2024S1 PH1012: Physics A

1D Kinematics

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University
Week 2-3

"The man who does not read good books has no advantage over the man who cannot read
them."
- Mark Twain (1835-1910))

Outline
Some basic considerations when solving a mechanics problem:
1. Particle or extended object?
2. 1-dimensional, 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional?
3. Is acceleration / (Net force)
a. Zero
b. Constant
c. Not constant?
Distinguishing speed vs velocity; average velocity (acceleration) vs instantaneous velocity
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
(acceleration). Recognizing 𝑣 = ;𝑎 = = and 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Kinematic Equations of Motions (Constant acceleration)

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡;

1
𝑠 = 2 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡;

1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ; 𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Self-check – after completing the lessons (lecture and tutorial) for this topic, are you able to

1. analyze motion of an object moving in a straight line with constant horizontal acceleration
qualitatively, quantitatively and graphically
2. apply calculus (differentiation and integration) to analyze motion of objects
3. analyze motion of an object in the vertical direction under the influence of gravity
4. analyze motion of more than object along the same direction
5. analyze motion of an object moving with non-constant acceleration 1
Signs and Conventions

The initial position of the object is 𝑥𝑖 = 0.0 m.

The final position of the object is 𝑥𝑓 = 4.0 m.

The displacement of the object is Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 4.0 − 0.0 m = 4.0 m

The distance travelled by the object is also 4 m.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 4.0 m

The average velocity of the object 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 2.0 s
= 2.0 m/s

The average speed of object is also 2.0 m/s.

The initial position of the object is 𝑥𝑖 = 6.0 m.

The final position of the object is 𝑥𝑓 = −2.0 m.

The displacement of the object is Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = −2.0 − 6.0 m = −8.0 m

The distance travelled by the object is 8 m.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 −8.0 m

The average velocity of the object 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = −4.0 m/s
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2.0 s

The average speed of object is 4.0 m/s.

2
Signs and Conventions

The initial position of the object is 𝑥𝑖 = 0.0 m.

The final position of the object is 𝑥𝑓 = 4.0 m.

The displacement of the object is Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 4.0 − 0.0 m = 4.0 m

The distance travelled by the object is 7.0 + 3.0 = 10.0 m.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 4.0 m

The average velocity of the object 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 1.33 m/s
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 3.0 s

10.0
The average speed of object is 3.0
= 3.33 m/s.

One Dimensional Motion

(Constant Acceleration)
Special Case: Zero Acceleration

A car is travelling at a constant speed of 72 km/h. What distance does it cover in

10 minutes?

3
Kinematics

Displacement is given by the change in position of the object, i.e. how far the
object is from the starting point:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

Displacement and velocity are vector quantities and they contain information on
magnitude and direction. Distance and speed are scalar quantities and contain
information only on magnitude.

So we can write for average velocity

𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 Δx
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣ҧ = =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 Δ𝑡

Giancoli Fig 2.10: Average velocity (from x-t)

Same area (displacement) under

avg vel and vel lines over same
time interval.

Giancoli Fig 2.9b: Average velocity

4
Some Simple Scenarios to introduce kinematics
A ball is at position x = 0 initially. The x
position of the ball along the x direction is
plotted in the graph. Do a simple sketch
to indicate the position, velocity and
acceleration of the ball.
t

x=0

A ball is at position x = 0 initially. The v

velocity of the ball along the x direction is
plotted in the graph. Do a simple sketch
to indicate the position, velocity and
acceleration of the ball. t

x=0

5
Some Simple Scenarios to introduce kinematics
A bus moves off from rest from a traffic junction and the speed (velocity)
increases uniformly. After 5s, the speed of the bus is 10 m/s. What is the rate
of increase of the speed, (velocity) i.e. acceleration? Do a sketch using the
axes below to illustrate how the velocity of the bus changes with time. If the
bus continues to accelerate uniformly, what is the velocity 3s later?

A car moves past at 10 m/s when the bus just started to move. If the car has the
same acceleration as the bus, what will its speed be after 8 s? Sketch on the
same axes, how the velocity of the car varies with time. How much further did
the car travel?

6
One Dimensional Motion II
(Constant Acceleration)
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

If acceleration 𝑎 is constant, we can write

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
where 𝑣𝑓 is the final velocity and 𝑣𝑖 is the initial velocity and 𝑡 is the time
taken for the change.
We can sketch a graph of velocity against time. In the previous example,
the velocity time graph for the car looks like the graph below.
From the expression
Vel. / m/s
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎= 𝑣𝑓
𝑡

and the velocity time graph for

constant acceleration, we can deduce
some more information. 𝑣𝑖
0 𝑡 time / s

7
Example
The Tesla Model S Plaid can accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 1.98 s (faster
than Ferrari and Lamborghini). Determine the acceleration of the Tesla and the
distance travelled in this time.

https://www.motortrend.com/reviews/2022-tesla-model-s-plaid-first-test-review/

[Cheetahs can reach a speed of 47 mph (75 km/hr) in two seconds.]

Giancoli Prob 2.32

A light plane must reach a speed of 32 m/s for takeoff. How long a runway is needed if
the (constant) acceleration is 3.0 m/s2 ?

Mastering Physics 8
Example
A car approaches a traffic junction at a constant speed of 20 km/h. The light
remains green as the car approaches. The car then accelerates at a constant
2 m/s2 for 10 s. Determine the final velocity of the car and the distance
travelled by the car at the end of this 10 s.

Giancoli Prob 2.36

An inattentive driver is traveling 18.0 m/s when he notices a red light ahead.
His car is capable of slowing down at a rate of 3.65 m/s2. If it takes him 0.20 s
to get the brakes on and he is 20.0 m from the intersection when he sees the
light, will he be able to stop in time?

Mastering Physics 9
Free Falling
A 1 kg object and a 1 g object are released from the same height at the same time
in a vacuum. Which object will hit the ground first?

a. 1 kg
b. 1g
c. At the same time

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E43-CfukEgs

In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration,
although this may be tricky to tell by testing in an environment where there is air
resistance. We will prove this fact after we have discussed Newton’s second law.

10
Free Falling
For simplicity, take g = 10 m/s2 and 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
An object at rest is released from a height of 80 𝑚.
a) What is the velocity of the object when it hits the ground?
b) How much time does it take to hit the ground?
c) Sketch a graph to show how the velocity and position of the object changes
with time.

𝑣
0

10

20
𝑡
30

40

50 𝑦

60

70
𝑡
80

[email protected]
11
Free Falling (Object thrown upwards)
For simplicity, take g = 10 m/s2 and 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
An object at rest is thrown vertically upwards at a velocity of 12 m/s.
a) What is the greatest height reached by the object?
b) How much time does it take to reach the greatest height?
b) What is the velocity of the object when it is back to the hand.
c) How much time does stay in the air before the hitting the ground?
d) Sketch a graph to show how the velocity, acceleration and position of the
object changes with time. How would the graph change, velocity and time
become if the object hits the ground?
Spreadsheet exercise

12
[email protected]
Three Scenarios:

An object at a height 20 m above the ground is

a) released from rest;
b) thrown vertically downwards with an initial velocity of 12 𝑚 𝑠 −1 .
c) thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 12 𝑚 𝑠 −1

Sketch the velocity-time graphs.

Taking upwards as +ve

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

Released from rest Thrown vertically downwards Thrown vertically upwards

Taking downwards as +ve

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

13
(Modified) Giancoli pg 36 Example 2-16
A person throws a ball upward into the air with an initial
velocity of 15.0 m/s. Her hand is 1.2m above the ground.
Take g = 9.80 m/s2 . Ignore air resistance.

a) What is the acceleration at the highest point (B)?

b) Calculate the maximum height of the ball.
c) Calculate how long the ball comes back to the hand.
d) Calculate at what time t the ball passes a point 8.00 m
above the person’s hand.
e) If he missed catching the ball, how long does the ball take
to get from point A to the ground?

1.2 m

Giancoli Fig 2.30

Ball thrown up

Mastering Physics 14
Example – Horizontal motion with “U-turns”

The 4 x 10m shuttle run is one of the items of the Physical Fitness Test. An
individual starts running (1) from start line towards block A, picks it up; (2) runs
back towards the start line, drops block A; (3) runs towards block B, picks it up; and
(4) runs pass the start line in the end. The individual is to complete the 4 x 10 m in
the shortest possible time.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z cj_xdwLnNc&t=3s
On the axis provided, sketch how the velocity 𝑣𝑥 of the individual in the x direction
changes with time 𝑡, from the start to the end of the shuttle run.
𝑣𝑥

Examples of Non-constant accelerations

a. Oscillatory motions

b. Objects falling through a viscous medium.

c. Moving through large vertical distances where acceleration of free fall g is not
constant.

[email protected]
15
Gradients (Basics)
Previously, we have dealt with constant
acceleration where the v-t graph is a
straight line. When we have a curve, we
have to talk about the gradient at a specific
point. Graphically, we can sketch the
tangent (line) at this point and then
compute the gradient of this tangent. So
essentially we finding the rate of change of
𝑥 in the limit when Δ𝑡 → 0 or writing in
formal mathematics
Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Giancoli Fig 2.12 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So we see that at P1 and P2, 𝑥 is increasing
with 𝑡 so the gradient is positive. In fact,
the gradient is increasing from P1 to P2
before it levels off to zero gradient at P3.
The value of 𝑥 is momentarily constant here
and is a maximum for 𝑥. After that, the
gradient is negative and the value of 𝑥 is
decreasing with time 𝑡.
If we know the equation of the line, is there a simpler way to obtain the gradient,
other can obtaining it graphically?

Gradients and Differentiation (Basics)

We need to know how to compute the quantity

Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
to be able to find a gradient at point on a curve. Consider a relation,
𝑥 = 5𝑡 2 and consider two nearby points 𝑡1 and 𝑡1 + 𝛿𝑡 where 𝛿𝑡 is very small (say
0.0000001 or even smaller).
Δ𝑥 5 𝑡1 + 𝛿𝑡 2 − 5 𝑡1 2 5 𝑡12 + 2𝑡1 𝛿𝑡 + (𝛿𝑡)2 − 5 𝑡1 2
= = = 5(2𝑡1 + 𝛿𝑡)
Δ𝑡 (𝑡1 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑡1 𝛿𝑡
Thus, at 𝑡 = 𝑡1 and making 𝛿𝑡 → 0,
Δ𝑥
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim = lim 5(2𝑡1 + 𝛿𝑡) = 5 2𝑡1 = 10𝑡1
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0

16
Gradients (Basics)

Let’s see if we can find any pattern for polynomial functions of the form
𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 𝑛
where 𝑘 is a constant and 𝑛 is an integer (for the time being).

𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 3
Δ𝑥 𝑘 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 3 − 𝑘𝑡 3 𝑘 𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 𝛿𝑡 + 3𝑡 𝛿𝑡 2 + 𝛿𝑡 3
−𝑘 𝑡 3
= = = k 3𝑡 2 + 3𝑡𝛿𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 2
Δ𝑡 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑡 𝛿𝑡

𝑑𝑥
= lim k 3𝑡 2 + 3𝑡𝛿𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 2
= 𝑘 3𝑡 2 = 3𝑘𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0
𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 4

𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 5

We can generalize to
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑛𝑡 𝑛−1

This finding is even applicable for when 𝑛 are negative integers, fractions and even
irrational numbers such as √2 and 𝜋. (You can check these out after you learn
how to do binomial expansion of non-positive integer exponents.)

Exercise:
𝑑𝑦
For 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 2, compute 𝑑𝑥 and evaluate it at 𝑥 = 1.2.

We will discuss about areas and integration later.

17
Kinematics

We define the average velocity over an infinitesimally short time as the

instantaneous velocity:
Δx 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Giancoli Fig 2.10: Average velocity (from x-t) Giancoli Fig 2.12: Instantaneous velocity

Example [G2.4] A rolling ball moves from to during the time from 𝑥1 = 3.4 𝑐𝑚 to
𝑥2 = 24.2 𝑐𝑚 and during the time from 𝑡1 = 3.0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 5.1 𝑠. What is its
average velocity?

18
𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Instantaneous Velocity

Relays

World record for men’s 100m is 9.58 s. The record for 4 x 100 m is 36.84s which is much
less than four times of 9.58s. How is that possible?

19
𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 − 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔

Watch the video of the cars at this make-shift traffic lights.

a. Why is the timing of the green light set to countdown

from 25 s while the red light is set to countdown from
46s?

b. Why does the second heavier car take a much shorter

time to cross the junction than the first car moving off
after the signal just turns green?

c. Why does the drivers from the oncoming side seem to

take so long (about 10 s) before starting to move after
the light on the other side turns red?

d. What are some of the principles you learned from this

video with regards to traffic light timings in make-shift
traffic lights system? Can you think of any other
analogous applications?

20
Kinematics

Similarly, we define average acceleration as the change in velocity divided by the

time to make this change

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 Δv
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎ത = =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 Δ𝑡

As before, we define the average acceleration

over an infinitesimally short time as
the instantaneous acceleration
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
Δv 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎 = lim = = = 2
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Velocity & acceleration: same sign => speeding up;

opposite sign => slowing down.

Speeding up and slowing down

21
∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6/ 𝐶
Instantaneous 200𝑚
average 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
acceleration
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 Δv
𝑎ത = =
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 Δ𝑡

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
Δv 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎 = lim = = = 2
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

An example of non-constant acceleration is the acceleration of a swinging

pendulum. (Talk about trigonometric functions)

displacement

22
Example:

The position of a particle as it moves along the 𝑥 axis is given for time 𝑡 > 0 by
3 2
𝑥 = (𝑡 − 3𝑡 − 6𝑡) 𝑚,

where 𝑡 is in 𝑠.

a) What is the average velocity of the particle from 𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3.0 𝑠?

b) What is the instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 3.0 𝑠?

c) What is the average acceleration of the particle from 𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3.0 𝑠?

d) What is the instantaneous acceleration at 𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3.0 𝑠?

e) What is the position of the particle when it comes momentarily to rest (after
𝑡 = 0)?

23
Areas Under Graphs and Integration (Basics) - Video

Let us start from something simple first.

𝑦 a. What is the equation of this line?

b. Find the area of bounded by the
(0,4) (4,4)
dotted line and the y-axis.

𝑦 a. What is the equation of this line?

b. Find the area of bounded by the
(4,5) dotted line and the y-axis.

(0,0) 𝑥

We can make some simple generalizations for areas under straight lines and
can even define an “area function” 𝐴(𝑥).

𝑦 Find the area bounded by the two dotted lines.

(4,5)
(2,2.5)

𝑥
24
Areas Under Graphs and Integration (Basics) - Video

Let us do some generalizations. Referring to Appendix 1, we can write

𝑑𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥 ′ + 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
And using this,

𝑑𝑦
consider 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 ; using what we have learnt before = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 . Therefore,
𝑑𝑥

න𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ≠ 0)

Rewriting 𝑚 = 𝑛 − 1; 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

න(𝑚 + 1)𝑥 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑚+1 + 𝐶 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 ≠ −1)

Hence
1
න𝑥 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑚+1 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 ≠ −1)
𝑚+1

Giancoli pg 40, Example 2-21

An experimental vehicle starts from rest (𝑣𝑜 = 0) at 𝑡 = 0 and accelerates at a rate
given by 𝑎 = 7.00 𝑡 𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the (a) velocity and (b) displacement after
2.00𝑠 later?

25
𝑑𝑦
Appendix 1: Explaining why 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥′ + 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Taken from: Fundamentals of Scientific Mathematics by George E Owen (Dover 2003)

26