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Chemistry

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Hey Ummm
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Content overview

Candidates study the following topics:

1 States of matter

2 Atoms, elements and compounds

3 Stoichiometry

4 Electrochemistry

5 Chemical energetics

6 Chemical reactions

7 Acids, bases and salts

8 The Periodic Table

9 Metals

10 Chemistry of the environment

11 Organic chemistry

12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis

Key Concepts in Electrochemistry

1. Redox Reactions:
o Electrochemistry is based on oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, where:
 Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
 Reduction is the gain of electrons.
o Example: Zn (s)→Zn2++2e− (oxidation)\text{Zn (s)} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+}
+ 2\text{e}^- \, (\text{oxidation})Zn (s)→Zn2++2e−(oxidation) Cu2+
+2e−→Cu (s) (reduction)\text{Cu}^{2+} + 2\text{e}^- \rightarrow \text{Cu
(s)} \, (\text{reduction})Cu2++2e−→Cu (s)(reduction)
2. Electrochemical Cells:
o Devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy or vice versa.
o Two main types:
 Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells: Generate electricity from spontaneous redox
reactions.
 Electrolytic Cells: Use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous
reactions.
3. Electrodes:
o Anode: The electrode where oxidation occurs.
o Cathode: The electrode where reduction occurs.
o In a galvanic cell, the anode is negative, and the cathode is positive. In an
electrolytic cell, the polarity is reversed.
4. Salt Bridge:
o A device in a galvanic cell that maintains electrical neutrality by allowing the
flow of ions between the two half-cells.

Types of Electrochemical Cells

1. Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells:


o Example: Daniell Cell.
 Reaction: Zinc reacts with copper sulfate to produce electricity.
 Components:
 Anode: Zinc metal (Zn\text{Zn}Zn).
 Cathode: Copper metal (Cu\text{Cu}Cu).
 Electrolytes: Solutions of zinc sulfate and copper sulfate.
 Overall Reaction: Zn (s)+Cu2+→Zn2++Cu (s)\text{Zn (s)} + \
text{Cu}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + \text{Cu (s)}Zn (s)
+Cu2+→Zn2++Cu (s)
2. Electrolytic Cells:
o Example: Electrolysis of water.
 Reaction: Decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen gases.
 Components:
 Anode: Oxygen gas evolves (2H2O→O2+4H++4e−\text{2H}_2\
text{O} \rightarrow \text{O}_2 + 4\text{H}^+ + 4\text{e}^-2H2
O→O2+4H++4e−).
 Cathode: Hydrogen gas evolves (2H2O+2e−→H2+2OH−\
text{2H}_2\text{O} + 2\text{e}^- \rightarrow \text{H}_2 + 2\
text{OH}^-2H2O+2e−→H2+2OH−).

Key Terms and Quantities

1. Cell Potential (E∘E^\circE∘):


o The voltage produced by an electrochemical cell, calculated using the Nernst
equation.
o Standard Electrode Potential (E∘E^\circE∘): Measured under standard conditions
(25°C, 1 atm, 1 M solutions).
2. Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis:
o First Law: The mass of a substance deposited or dissolved at an electrode is
proportional to the electric charge passed.
o Second Law: When the same charge passes through different electrolytes, the
masses of substances deposited are proportional to their equivalent weights.
3. Nernst Equation:
o Relates the cell potential to the concentrations of reactants and products:
E=E∘−RTnFln⁡QE = E^\circ - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln QE=E∘−nFRTlnQ Where:
 EEE: Cell potential under non-standard conditions.
 RRR: Gas constant.
 TTT: Temperature in Kelvin.
 nnn: Number of moles of electrons transferred.
 FFF: Faraday constant (96485 C/mol96485 \, \text{C/mol}96485C/mol).
 QQQ: Reaction quotient.

Applications of Electrochemistry

1. Batteries:
o Galvanic cells used to store and supply energy.
o Examples:
 Primary Batteries: Non-rechargeable (e.g., alkaline batteries).
 Secondary Batteries: Rechargeable (e.g., lithium-ion, lead-acid).
2. Fuel Cells:
o Convert chemical energy from fuels (like hydrogen) into electricity, emitting
water as a byproduct.
3. Electroplating:
o Coating a metal object with a thin layer of another metal for protection or
aesthetics.
4. Corrosion Prevention:
o Electrochemistry helps understand and prevent corrosion, such as rusting of iron.
5. Industrial Processes:
o Production of chemicals like chlorine and sodium hydroxide through electrolysis
of brine.

Real-World Example: Lithium-Ion Batteries

 Widely used in electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage.


 Components:
o Anode: Typically graphite.
o Cathode: Lithium metal oxide.
o Electrolyte: Lithium salts in an organic solvent.
 Reaction:
o During discharge: Lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
o During charging: Lithium ions move back to the anode.

Importance of Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry bridges the gap between chemistry and electricity, enabling technological
advancements and sustainable solutions. From powering everyday devices to driving industrial
processes, its principles continue to shape the future of energy and materials science.

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