GERALD A.

URBAYAN
OMNI Aviation Corporation
Human Factor
– responsible for most of the aircraft accidents

OTHER FACTOR

HUMAN FACTOR
Human Factors
Statistics:
75% of accidents in General Aviation is caused by Pilot’s
Error (Human Factors) - NTSB

Common causes of General Aviation accidents:

• Loss of directional control

• Poor judgement
• Airspeed not maintained
• Poor pre-flight planning
• Clearance not maintained
• Inadvertent stalls
• Poor crosswind handling
• Poor in-flight planning
Pilot Error
– an action or decision made by the Pilot that contributed
substantially to the accident.
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
 is a systematic approach
to the mental process
used by airplane pilots to
consistently determine the
best course of action in
response to a given set of
circumstances.
The Decision Making Process
 Recognize a Change
 Defining the Problem ENSURE RECOGNIZE

 Choose a Course of Action

 Implement your Decision
 Ensuring the desirable result
of the decision IMPLEMENT DEFINE

CHOOSE
DECIDE MODEL
- Provides the pilot with a logical way of making decisions

 D – DETECT the fact that a change has occurred

 E – ESTIMATE the need to counter or react the change

 C – CHOOSE a desirable outcome for the success of the file

 I – IDENTIFY actions which could successfully control the change

 D – DO the necessary action to adapt to the change

 E – EVALUATE the effect of the action

ADM enhances the process to decrease the probability of human error and increase the
probability of a safe flight.
Risk Management
Is an important component of ADM, when a pilot
follows a good-decision-making practices, the risk in
the flight is removed or even eliminated.

“The ability to make good decisions is based upon

DIRECT and INDIRECT experience and education”
Crew Resource Management (CRM) and
Single-Pilot Resource Management
- It is defined as the art and science of managing all the
resources (both on-board the aircraft and from the
outside resources) to ensure the succesful outcome of
the flight

- It’s all about helping pilots learn how to gather

information, analyze it, and make good decisions.
FOUR Risk Elements

Pilot Aircraft enVironment External

pressures
- To maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception must be
attained of how the Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment and External
pressures combine to affect the flight.
The PAVE Checklist

Once a pilot identifies the risks of a flight, he or she

needs to decide whether the risk or combination of
risk can be managed safely and successfully.
The Pilot
 The Pilot must ask “ Am i ready for this trip?”
 In terms of experience, recency, currency, physical and
emotional condition.
 The IMSAFE checklist provides the answer
 Am I fit to fly?
 I – llness: Can produce fever and distracting symptoms that can impair judgement, memory,
alertness, ability to make calculations

 M – edication: Can seriously degrade the performance of the pilot: antihistamines, muscle
relaxants, BP Drugs, etc.

 S - tress: Inevitable, but manageable. Distractions can interfere with judgement

 A – lcohol: Can impair flying skills, more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia. “Bottle
to Throttle” – 8hrs “Bottle to throttle” – 12 hrs; Max allowable in blood: 0.04%

 F – atigue: Tiredness / Sleep deprivation. Can lower pilots’ mental and physical capacity
quite dramatically. Acute and Chronic

 E – at: Eat right.

The Aircraft
 Is this the right aircraft for the flight?
 Am i familiar with and current in this aircraft?
 Is this aircraft equipped for the flight?
 Can this aircraft use the runways available?
 Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity?
The Environment
Weather
- Ceiling and Visibility
- Ready for alternative plans or diversion
- wind strengths and crosswind components
- thunderstorm present or forecast

Terrain
- Obstacles, Safe altitudes on route

Airports
- What lights are available?
- NOTAMS
- Choose a flight route wisely

Airspace
- Survival gear in the event of forced landing
- check airspace and any temporary flight restrictions(TFR) along the route of flight
External Pressures
 Someone waiting at the airport for the flights arrival
 A passenger, the pilot does not want to disappoint
 Emotional pressures
 To demonstrate pilot qualifications; and
 The desire to impress someone ( the two most
dangerous words “ WATCH THIS”
>ADM process indentifies the steps involved in a
good decision making.
Anti - Authority
“Don’t Tell me what to do”

Antidote:
-”Follow the rules, they are usually right”
IMPULSIVITY
“Do it Quickly”

Antidote :
“Not so fast, Think first bro”
INVULNERABILITY
“What is the worst that could happen?”

Antidote :
“I’m not GOD, it could happen to me”
RESIGNATION
“What’s the use?”

Antidote :
“Don’t Give up, there is still chance”
MACHO
“I can do it!”

Antidote :
“Taking chances is foolish”
5 Hazardous Attitude
1. ANTI AUTHORITY
(Don’t Tell me)

2. IMPULSIVITY
(Do it Quickly)

3. INVULNERABILITY
(IT WON’T HAPPEN TO ME)

4. RESIGNATION (WHAT’S THE USE?)

5. MACHO
(I COULD DO IT)
Operational Pitfalls
Demonstrating the
“RIGHT STUFF”
PILOTS, PARTICULARLY THOSE
COMMERCIAL PILOT, AS A RULE
ALWAYS TRY TO COMPLETE A FLIGHT
AS PLANNED, PLEASE THE
PASSENGER, MEET SCHEDULES, AND
GENERALLY DEMONSTRATE THAT
THEY HAVE THE ‘RIGHT STUFF’
Operational Pitfalls
PEER PRESSURE
• Poor decision making may be based upon an
emotional response to peers, rather than
evaluating a situation objectively.
Operational Pitfalls
MIND SET
• A pilot displays mind set
through an inability to
recognize and cope with
Changes in a given
Situation.
Operational Pitfalls
GET HOME ITIS
• The disposition
impairs pilot
judgment through a
fixation on the
original goal or
destination,
combined with a
disregard of any
alternative course.
Operational Pitfalls
SCUD RUNNING
• Occurs when a pilot tries
to maintain visual contact
with the terrain at low
altitudes while instrument
condition exist.
Operational Pitfalls
• CONTINUING VFR
• LOSS OF SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
• OPERATING WITHOUT ADEQUATE
FUEL RESERVES
• FLYING OUTSIDE THE ENVELOPE
• NEGLECT OF FLIGHT PLANNING,
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION, AND
CHECKLIST
Situational Awareness
-occurs when you have a solid mental picture of the flight.
Situational Awareness
Degrades when:
1. Cockpit workload is extremely high
2. Cockpit workload is extremely low (Complacency)
Workload Management
- ensure that essential operations are accomplished by
planning, prioritizing and sequencing tasks to avoid work
overload.
Maintaining Situational Awareness
 Where am I?
 How high am I?
 What’s the terrain like around me?
 Where’s all the other traffic?
 What kind of airspace am I in? What kind of airspace
will I be in?
 How much fuel do I have?
 Where do I go in case of engine failures or
emergencies?
 What’s the weather like? Is it the same as forecast?
ORGANIZATION OF THE
COCKPIT
-organize items during pre-flight according to sequence of
use.
MAP USAGE
-orientation of the cockpit to heading
- proper folding of the map
RADIO NAVIGATION
-proper use of radio navigation reduces pilot workload
Use of CLEAROFF
Checks:
C – COMPASS/HI check synchronized
L – LOG accomplished
E – ENGINE & ELECTRICS – normal
A – ALTITUDE check
R – RADIO set
O – ORIENTATION of map properly
set
F – FUEL check
F – FIELD for emergency landing
selected
 MAJOR EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON THE
HUMAN BODY DUE TO PRESSURE CHANGES:

• HYPOXIA
• BAROTRAUMA
• DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
• HYPERVENTILLATION
• CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
• DEHYDRATION
HYPOXIA
• Condition in which oxygen concentration in the
tissues is less than normal and maybe caused by:
• insufficient supply of oxygen
• inadequate transportation of oxygen
• the inability of the body tissues to use oxygen
HYPOXIC HYPOXIA
“insufficient oxygen
available to the lungs”

-a blocked airway or
drowning
-reduction in partial
pressure of oxygen at high
altitude
-decrease of oxygen
molecules at sufficient
pressure
HYPEMIC HYPOXIA
“Not enough blood”
 The blood is not able to take up and transport a
sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells in the body.
 A result of oxygen deficiency in the blood, rather than
a lack of inhaled oxygen.

 May be caused by:

 Not enough blood volume (may be due to severe
bleeding)
 Anemia
 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
- Hemoglobin is chemically unable to bind
oxygen molecules
STAGNANT HYPOXIA
Stagnant means
“not flowing,”
•results when the oxygen-rich
blood in the lungs isn’t moving to
the tissues that need it
It can also results from:
>shock
>the heart failing to pump
>constricted artery
> Extreme Cold Temperature
•It can occur in flight due to the
excessive acceleration of gravity
(G’s)
HISTOTOXIC HYPOXIA
“inability of the cells to effectively use
oxygen”

•plenty of oxygen is being transported to

the cells, but they are unable to make use
of it because of alcohol and drugs

•drinking one ounce of alcohol can equate

to about an additional 2,000 feet of
physiological altitude
SYMPTOMS OF HYPOXIA
•Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
•Headache
•Decreased reaction time
•Impaired judgment
•Euphoria
•Visual impairment
•Drowsiness
•Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
•Tingling in fingers and toes
•Numbness
•the field of vision begins to narrow, and
instrument interpretation can become difficult
•hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of
security and be deceived into believing that
everything is normal.
TREATMENT OF HYPOXIA
fly at lower altitudes

use supplemental oxygen

•10,000ft at day
•5,000ft at night
TIME OF USEFUL
CONCIOUSNESS
•Describes the maximum time the pilot has to make
rational, life saving decisions and carry out at a
given altitude without supplemental oxygen
TIME OF USEFUL CONCIOUSNESS
HYPERVENTILATION
 excessive loss of carbon
dioxide from the body

 Caused by emotional stress,

fright, pain, excitement
HYPERVENTILATION
 Pilots encountering an unexpected stressful situation may
unconsciously increase their breathing rate.

 If flying at higher altitudes, either with or without oxygen, a

pilot may have a tendency to breathe more rapidly than
normal, which often leads to hyperventilation.

 Since many of the symptoms of hyperventilation are similar

to those of hypoxia, it is important to correctly diagnose and
treat the proper condition

 If using supplemental oxygen, check the equipment and flow

rate to ensure the symptoms are not hypoxia related.
SYMPTOMS OF
HYPERVENTILATION
 Muscle Spasms
 Visual impairment
 Unconsciousness
 Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
 Tingling in fingers and toes
 Numbness
 Pale, clammy appearance
 Hot and cold sensation
TREATMENT FOR
HYPERVENTILATION
 breathe normally to restore
proper carbon dioxide level in
the body

 breathing into a paper bag

 recovery is usually rapid once

the breathing rate is returned
to normal
BAROTRAUMA
 Severe pain caused by
increasing cabin altitude
due to expansion of gas
inside the body such as
stomach, intestines, sinuses,
middle ear or in decaying tooth
BAROTRAUMA OF THE EAR

•Ear barotrauma is discomfort and

possible damage in the ear due to
pressure differences between the
inside and outside of
the eardrum.
BAROTRAUMA OF THE EAR
VALSALVA MANEUVER
 To remedy this often painful
condition, pinch the nostrils
shut, close the mouth and lips,
and blow slowly and gently in
the mouth and nose.

 This procedure forces air

through the Eustachian tube
into the middle ear.
BAROTRAUMA OF THE
SINUSES
•Intense pain due to sinus
block that occurs most
frequently during descent
or climb when having cold,
sinusitis or nasal allergic
condition.
DECOMPRESSION
SICKNESS
- Exposure to low barometric
pressures that cause inert
gases (mainly nitrogen)
dissolved in body fluids and
tissues, to come out of
physical solution and form
bubbles.

- If the nitrogen is forced to

leave the solution too rapidly,
bubbles form in different
areas of the body.
BENDS
• This is pain in and
around the joints.
• This type is
characterized by
aching in the
joints.
• Caused by the
bubbles
aggravating bone
marrow, tendons,
and joints.
SKIN MANIFESTATION
• This is when the
nitrogen bubbles come
out of solution in skin.
• This normally results in a
red rash, often on the
shoulders and chest.
PULMONARY (CHOKES)
• This is when the nitrogen
bubbles form in the lungs.
• Bubbles dissolve naturally
through the lungs,
however, it is possible for
them to interrupt blood
flow to the lungs which
can lead to serious and
life-threatening respiratory
and heart problems.
NEUROLOGICAL MANIFESTATION

• Nitrogen bubbles make

their way into the arterial
blood stream to move to
the brain, spinal chord
and the nerves.
• This is extremely
dangerous and can be
identified by symptoms
such as blurred vision,
headaches, confusion,
and unconsciousness.
DECOMPRESSION
SICKNESS
• IMPORTANCE TO PILOT
• Wait 12 hours after a dive
which does not require a
controlled ascent for flight
below 8,000 feet.
• Wait 24 hours after a dive
which required a
controlled ascent for flight
below 8,000 feet.
• Wait 24 hours after a dive A pilot/ passenger who intends to fly
to climb to an altitude After scuba diving should allow the
above 8,000 feet. Body sufficiet time to rid itself of excess
Nitrogen absorbed during diving.
CARBON MONOXIDE
POISONING
• Caused by faulty exhaust heating or cigarette smoking
whereas the CO molecules are inhaled, then the
hemoglobin will transport them in preference to
oxygen, causing the body and brain to suffer oxygen
starvation.

• Susceptibility to Carbon monoxide increased as

cabin altitude increases.
CARBON MONOXIDE IS A COLORLESS, ODORLESS,
TASTELESS AND POISONOUS GAS FOR WHICH
HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD HAS AN ENORMOUS
AFFINITY.
CARBON MONOXIDE
POISONING
SYMPTOMS OF CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING

• Loss of muscular power

• Deterioration in vision
• Impaired judgment
• Personality change
• Impaired memory
• Slower breathing rate
• Cherry-red complexion
• headache, dizziness and nausea Convulsions
• Coma and eventually death
DEHYDRATION

• Excessive loss of body fluid

VISION AND VISUAL ILLUSIONS
THE EYE

The RETINA contains light sensitive cells that convert light energy into electrical
Impulses that travel through nerves to the brain.
Two Kinds of Light Sensitive cells In Eyes
 Cones – responsible for all color vision, detail, color
sensitivity

 Rods – better to detect a movement and provide vision

in dim lights
- unable to discern colors but very sensitive to low
light levels

The brain interprets the electical signals to form images

DAY VISION
A series of short regularly spaced
Eye movements to search each
10 deg. sector

SACCADE/ FIXATION CYCLE – MOST

EFFECTIVE METHOD OF SCANNING FOR
COLLISION AVOIDANCE DURING DAYLIGHT.
NIGHT VISION
PERIPHERAL VISION– SCANNING
OF SMALL SECTOR OF SKY SLOWLY
AND FOCUSING PERCEPTION FROM
5° to 10° off center of the object to be
seen.

Cones - takes 5-10 minutes to adapt back

to light

Rods - takes 30 minutes to adapt to

darkness
BLIND SPOT
- the area where the optic nerves enters
the eyeball has no rods and cones,
leaving a blind spot

Normally, each eye compensates for the other’s blind spot

COLOR BLINDNESS
 is the decreased ability to perceive
differences between some of
the colors that others can
distinguish. It is most often
of genetic nature, but may also
occur because of some eye, nerve,
or brain damage, or exposure to
certain chemicals.
HAZE ILLUSION
 An illusion where objects appear closer.
EMPTY FIELD MYOPIA

• Looking without seeing

AUTOKINESIS
 -Occur at night if you stare
continuously at a single light
against a dark background for a
few seconds, and after that the
lights appear to move
FALSE HORIZON
 A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is
obscured or not readily apparent.
BLACK HOLE APPROACH
 Occur when approaching a runway on a dark night where the
only lights visible are the runway edge light
NARROWER-THAN-USUAL
A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion that
the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower
approach
WIDER-THAN-USUAL
A wider-than-usual runway can create an illusion that the
aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher
approach.
DOWN SLOPING RUNWAY
A down sloping runway can create the illusion that the
aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher
approach.
UP SLOPING RUNWAY
An upsloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft
is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach.
How To Prevent Landing Errors
Due to Optical Illusions
 Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during approaches
to unfamiliar airports, particularly at night or in adverse
weather conditions

 Consult airport diagrams and the AIP for information on

runway slope, terrain, and lighting

 Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially during all

approaches, day and night.

 Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or Precision

Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems for a visual reference,

 Maintain optimum proficiency in landing procedures.

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
 refers to the lack of orientation
with regard to the position,
attitude, or movement of the
airplane in space.
The Body uses three integrated systems working together to
ascertain orientation and movement in space.

• Vestibular System – organs found in the inner ear that

sense position by the way we are balanced.

• Somatosensory System – nerves in the skin, muscles, and

joints, which along with hearing, sense position based on
gravity, feeling and sound. “Seat of the Pants”

• Visual System – eyes, which sense position based on what

is seen
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
Is in the inner ear that allows the pilot to sense movement.
THE LEANS
 This is the most common illusion during flight, and is
caused by a sudden return to level flight following a
gradual and prolonged turn that went unnoticed by
the pilot.

 Leveling the wings after such a turn may cause an

illusion that the aircraft is banking in the opposite
direction. In response to such an illusion, a pilot may
lean in the direction of the original turn in a corrective
attempt to regain the perception of a correct vertical
posture.
CORIOLIS ILLUSION
 A movement of the head in a different plane, such as
looking at something in a different part of the flight
deck, may set the fluid moving and create the illusion
of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis.
 This action causes the pilot to think the aircraft is
doing a maneuver that it is not.
GRAVEYARD SPIRAL
 The graveyard spiral is associated with a return to level
flight following a prolonged bank turn. For example, a pilot
who enters a banking turn to the left will initially have a
sensation of a turn in the same direction. If the left turn
continues (for more than about 20 seconds), the pilot will
experience the sensation that the airplane is no longer
turning to the left. At this point, if the pilot attempts to
level the wings this action will produce a sensation that the
airplane is turning and banking in the opposite direction
(to the right). If the pilot believes the illusion of a right
turn (which can be very compelling), he will re-enter the
original left turn in an attempt to counteract the sensation
of a right turn.
SOMATOGRAVIC ILLUSION
 A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during
takeoff, stimulates the otolith organs in the same way
as tilting the head backwards.
 This action creates the somatogravic illusion of being
in a nose-up attitude, especially in situations without
good visual references.
 The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a
nose-low or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by
quick reduction of the throttle(s) can have the
opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the
aircraft into a nose-up or stall attitude.
INVERSION ILLUSION
 An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight
can stimulate the otolith organs enough to create the
illusion of tumbling backwards, or inversion illusion. The
disoriented pilot may push the aircraft abruptly into a
nose-low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.
ELEVATOR ILLUSION
 An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in
an updraft, can stimulate the otolith organs to create
the illusion of being in a climb. This is called elevator
illusion.
 The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a
nose-low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical
acceleration, usually in a downdraft, has the opposite
effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft
into a nose-up attitude.
VERTIGO
 is a type of dizziness, where there is a feeling of motion
when one is stationary.
 the feeling that you are spinning, or that the world is spinning
or tumbling about you
COPING WITH SPATIAL
DISORIENTATION
 Understand the causes of these illusions and remain constantly alert
for them.
 Always obtain and understand preflight weather briefings.
 Obtain training and maintain proficiency in airplane control by
reference to instruments.
 Do not continue flight into adverse weather conditions or into dusk or
darkness unless proficient in the use of flight instruments.
 Ensure that when outside visual references are used, they are reliable,
fixed points on the Earth’s surface.
 Avoid sudden head movement,
 Be physically tuned for flight

“Having Faith in the instruments rather than taking a chance on the

sensory organs”
HEALTHY PILOT
• Disqualifying illness
• Heart attack, stroke, diabetes, kidney stones and ulcers

• Debilitating illness
• Migraines and Headaches
• Viruses, flu, middle ear infection
• Gastroenteritis
• Cardiovascular diseases
STRESS
- is the sum of all biological
reactions to any adverse stimulus
that tends to disturb the “Body’s
Natural Balance”

ACUTE STRESS - involves

an immediate threat that is
perceived as danger .

CHRONIC STRESS – defined as a

level of stress that presents an
intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of
an individual to cope, and causes
individual performance to fall rapidly.
• Fatigue and Sleep Deprivation
- normal result of working, mental
stress, jet lag, sleep loss, active
recreation, depression and
boredom
ACUTE FATIGUE - is the kind
of tiredness people feel after a
period of strenuous effort,
physical and mental strain,
excitement, or lack of sleep.
CHRONIC FATIGUE –
continuous high stress levels
extending over a long period of
time and usually has a
psychological root.
DO NOT FLY WHEN FATIGUED. IT SHOWS POOR JUDGEMENT
• PHYSICAL STRESS – CONDITIONS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE ENVIRONMENT,
SUCH AS TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY,
EXTREME NOISE, VIBRATION AND LACK OF OXYGEN
OR A SMELLY SEATMATE

• PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS – PHYSICAL CONDITIONS

SUCH AS FATIGUE , LACK OF PHYSICAL FITNESS,
SLEEP LOSS, MISSED MEALS AND ILLNESS.

• PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS – SOCIAL OR EMOTIONAL

FACTORS SUCH AS DEATH IN THE FAMILY, SICK
CHILD OR DEMOTION AT WORK
• Identifying hazardous attitudes
• Learning to modify your behavior
• Recognizing and coping with stress
• Using all your resources
• Being able to evaluate your performance