Transportation

1.0
Eng . Ramy Adel
00

Introduction
Qoutes
Transportation is the center of the
world! It is the glue of our daily
lives. When it goes well, we
don't see it. When it goes
wrong, it negatively colors our
day, makes us feel angry and
impotent, curtails our
possibilities.
Out Lines

01 05

Geometric design Traffic control

02 04

Pavement design
Transportation planning
Introduction

• No of question :

• 9~14 Qs

• Important note to deal with the transportation section

• Choose the equations with the parameters with it`s predefined units

• Convert the parameters to it`s predefined units

01
Geometric
design
Geometric design
• Out lines

• Stopping sight distance

• Horizontal curves design
• Vertical curves design
Geometric design

• Stopping sight distance

• Definition :
• It is a near worst-case distance a vehicle driver needs to be able to see in order to
have room to stop before colliding with something in the roadway, such as a
pedestrian in a crosswalk, a stopped vehicle, or road debris

• Types

• Stopping sight distance (SSD)

• Intersection sight distance (ISD)

Geometric design
• Stopping sight distance (SSD) (ft)

• Equation used :

• .
• Intersection sight distance (ISD) (ft)

• Equation used :

• .
Where :
a = deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
± G = percent grade divided by 100 (uphill grade "+")
t = driver reaction time (sec)
tg = time gap for vehicle entering roadway (sec)
V = design speed (mph)
Vmajor = design speed of major road (mph)
Geometric design
Example :

Solution : given : V=55 mph G=2% a=10 ft/s t=1.5 s SSD=??

Analyzing the given values V unit is mph G=+ up hill grade=2/100=.02 a =10 ft /s2

Where :
a = deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
± G = percent grade divided by 100 (uphill grade "+")
t = driver reaction time (sec)
tg = time gap for vehicle entering roadway (sec)
V = design speed (mph)
Vmajor = design speed of major road (mph)
Geometric design
Road station:

2+00
0+00

1+00

3+00

4+00
•

• Definition :
• the Horizontal measurement along the Survey Center Line of a project.

• The distances between each station are equal

• Examples

• Station 3+40 means that this point is located at 340 ft from the beginning of the
centerline of the road
Geometric design
Horizontal curves design

• definition :

• provides a transition between two tangent

strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle
to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than
a sharp cut. The design of the curve
is dependent on the intended design speed
for the roadway,
as well as other factors including drainage and friction
Geometric design
• Hl curves types :

• Simple curve

• an arc with a single constant radius connecting two tangents

• Compound curve

• composed of two or more adjoining circular arcs of different radii at the same side

• Brocken-back curve

• The combination of a short length of tangent between two circular curves

• Reverse curve
• consists of two adjoining circular arcs with the arc centers located on opposite sides
of the alignment.
Geometric design
HL . Curves types
Geometric design
• HL. curve components

• Tangent parts (straight parts)

• Before and after the spiral/transition lengths

• This tangents intersects at the point PI

• The spiral curves

• From point TS (tangent spiral) and merges with the HL curve to the point SC (spiral curvature)

• From the circular point at point CS to the beginning of the tangent at ST

• The circular part

Geometric design
• In this course we are going to study the simple curve using the following equations :

• .

c = length of sub-chord
D = degree of curve, arc definition
E = external distance
L = length of curve, from PC to PT
LC = length of long chord
M = length of middle ordinate
PC = point of curve (also called BC)
PI = point of intersection
PT = point of tangent (also called EC)
R = radius S = sight distance (ft)
T = tangent distance V = design speed (mph)
Geometric design
• Important notes :

• Notice the difference between Lc&L

• L: length of curve, from PC to PT

• Lc : length of long chord

• i: could be named a deflection angel

• When using The value of D out side a trigonometry functions (sin,cos…) we don`t
multiply it`s value by 𝝅/𝟏𝟖𝟎 , instead we use the value as it is

• PC : Point of Curvature PT: Point of Tangential Curve

Geometric design
• Equations to use :

• The next equations doesn`t exist in H.B, so we need to memorize it to get the solution faster

• How to locate station (Pc)

• St(Pc)=Pi-T

• St(Pc): the station of curvature point

• How to locate station (Pt)

• St(Pt)=Pc+L

• St(Pt) : the station of tangential point

Geometric design
Example :
Sta. PI = 100+00
Radius = 4200 ft
Δ = 27°
Find: Sta. PT

Solution :
Geometric design
• Horizontal sight distance (HSO) :

• it`s used To determine the actual sight distance that you

have provided, but first you need to consider that the driver
can only see the portion of the roadway ahead
that is not hidden by the obstruction

• HSO: the distance between the center line

of the inside lane to the obstruction

• Helps to Avoid an accident on the other side of the HL curve

• Based on SSD value

• Equation used :

•
Geometric design
Example :

Solution : given R=1000 ft V=55mph s=2.5 a=10 ft/s2 HSO?

As the curve is flat the grading value G =0, in addition we know that the value of HSO depends on the value of SSD
1st step : get the value of SSD
Geometric design

2nd step : get the vale of the HSO

• Super elevation :
Geometric design

• Illustrating :

• When a car enters a horizontal curve at a high speed

or at a small curve the car experiences a centrifugal force
that can cause an outer lateral movement that may
result skidding or overturning to the car making it
unsafe to stay inside the driving lane.

• A Super elevation is the banking of the roadway such

that the outside edge of pavement is higher than
the inside edge.

• The use of super elevation allows a vehicle to travel

through a curve more safely and at a higher speed
than would otherwise be possible
Geometric design
• Side friction developed between the tires and the road surface
also acts to counterbalance the outward pull on the vehicle.

• Super elevation and side friction are the two factors that help
stabilize a turning vehicle.

• Note that :When traveling at low speeds or on curves

with large radii, the effects of centrifugal force are minor.

• Equation used :
• In order to make equilibrium
we must satisfy the condition that
super elevation + friction =centrifugal force
𝜑
f = side friction factor
e = super elevation Slop (%) e=tan (𝜑)
V = design speed (mph) e: substituted with
R = radius it`s percent value %
Geometric design
Example :

Solution : Given : R=950 ft e=8% f=.12

This problem asks for the maximum safe velocity that the HL can provide knowing that this velocity shouldn`t exceed the
posted limit speed given

Substitute into the H.B equation

Geometric design
• Spiral length

• Illustrating

• When A vehicle is entering a curve it must transit from a

straight line to a fixed radius. To accomplish this,
the vehicle travels along a path with a continually
changing radius which called a spiral length

• spiral length

• Used to provide a gradual transition between tangent sections and circular curves.

• The spirals allow the vehicle to more easily transition into and out of a curve while staying
within the travel lane.

• Equation used

C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration

[use 1 ft/sec3 unless otherwise stated]
Geometric design
Example :

Solution : this is a classic spiral length problem we can find

Substituting to the H.B equation

C=1 assumed as it`s not mentioned

. ∗
Ls= =675 ft
This value represents the minimum value of a spiral transition length
Geometric design
Vertical curve :

• Definition :

• used to provide a smooth transition between roadway grades.

• A vertical curve is composed of a parabolic curve that provides

a constant rate of change of grade.

• VL curve types :

• Sag vertical curve

• occurs at the top of the slope

• Crest vertical curve

• occurs at the bottom of a slope

Geometric design

Sag and crest vertical curves :

Geometric design
Equations used
where
PVC = point of vertical curvature, or beginning of curve
PVI = point of vertical intersection, or vertex
PVT = point of vertical tangency, or end of curve
A = algebraic difference in grades
a = parabola constant
E = tangent offset at PVI
g1 = grade of back tangent
g2 = grade of forward tangent
K = rate of vertical curvature
L = length of curve
r = rate of change of grade
xm = horizontal distance to min/max elevation on curve
y = tangent offset (the vertical distance above a datum)
V = design speed (mph)
Geometric design
• Basic definitions

• The grade lines intersect one another at the vertical

point of intersection (PVI).

• he slope of the first grade line is labeled g1

and the slope of the second grade line is labeled g2.

• When the grade rises along the alignment, G is positive

• when the grade falls or slopes downward, G is negative.

• The grade line G is always expressed in terms of a percentage

• The algebraic difference of grades is expressed as A.

Geometric design
• Problems types :
• Get the length of the curve ( L )

• Get the value of elevation (Y) at a given station on the curve

Geometric design
Get the length of the curve ( L )

• The most important value to get the length of

a vertical curve is the stopping sight distance
(S) which this curve can provide.

• In order to solve this problem we need to follow the next steps

• Define which type you need to study(sag/crest)

• an initial assumption is made in which

we assume that the S using the following table:
Geometric design

• Get the curve length (L)

• If S≤ 𝐿 then okay ^_^

• if S > L recalculate using the condition of

S>L

h1 = height of driver's eyes above the roadway surface (ft)

h2 = height of object above the roadway surface (ft)
S = sight distance (ft)
L = length of curve
A = algebraic difference in grades

C
Geometric design
How to use this table

VL curves

Sag crest

Choose on of the
General equation
following three

based on standard criteria

based on riding comfort
based on adequate sight distance
under an obstacle
Geometric design
Example :

Solution :
to get the length based on the riding comfort zone we need to apply a single equation :

A=|-5+(-1)|=4% V=45 mph

∗
L= = 174𝑓𝑡
.
Geometric design
Example :
Using the information from the previous question find the minimum length based on the standard headlight criteria knowing
that SSD=424 ft

Solution: -5%
Determine if the curve is sag or crest drawing the giving slopes (the curve is sag)
-1%
SSD=424 ft
A=4
Assume S≤ 𝐿
Using H.B equation knowing that the curve is sag
Geometric design
This assumption is not valid recalculate knowing that s>L
Geometric design
Get the value of elevation at a given station on the curve

• The main goal here is to get the elevation of a point at

given station within this curve

• The equation used

• .

Elevation value=132 m
PVC = point of vertical curvature, or beginning of curve
PVI = point of vertical intersection, or vertex
PVT = point of vertical tangency, or end of curve
a = parabola constant
g1 = grade of back tangent
g2 = grade of forward tangent
L = length of curve
X= is the distance between PVC and any point on the curve
Geometric design
• Steps followed :

• Get the elevation of the Ypvi wich locate @ X =L/2 that

represent the distance between Ypvc & Ypvi

• Solve this equation to get the value of the PVI/PVC

• .

• Get the distance between st PVC and any point on the curve X which could be within the following cases

• X= lowest or highest point on the curve X=Xm

• X could be any point on the curve X= PVC station – point station

• Substitute the value of the Ypvc into this equation to get the value of the curve elevation at a given
point with the new X value
How to get an elevation on a
vertical curve

Use 1st equation using X=L/2

To get Ypvi

Get the distance for the

needed elevation (X)

IF Y at the lowest IF Y at any other

Point point
X= PVC station – point station

Use 2nd equation using new

X value
Geometric design
Example:
A vertical sag curve has a length of 8 st a and connects a – 2% grade to a 1.6% vertical grade. The PVI is
located at sta 87 +00 and has an elevation of 2438 ft. The elevation of the lowest point on the vertical
curve is most nearly
(A) 2420 ft (B) 2430 ft (C) 2440 ft (D) 2450 ft

Solution :
given : 8 stations =800 ft g1= -.02 g2=.016
Ypvi=2438 ft required =Ypvc
1st step : get the value of X to get Ypvi
X=L/2=800/2=400ft
2nd step : substitute into the following equation
Ypvc + g1x= Ypvi + g2 (x-L/2) X=L/2 g2(x-L/2)=0
Ypvc + g1x = Ypvi
Ypvc=Ypvi-g1x=2438-(-.02)*400=2446 ft
Geometric design
Step 3: get the new X value to locate the curve elevation at the needed point
This question asks for the elevation at the lowest point which could be determined using the following formula

Step 4: use the new x value to determine the curve elevation using the following equation
02
Pavement
design
Pavement design
Pavement Design /Construction Design

• Definition

• The Road is a structure consisting of superimposed layers

of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade,
whose primary function is to distribute the applied
vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

• So in order to do so we need to determine the following :

• Loads applied to the road

• Layers ability to withstand the applied loads

Pavement design
• Outlines :

• Loads equivalency factors table

• Structural number
Pavement design
• Loads equivalency factors table
• Illustration

• is not too difficult to determine a wheel or an axle load for an individual

vehicle

• it becomes quite complicated to determine the number and types of wheel/axle loads that a
particular pavement will be subject to over its design life

• it is not the wheel load but rather the damage to the pavement caused by the wheel load that
is of primary concern.

• convert damage from wheel loads of various magnitudes and repetitions (“mixed traffic”) to
damage from an equivalent number of “standard” or “equivalent” loads.
Pavement design
• The table outputs are load equivalency factors (LEFs) or ESAL factors.
• This factor relates various axle load combinations to the standard 80 kN (18,000 lbs) single axle load.
• It should be noted that ESALs as calculated by the ESAL equations are dependent upon the pavement type (flexible or
rigid) and the pavement structure
Pavement design
Example :
A truck is carrying a gravel from a stone pit . The truck has three axles the axle loads in lbf are tabulated as follows
the truck factor for the fully loaded truck is most nearly :

Solution :
For this problem we are asked to find the equivalent factor
for the loads of the fully truck .
In this case we take the loads to every axle of the truck
(single /tandem) and convert it sing the factor table .
For the fully loaded truck
Front single axle load =18000 lb factor =1
Tandem axle =30000 lb factor=.658 each
Rare single axle load =20000 lb factor =1.51

The total factor for the truck is

1+.658*2+1.51=3.83
Pavement design

• Structural number

• Definition :

• represents the overall structural requirement needed to sustain the design’s traffic loadings.

• used as a measure of the ability of the pavement to withstand anticipated axle loads.

• expresses the structural strength of a pavement required for given combinations of soil support

• a : represents the relative strength of the construction materials in that layer.

• m : represents the relative loss of strength in a layer due to its drainage characteristics
Pavement design
Example :
A highway pavement design has the material specifications shown. What is most nearly the structural number of the
pavement?

Solution :
given :
a1=.11in^-1 d1=12 in m1=1
a2=.14in^-1 d2=15 in m2=1
a3=.44in^-1 d3=6 in m3=1
Substitute into H.B
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The End