 65
dentition, 103-105
derived savannah, 211 F.W. Went, 63
diastema, 98, 104 faeces, 56, 141, 150
diffusion, 6, 22, 24, 37-43, 45-46, 56, 90 family, 6, 7, 20, 154
digestion, 5, 50, 94-95, 98, 105-107, Fehling`s, 96,
diploid, 74 femur, 80
division, 6- 7, 9, 11-13, 27, fibres, 85, 92, 138
dominant, 122 fibula, 80
drop roots, 123 Fick’s law, 39
dry season, 110, 122-124 flaccid, 43
dujardin, 30, 35, flagellum, 9-12, 24, 69
dustbin, 103, 179 fleming, 158, 174
flexor, 84
east mode, 188 flowering plant, 85, 137, 201
ecdysis, 80 food chain, 120, 129-130, 132, 136, 193, 200, 202, 206,
ecosystem, 108-109, 120-122, 126, 128, 131-133, 136, 209-210
140, 142

223
test, 96 impermeable, 40
web, 125, 129, 130, 132, 136, 209 incinerator, 180
fragmentation, 27 indole acetic acid, 63
freshwater habitat, 109, 200, 201, 203 butyric, acid 63
fully permeable, 40 insecticides, 141-142, 146-147, 179
fungicides, 141, 147 intervertebral discs, 80, 216
fused joints, 84 invertase, 168
inverted pyramid, 132
gametogenesis, 73, 92 irritability, 65, 130
gametophyte generation, 13 ischium, 80
generative nucleus, 76 islets of langerhans, 106
genes, 31 isotonic, 40
genus, 6, 7, 20
geotropism, 66 Jean Henri Bunant, 182
gibberelins, 63, 64
gliding joint, 84 kilojoules, 131
glucose phosphate isomerase, 51 kingdom, 6-9, 11, 14, 138
glycolysis, 51 klinostat, 67
ground habitats, 110 Kreb’s cycle, 52-53
gullet, 10, 24, 25, 48
gum, 103, 104 latex, 138
lentic, 201
habitat, 109, 110, 112, 116, 120-121, 126, 160, 179, 184- lianas, 124
186, 196-199 ligaments, 84
habitats, 109, 115, 120, 204, 206, 210, 212, 214, 216 light meter, 114, 210, 212, 214
factor, 110, 199, 202, 215 lignin, 31, 34, 85, 87
haemolysis, 44, 46 lithosphere, 108, 126
haploid, 74 littoral, 186, 188, 201, 215
herbicides, 141, 147 living, 1, 2, 4-8, 20-22, 30, 35, 37, 40, 43, 47, 61-65, 78-
herbivores, 98, 104 79, 108-110, 118, 120, 122, 128, 166, 188, 204,
herbs, 124-125, 139, 208-209 214
hereditary, 168 Lord lister, 158
heterotrophic, 4, 8-9, 11, 49-50, 89, 97- 98, 107, 128 lotic, 201
hexokinase, 51 lotic water, 201
high tide level, 185 Louis Pasteur, 174-175
hinge joints, 84 low tide level, 185
hold fast, 190 lumbar, 80-81, 83, 88
holozoic, 98, 102 lypapophysis, 82
homodont dentition, 103
host, 99, 119, 162 macro decomposer, 128
Hugo Von Mohl, 30, 35 Malthusian hypothesis, 154
humerus, 80 marine habitat, 109, 184, 186-187, 200, 203
hydrosphere, 108, 126 Mathias Schleidon, 30, 35
hygrometer, 113, 196, 199, 210, 212, 214 meiosis, 74
hypertonic, 40, menstruation, 77
hypodermis, 84, 88 meristem, 4, 57
hypotonic, 40, 193 meristematics, 57, 64
metacarpals, 80
ilium, 80 metaphase 57-59, 74, 75
immigration, 120, 154 metapophyses, 82

224
metatarsals, 80 parasite, 99-102, 119
micro decomposer, 128 parasitism, 99, 118
microorganism, 116, 118, 152-153, 158-159, 160-164, parenchyma, 5, 85, 87-88
165, 168-171, 173-176, 183, 203 parthenogenesis, 145
microbes, 158, 161-162, 169, 176, 182 pasteur, 158
microphagous feeders, 102 pasteurisation, 153, 175
migration, 154, 217, 219 pectoral girdle, 80, 84
milk dentition, 103 pellicle, 10-11, 24,
miombo, 124 pelvic girdle, 80, 82, 84, 86
modern toilets, 180 penta, 80
moveable or immoveable, 84 pentadactyl limbs, 80
multicellular, 5, 8- 9, 11, 14, 27, 34-37, 47, 57 periodontal membrane 104
myonemes, 24 permanent teeth, 103
pesticides, 141, 147
nagana, 178 phalanges, 80
nastism, 65 photosynthesis, 24, 31, 39, 65, 89, 97,108, 114, 117, 126,
natural vegetative reproduction or artificial vegetable 128, 130-132, 134-135, 184, 209, 213
reproduction, 71 photosynthetic, 8, 9, 11, 48-50, 97- 98, 142, 187
neap tides, 185 phylum, 6-7, 11-18, 20
neck, 103, 104 physical, 110, 145
nematicides, 147 pit latrines, 180
net production, 131 pivot join, 84
neural arch, 81 plasmagel, 68- 69
canal, 81 plasmasol, 68- 69
spine, 81 plasmodium, 10, 162, 173, 177, 179, 183
niche, 109, 126 plasmolysed, 43- 44, 152
nodules, 167 poliomyelitis, 168, 170, 181-182
non flowering plant, 137 population, 120-122, 126, 137, 141, 151, 153-155, 157
non-cellular, 5, 21 density, 120
non-living, 1, 4, 40, 108, 109, 122 number, 120
nuclear pores, 31 postzygapophyses, 81- 82
nucleoplasm, 30 primary production, 130-131
nutrient, 48, 78, 89, 118-119, 132-133, 137, 141, 151, producers, 128, 129, 131, 132, 136, 209
cycle, 133 progesterone, 77
nymphs, 144, 201, 218 prophase, 57-59, 75
prophylactics, 178
occupational, 168 protozoan, 47- 48, 56, 73, 79, 100, 162, 169, 172
odontoid process, 81, 83, 88 pseudopodia, 10, 47, 65, 69
oestrogens, 77 pubis, 80
omnivores, 98-99, 105, 128 pyramid of energy, 132, 136
order, 6-7, 20 pyramid of numbers, 130, 132, 136
organ, 4-6, 14, 18-20, 57, 63- 64, 66, 77- 78, 90, 101, 149
organelles, 9, 32, 33, 35, 56, 59, 65, 69, 78 radius, 80
osmoregulation, 22, 44, 56, rain guage, 110-112
osmosis, 22, 37, 39-46, 56, 193 rainy season, 110, 112, 122, 151
osmotic potential, 41-44, 152 rate of primary productivity, 131
pressure, 41, 56, 93, 94, 152, 198 reduction division 74
ovaries, 76- 77 regulate, 121
ovipositor, 144 reindeer moss, 125
oxygen debt, 53 rhizopus, 99

225
Robbert kock, 158 taxism, 65
Robert Hooke, 21, 30, 35 taxonomy, 6
root, 5, 63, 67-68, 71, 86, 103-104, 198, 201, 208-209 telophase, 57-59, 74-75
rootlets, 123, 197-198 terrestrial, 5, 17, 56, 109, 110, 120, 122, 184, 186, 188,
Rudolf Virchow, 30, 35 204, 214, 215
ruminants, 98 testes, 77
testosterone, 77
sacral, 80-82 texture, 115, 212
sample, 121, 212 the dismal theorem, 146, 154
sampling, 121 maize weevil, 144
saprophytes, 99, 208 Theodor Schwann, 30, 135,
scapula, 80, 84 Thomas Robert Malthus, 154
scion, 71-72 thoracic, 80-83, 86, 88
sclerenchyma, 85-88 tibia, 80
scrotum, 77 tidal period, 185
secchi disc, 119, 199, 202 range, 185
secondary sexual characteristics, 77 tissue, 78, 79, 84-89, 94, 104, 142, 145, 149, 175, 188,
sedimentation chambers, 181 198, 209
seminiferous tubules, 77 tissues 5, 14, 20, 27, 31, 34, 35, 37, 50-51, 56-57, 89
semi-permeable, 31, 34, 40- 41, 45 tonoplast, 31, 40
sexual, 9, 11, 14, 23, 26, 70, 216-220 transverse processes, 81-83
shrubs, 123-126, 139, 207, 209- 212 trees, 122-125, 139, 206-212, 214
sludge, 180 tripsinogen, 106
soakaway, 180 tropism, 65-66, 69
somatic, 57, 74 trypanosoma, 100, 102, 162
spallanzani, 158 trypsin, 106
species, 6, 7, 20, 69, 72, 74, 76, 82, 119-120, 122-126, 153, tube nucleus, 76
197, 199, 201, 206, 209-215, 219 turgid, 34, 43,
spindle fibres, 74 turgor pressure, 43- 44
sporangia, 70-71
sporangiophores, 70 ulna, 80
spore, 70, 216, 219-220, underground habitats, 110
sporophyte generation, 13, 206 unicellular, 5, 7, 8, 9-12, 21-22, 25, 27, 45, 47-48, 56-57,
spring tides, 185 69-70, 78, 216
stilt roots, 123 uterus, 77
stimulus, 2, 65
stock, 72 vane, 114
stone cells, 85 vectors, 162, 164, 176-178, 182, 183
storey, 123 vertebraterial canals, 81-88
suberin, 31, 34 vigour, 73, 173
suckers, 101, 102, 124
supratidal or splash zone, 186 wallower, 102
sutured joints, 84 west mode, 188
synecology, 109
synovial fluid, 84 xylem, 5, 27, 31, 59, 85-88, 209
synovial membrane, 84
system, 5, 20, 63, 79, 101, 149-150 yeast, 11, 53, 55, 71, 91-92, 163, 167-168

tactic movement, 65
tarsals, 80

226