1.

Discuss the issues involved in feasibility study, technical feasibility, and

operational feasibility.
Ans- A feasibility study may help determine many factors, such as cost-
effectiveness and whether the proposed plan would benefit your company in the
future. Feasibility study is one of stage among important four stages of Software
Project Management Process. Feasibility study is carried out based on many
purposes to analyze whether software product will be right in terms of
development, implementation, contribution of project to the organization etc.
>Benefits of a Feasibility Study:
Risk Reduction: Identifies potential challenges and risks, helping mitigate them
early on.
Informed Decision Making: Provides a detailed analysis, allowing stakeholders
to make informed decisions on whether to proceed.
Increased Project Success: By ensuring a solid foundation and alignment
between project goals and organizational capacity, a feasibility study increases
the chances of project success.
>Types of Feasibility Study: The feasibility study mainly concentrates on
below five mentioned areas. Among these Economic Feasibility Study is most
important part of the feasibility analysis and Legal Feasibility Study is less
considered feasibility analysis.
(i) Technical Feasibility: In Technical Feasibility current resources both
hardware software along with required technology are analyzed/assessed to
develop project. This technical feasibility study gives report whether there exists
correct required resources and technologies which will be used for project
development.
:Key Issues:
Technology maturity: Is the technology required for the project proven and
reliable, or is it still in its early stages? Relying on cutting-edge or untested
technology increases risks.
System integration: The challenge of integrating new technology into existing
systems can be complex and costly.
Skill availability: Does the organization have the required technical expertise
to implement the solution, or will external consultants and training be needed?
Scalability: Will the proposed solution handle future growth, or will it need a
redesign after short period?
Maintenance and support: post-deployment, technical feasibility also includes
the long-term maintainability and support of the system.
Security concerns: Will the technology meet necessary security standards? A
technically feasible project can fail if it opens security vulnerabilities.
(ii) Operational Feasibility: In Operational Feasibility degree of providing
service to requirements is analyzed along with how much easy product will be to
operate and maintenance after deployment.
:Key Issues:
User acceptance: Will end-users accept and adopt the new system or process?
Resistance to change is a major operational risk.
Training needs: Does the team require significant retraining or re-skilling to
operate the new system? If so, is it realistic to expect a smooth transition?
Process integration: Can the new system be integrated into existing business
processes? Sometimes operational practices must be overhauled to
accommodate new systems, which can cause resistance.
Human resources: Are there enough staff to operate the system, and do they
have the required skills? Hiring new personnel can increase costs.
(iii) Economic Feasibility: In Economic Feasibility study cost and benefit of the
project is analyzed. Means under this feasibility study a detail analysis is carried
out what will be cost of the project for development which includes all required
cost for final development like hardware and software resource, design and
development cost and operational cost and so on.
2.Who is a system analyst? What are the roles of a system analyst?
A system analyst is a bridge between business needs and technology solutions.
They meticulously analyze an organization’s processes, systems, and data to
identify opportunities for improvement and innovation. By collaborating closely
with stakeholders, they gather requirements, translate them into technical
specifications, and work with development teams to design and implement
effective solutions.
Roles of System Analyst
System analysts wear many hats, acting as a liaison between the business world
and the world of technology. Their core roles and responsibilities can be broadly
categorized into three phases: planning, implementation, and maintenance.
Here’s a closer look at the key responsibilities of a system analyst:
Planning Phase:
1. Requirements Gathering: This crucial step involves eliciting
requirements from stakeholders through interviews, surveys, and
workshops. Understanding business needs, pain points, and desired
functionalities is paramount.
2. Business Process Analysis: System analysts meticulously map out
existing business processes, identifying areas for improvement and
opportunities for automation or optimization.
3. Feasibility Study: After analyzing requirements, system analysts conduct
feasibility studies to assess the technical and economic viability of
proposed solutions.
4. System Design and Development: Working with developers and
designers, system analysts participate in creating system specifications,
outlining functionalities, and defining system architecture.
Implementation Phase:
1. Project Management: System analysts may play a project management
role, coordinating development efforts, ensuring adherence to timelines
and budgets, and mitigating risks.
2. System Testing and Quality Assurance: Collaboration with testing
teams to ensure the developed system meets requirements, functions
flawlessly, and adheres to quality standards.
3. User Training and Documentation: Develop training materials and user
guides to equip end-users with the knowledge and skills to effectively
operate the new system.
Maintenance Phase:
1. System Monitoring and Support: System analysts proactively monitor
system performance, troubleshoot any issues that arise, and provide
ongoing user support.
2. Performance Analysis: Regularly analyzing system performance to
identify areas for improvement and ensure the system continues to meet
evolving business needs.
3. Change Management: Implementing and managing changes to the
system as business requirements evolve or new technologies emerge. This
might involve system upgrades, new feature development, or data
migration.

3.Explain SDLC in detail.

Software development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured process that is used to
design, develop, and test good-quality software. SDLC, or software development
life cycle, is a methodology that defines the entire procedure of software
development step-by-step.
Planning  defining  designing  building  testing  deployment
The goal of the SDLC life cycle model is to deliver high-quality, maintainable
software that meets the user’s requirements. SDLC in software engineering
models outlines the plan for each stage so that each stage of the software
development model can perform its task efficiently to deliver the software at a
low cost within a given time frame that meets users’ requirements.
SDLC is a process followed for software building within a software
organization. SDLC consists of a precise plan that describes how to develop,
maintain, replace, and enhance specific software. The life cycle defines a method
for improving the quality of software and the all-around development process.
SDLC specifies the task(s) to be performed at various stages by a software
engineer or developer.
Stage-1: Planning and Requirement Analysis
Planning is a crucial step in everything, just as in software development. In this
same stage, requirement analysis is also performed by the developers of the
organization. This is attained from customer inputs, and sales
department/market surveys.
Planning define project scopes set objectives and goals resource planning
Stage-2: Defining Requirements
In this stage, all the requirements for the target software are specified. These
requirements get approval from customers, market analysts, and stakeholders.
This is fulfilled by utilizing SRS (Software Requirement Specification). This is a
sort of document that specifies all those things that need to be defined and
created the entire project cycle.
Defining Functional Requirement Technical Requirement Requirement
Reviews & Approved
Stage-3: Designing Architecture
SRS is a reference for software designers to come up with the best architecture
for the software. Hence, with the requirements defined in SRS, multiple designs
for the product architecture are present in the Design Document Specification
(DDS).
Design Low level design High level design
Stage-4: Developing Product
At this stage, the fundamental development of the product starts. For this,
developers use a specific programming code as per the design in the DDS.
Hence, it is important for the coders to follow the protocols set by the
association. Conventional programming tools like compilers, interpreters,
debuggers, etc. are also put into use at this stage. Some popular languages like
C/C++, Python, Java, etc. are put into use as per the software regulations.
Development coding standard scalable code version control code review
Stage-5: Product Testing and Integration
After the development of the product, testing of the software is necessary to
ensure its smooth execution. Although, minimal testing is conducted at every
stage of SDLC. Therefore, at this stage, all the probable flaws are tracked, fixed,
and retested. This ensures that the product confronts the quality requirements of
SRS. Software documentation is an essential part of the software development
life cycle.
System testing manual testing automated testing
Stage-6: Deployment and Maintenance of Products
After detailed testing, the conclusive product is released in phases as per the
organization’s strategy. Then it is tested in a real industrial environment. It is
important to ensure its smooth performance. If it performs well, the organization
sends out the product as a whole. After retrieving beneficial feedback, the
company releases it as it is or with auxiliary improvements to make it further
helpful for the customers.
Deployment & maintenance release planning deployment automation
maintenance feedback

4.What do structure systems analysis and design method mean?

Explain.
SSADM follows the waterfall life cycle model starting from the feasibility study to
the physical design stage of development. One of the main features of SSADM is
the intensive user involvement in the requirements analysis stage. The users are
made to sign off each stage as they are completed assuring that requirements
are met. The users are provided with clear, easily understandable documentation
consisting of various diagrammatic representations of the system. SSADM breaks
up a development project into stages, modules, steps and tasks. The techniques
used in SSADM are logical data modelling, data flow modelling and entity
behaviour modelling.
Logical Data Modelling: This involves the process of identifying, modelling and
documenting data as a part of system requirements gathering. The data are
classified further into entities and relationships.
Data Flow modelling: This involves tracking the data flow in an information
system. It clearly analyses the processes, data stores, external entities and data
movement.
Entity Behaviour Modelling: This involves identifying and documenting the
events influencing each entity and the sequence in which these events happen.
>What are the stages of SSADM?
(i). Feasibility stage. A feasibility study investigates the goals and implications
of a project to determine whether the project is achievable. The existing system
is analysed for problems that must be solved during development. There are four
main areas considered in a feasibility study.
(ii). Requirements analysis. This step investigates the current environment
and examines existing business systems to see what modifications are needed.
This includes a cost-benefits analysis of business system options and the
potential effect of the new system on the organization and employees.
(iii). Definition of requirements. The requirements specification for the new
system may include a look at the life histories of the entities involved, user role
and function matrices, and process identity modelling, data catalogs and
correspondence diagrams.
(iv). Logical system specification. This step consists of two stages:
Technical system options define possible implementation methods and
components, such as staffing costs, the type of software and hardware required,
physical limitations of the area that houses the system and requirements for the
human-computer interface.
(v). Physical design. The system's logical specifications are matched to
physical architecture. The function and structure of the database component is
specified based on outputs from the logical design and technical system option
steps.

14.What are the dataflow diagrams? How are they different from
structure charts?
1. Structure Chart :
Structure Chart represents the hierarchical structure of modules. It represents
the software architecture that means the various modules making up the system
and the dependency. Structure chart representation can be easily implemented
using some common programming language. The main focus in the structure
chart is on the module structure of the software.
2. Flow Chart :
Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Programmers often use it
as a program-planning tool to solve a problem. It makes use of symbols which
are connected among them to indicate the flow of information and processing.
Flow chart is a convenient technique to represent the flow of control in a
program.

5.Describe the difference between system requirement specification

and system design specification.
(i). System Requirement Specification (SRS): The System Requirement
Specification (SRS) is a formal document that defines the requirements for a
system. It outlines what the system should do and what functionalities are
needed to meet the business objectives. The SRS serves as a blueprint for
developers, stakeholders, and testers, clearly describing what is expected from
the system without diving into how it will be built.
Content:
Functional Requirements: These describe the specific functionalities and
features that the system must provide. For example, "The system should allow
users to log in with a username and password."
Non-Functional Requirements: These cover aspects like performance,
security, usability, and scalability. For example, "The system must handle 1000
concurrent users."
Business Rules: Any rules or guidelines the system must follow based on the
organization’s policies or legal regulations.
System Constraints: Limitations or constraints such as hardware, software,
and regulatory standards.
User Requirements: Descriptions of what users need from the system, often
gathered through interviews, surveys, and observations.
Key Features of SRS:
Focuses on what the system should do.
High-level document written in a way that non-technical stakeholders can
understand.
Acts as a foundation for system design and testing phases.
Defines the system’s expected behaviour from a user and business perspective.

(ii). System Design Specification (SDS): The System Design Specification

(SDS), also called the Software Design Document (SDD), is a detailed technical
document that describes how the system will be built. It provides a blueprint for
developers to implement the system based on the requirements defined in the
SRS. It specifies the architecture, components, data models, interfaces, and
algorithms that will be used to construct the system.
Purpose: The primary purpose of the SDS is to translate the system’s
requirements into a technical solution. It guides developers in building the
system by outlining the specific technologies, frameworks, and design choices..
Key Features of SDS:
Focuses on how the system will be built.
Highly technical and detailed, typically written for developers and technical
teams.
Specifies the implementation details such as programming languages, platforms,
tools, and frameworks to be used.
Serves as the reference document during the development phase.

(iii). Functional Requirement Specification (FRS) : Functional Requirement

Specification is termed as FRS document. This document serves as a detailed
illustration of all low-level granular specification of system that is to present into
the fulfilment of software.

6.describe the difference between top-down and bottom-up design

approaches?
Top-Down Approach is an approach to design algorithms in which a bigger
problem is broken down into smaller parts. Thus, it uses the decomposition
approach. This approach is generally used by structured programming languages
such as C, COBOL, FORTRAN.
The drawback of using the top-down approach is that it may have redundancy
since every part of the code is developed separately. Also, there is less
interaction and communication between the modules in this approach.
The implementation of algorithm using top-down approach depends on the
programming language and platform. Top-down approach is generally used with
documentation of module and debugging code.
Bottom-Up Approach is one in which the smaller problems are solved, and
then these solved problems are integrated to find the solution to a bigger
problem. Therefore, it uses composition approach.
It requires a significant amount of communication among different modules. It is
generally used with object oriented programming paradigm such as C++, Java,
and Python. Data encapsulation and data hiding is also implemented in this
approach. The bottom-up approach is generally used in testing modules.

Top-Down Approach Bottom-Up Approach

In this approach, the

In this approach, the smaller problems
problem is broken down into
are solved.
smaller parts.

It is generally used by
It is generally used with object-oriented
structured programming
programming paradigm such as C++,
languages such as C,
Java, Python, etc.
COBOL, FORTRAN, etc.

It is generally used with

documentation of module It is generally used in testing modules.
and debugging code.

It does not require

It requires relatively more
communication between
communication between modules.
modules.

It contains redundant It does not contain redundant

information. information.

Decomposition approach is
Composition approach is used here.
used here.

7.What is process documentation? Why is it needed?

Process documentation is an essential discipline of business process
management that involves recording a detailed outline of process steps from
beginning to end to show how a process is executed. Commonly mapped in a
flowchart, it provides a clear, top-down perspective for employees and managers
to visualize and understand process workflows.
Process documentation is an essential discipline of business process
management that involves recording a detailed outline of process steps from
beginning to end to show how a process is executed. Commonly mapped in a
flowchart, it provides a clear, top-down perspective for employees and managers
to visualize and understand process workflows.
>>benefits of process documentation?
Regardless of an organization’s size or purpose, process documentation is
important. Even if it’s a one-man show, looking to the future when processes and
employees will be multiplied is paramount. The lack of documented, standard
procedures leads to repeated mistakes and continuing inefficiencies at significant
costs to your business.
1. Consistency – Mistakes are reduced and less time is spent reinventing the
wheel.
2. Reduce operational costs – Through process documentation, inefficient
processes are uncovered and revamped, and repetitive processes are
automated to maximize efficiency.
3. Mitigate risk – The ability to prove that operations meet compliance
regulations reduces the costly risk of noncompliance.
4. Heighten employee engagement – As employees document processes and
tackle problems, they begin to take ownership.
5. Simplify training – Process documentation should yield a user-friendly
guide for employees down the road.
6. Stress-free outsourcing – When processes are well-defined, it’s easy to
bring on remote workers without sacrificing consistency.
7. Retain process knowledge – Process knowledge is not lost in the face of
unexpected employee absences or turnover.

8.Explain the need for software measures and describe various metrics.
NEED OF SOFTWARE MEASUREMENT Measurements are a key element for
controlling software engineering processes. By controlling, it is meant that one
can assess the status of the process, observe the trends to predict what is likely
to happen, and take corrective action for modifying our practices. Measurements
also play their part in increasing our understanding of the process by making
visible relationships among process activities and entities involved. Lastly,
measurements improve our processes by modifying the activities based on
different measures.
Types of Software Metrics
Process Metrics
Some metrics help to improve the software development process. For example,
there may be bugs or defects when you are developing software. Your ability to
effectively and timely resolve them will determine how well the development
progresses and how well the software will be maintained after being delivered to
the customer.
Project Metrics
When software is in development, it is considered a project for a team and is
called a product at the end of development. That's how the software is described
as a project.
1.Cost of developing software: A customer's budget shouldn't be exceeded
by the cost of the software. Developers should take note of the increasing cost of
software and come up with effective strategies to prevent it from happening.
2.Schedule of Software Development: The customer should receive the
software within the specified timeframe. In developing the project, it should be
divided into modules, and each module should be given a limit of 2-3 days. If this
is not going well and this limit is exceeded, you need to develop new strategies
to complete the project on time.
3.Staffing Pattern: In a project, team members should be active and not take
too many holidays. They should also have the right skill set needed for the
project.
Product Metrics
The whole software can be considered a product, so we have some metrics we
can use to measure its relevant aspects. Here are some other software metrics
which we can use:
1.Size Oriented Metrics: By analyzing your software production size, you can
normalize quality and productivity measures. We can then develop a set of
simple size-oriented metrics using LOC(Line of Code) as the normalization value.
2.Function Point (FP) Metrics: An application's functionality is measured and
used as a standardization value. A measure of the function is called Function
Point. It cannot be directly measured; indirect measures must determine it.
3. Halstead's Software Metrics: The software metrics should reflect how
algorithms are implemented or expressed in different languages but not
executed on a specific platform. These metrics are therefore computed statically
from the code.
Advantages of Software Metrics
Contribute to improving return on investment.
Better control and visibility of the SDLC process
Enhances the quality and quantity of production
During this process, you will learn about various test techniques and methods.
Software size and cost can be determined.

Disadvantages of Software Metrics

Software metrics have multiple definitions and are a waste of resources. This lack
of clarity follows from the inconsistency of the terms.
Sometimes it is difficult and costly to apply software metrics.
For evaluating the performance of technical staff, software metrics are not
helpful.
9.Discuss prototyping and participatory design.
Participatory design (PD) deals with the issue of getting people who are going to
use products, services, or systems involved in the design process. It appeared in
Scandinavia by the mid-1970s but had been motivated largely by the ongoing
grumblings against the conventional approach that the companies deployed to
work designing workplace technologies.
Conventional design brought forth the development of machines and instruments
that were not suitable to the reality and interests of workers who were dealing
with them. Participatory design is aimed at the predominantly mentioned
problem. It does that by democratizing the design process and giving a voice to
people who will use the developed products or services from the moment they
are in the pipeline.

Uses of Participatory Design

1. Software Development: User-driven design approach to software application
development for purposes of making the software to be accessible and user-
friendly.
2. Urban Planning: Attracting participation of community members for the design
of public spaces, infrastructure and urban development undertakings. Use our AI
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3. Healthcare: Not only the patients but everyone involved in the healthcare
system should be together engaged in developing healthcare services and
interventions. It is equally important that the healthcare professionals and the
patients themselves work together to improve patient outcomes.
4. Education: Thrashing out solutions together with students, teachers and
administrators that involve designing learning conditions, curriculum materials,
educational technologies.
Examples
IDEO's Design Thinking Process: IDEO, a global design and innovation
consultancy, employs a Participatory Design approach known as Design Thinking.
They involve stakeholders and end-users in co-design workshops and prototyping
sessions to develop innovative solutions to complex challenges.
OpenIDEO: OpenIDEO is an online platform that facilitates collaborative design
challenges, where participants from around the world come together to co-create
solutions to social and environmental issues.

10.What is joint application development (JAD). Explain its benefits.

Joint Application Development in short JAD is the process which is used to design
and develop computer based system/solutions. It collects requirements side by
side as per business needs while developing new information systems for a
company that means JAD involves the client or end-users in designing and
development process. It also comprises of approaches for improving the quality
of specification and user participation through a successive collaborative
workshop called JAD sessions. Since client is involved throughout the
development process it leads to faster development times and greater client
satisfaction.
There are many key stakeholders involved in JAD Process. These are:
1. Execution Process : This process is from customer’s side which includes
Project Manager, CIO, CEO or CISO who has the power to make decisions
regarding the project.
2. Facilitator : This individual is responsible for creating, managing and
executing the JAD activities, minimize disagreements, encourage end-user
involvement, maintaining focus and unbiased approach.
3. IT Representatives : This individual for giving technical advice and to
help the team to develop technical models and to build the prototype of
end result. They must approach and support the customers in turning their
visualizations into models as per the requirements, develop an
understanding of the end-user business goals, represent in IT functions,
render end solutions which are affordable in nature etc.
4. End-User : This concerned person is usually the main focus of JAD. They
offer proper business knowledge and strategy, illustrate all key user
groups who are affected by development and represent multiple levels
within organization.
Advantages of Joint Application Development :
Produce a design from the customer’s perspective.
The teamwork between company and client helps to remove all risks.
Due to the close interactions, progress is faster.
JAD helps to accelerate design and also to enhance quality.

11.Discuss decision tree and decision tables with examples.

Decision Tables provide a structured, tabular format that clearly lists all
possible conditions and corresponding actions, making them ideal for scenarios
where multiple factors need to be considered simultaneously. This format is
particularly useful in rule-based systems where clarity and precision are
paramount. Decision Tables are often their ability to handle complex logic
efficiently, offering a compact overview of decisions in a concise, easy-to-update
format.
Example of a Decision Table
Let's take the scenario of Online Order Discount Eligibility. An e-commerce
company uses a decision table to determine whether customers are eligible for a
discount based on three conditions: Customer Type, Order Value, and Coupon
Code.
On the other hand, Decision Trees present a visual, hierarchical model of
decision-making, where each node represents a decision point and each branch
represents an outcome. Decision Trees are highly intuitive, allowing users to
visualize the decision process step-by-step.
Example of a Decision Tree
Let's take the scenario of a Loan Approval Process. A bank uses a decision tree to
determine whether to approve a loan application based on three factors: credit
score, income, and existing debt.

12.Discuss various system models.

A system is a set of components related to each other and performing some
functions. It is important to capture and keep in mind some key aspects.
comprehending how those parts relate to the whole system that performs certain
functions and
examining how the whole system interacts with its environment.
We can say that a system model is a procedure that represents the abstract view
of the system with the help of graphical notation, A system model contains a set
of elements that have an interdependent relationship with each other. These
models communicate with clients and explain the whole system to them.
Types of System Models
1. Context Model:
The external perspective model is a crucial step in developing software. The
model shows how the system whose abstract view is being created is placed in
an environment with the other system. In this step, software developers and
stakeholders work together to decide the functionality to be included in the
system.

2. Interaction Model:
The interaction perspective model explains how components of the system each
other.
There are three types of interactions:
a. User interaction: It involves user input and user output. It interacts with the
user and helps to identify user requirements.
b. System interaction: It is the interaction between the system which is to be
developed and other systems.
c. Component interaction: It interacts with different components of the same
system and helps understand whether the proposed system can provide the
required system performance.

3. Structural Model:
The structural perspective model represents a system's organization in terms of
the parts that build the system and their relationships. Structural models can be
static models or dynamic models. The static models represent the structure of
the system design, and the dynamic models represent the system's organization
during execution.

4. Behavioural Model:
It is the behavioural perspective model that represents the dynamic behaviour of
the system. There are two types of behavioural models:

a. Data-driven modeling
It means data that comes in has to be processed by the system. Data-driven
modes are the first graphical software models. Data-driven models represent the
actions, which include processing input data and generating an associated
output.

b. Event-driven modeling
It means that an event occurs that triggers the system, and that event may have
associated data. This model represents the response of the system to external
and internal events.

13.What is structural testing? Explain any two techniques used in it.

Structural testing is a type of software testing that uses the internal design of
the software for testing or in other words the software testing which is performed
by the team which knows the development phase of the software, is known as
structural testing.
Structural testing is related to the internal design and implementation of the
software i.e. it involves the development team members in the testing team. It
tests different aspects of the software according to its types. Structural testing is
just the opposite of behavioral testing.
Control Flow Testing:
Control flow testing is a type of structural testing that uses the programs’s
control flow as a model. The entire code, design and structure of the software
have to be known for this type of testing. Often this type of testing is used by the
developers to test their own code and implementation. This method is used to
test the logic of the code so that required result can be obtained.
Data Flow Testing:
It uses the control flow graph to explore the unreasonable things that can
happen to data. The detection of data flow anomalies are based on the
associations between values and variables. Without being initialized usage of
variables. Initialized variables are not used once.

Advantages of Structural Testing

It provides thorough testing of the software.
It helps in finding out defects at an early stage.
It helps in elimination of dead code.
It is not time consuming as it is mostly automated.
Disadvantages of Structural Testing
It requires knowledge of the code to perform test.
It requires training in the tool used for testing.
Sometimes it is expensive.

1.How to define forms and what is the importance of forms?

A form in Access is a database object that you can use to create a user interface
for a database application. A "bound" form is one that is directly connected to a
data source such as a table or query, and can be used to enter, edit, or display
data from that data source. Alternatively, you can create an "unbound" form that
does not link directly to a data source, but which still contains command buttons,
labels, or other controls that you need to operate your application.
This article focuses primarily on bound forms. You can use bound forms to control
access to data, such as which fields or rows of data are displayed. For example,
certain users might need to see only several fields in a table with many fields.
Providing those users with a form that contains only those fields makes it easier
for them to use the database. You can also add command buttons and other
features to a form to automate frequently performed actions.
Think of bound forms as windows through which people see and reach your
database. An effective form speeds the use of your database, because people
don't have to search for what they need. A visually attractive form makes
working with the database more pleasant and more efficient, and it can also help
prevent incorrect data from being entered.

2.Explain the difference between logical design and physical design.

Logical Database Design has a low-level description of entities that are defined
and how they are related to each other and what kind of data is to be stored.
This model determines if all the requirements of the business have been
gathered.
Physical Database Design deals with how the data will be stored in the database
using suitable DBMS and this design is generally created by database
administrators and developers.

Logical Database Design Physical Database Design

That describes the data without regard to

That represents how the actual
how they will be physically implemented in
database is built.
the database.

Defines the data elements and their

Developing the actual database.
relationship.

Complex than the Logical database

Simpler than the Physical database design.
design.
Note
The main difference between logical database design and physical database
design is that logical database design helps to define the data elements and
their relationships, but physical database design helps to design the actual
database based on the requirements gathered during the logical data design.

3.What is a software project scope?

Project scope is the detailed description of all the goals and objectives that must
be met to successfully complete a project. The document outlines the Project's
goals, expectations, tasks, deadlines, and budget. The degree outlines specific
deadlines and expectations for each partner involved in the project, outlining
what will and won't be completed as part of it.
The Scope is the part of the Project Management that is responsible for the
boundaries, objectives, and deliverables of the Project. In other words, it is the
total amount of activities or tasks that need to be done under the Project
Execution.
Clarity of Objectives: A well-defined scope clearly specifies the project's
objectives, deliverables, and constraints. By doing this, confusion is avoided, and
scope creep is prevented.
Alignment: It aligns stakeholders' expectations with project goals. When
everyone agrees on the project's scope upfront, there's less likelihood of
disagreements or misunderstandings later.
Resource Management: Resource allocation benefits from having a clear
scope. Project managers can precisely predict the amount of time, money, and
labour needed.
Quality Control: Defining a clear scope facilitates the establishment of quality
standards. Teams can measure and assure the quality of the product or service
more easily when they know exactly what they're expected to offer.
Client Satisfaction: Customer satisfaction is increased by a clearly defined
scope. Customers are more likely to be happy with the outcome when they are
aware of exactly
Control Scope Creep: When there is no clear scope for a project, it might be
subject to scope creep, which is the unanticipated addition of more work
overtime, beyond budget, and causing delays.

4.How do coupling and cohesion improve modular and structured

designs?
What is Coupling?
Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between software modules. It
measures how closely connected different modules are within a system. Lower
coupling is generally desirable because it means that changes in one module are
less likely to require changes in another, making the system more flexible and
easier to maintain. There are various types of coupling.
1. Content Coupling: One module directly modifies or relies on the internal
workings of another module. This type of coupling is highly undesirable
because changes in one module can have significant and unpredictable
effects on another.
2. Common Coupling: Multiple modules share global data or variables. This is
also undesirable as changes to the global data can affect all the modules
that use.
3. External Coupling: Modules share an externally imposed data format,
communication protocol, or interface.
4. Control Coupling: One module controls the behavior of another by passing
it information on what to do. This type of coupling is less desirable
because it implies that one module is dictating the flow of control in
another module.
5. Data Coupling: Modules share data through parameters. Each data item is
an elementary piece of data, and no control data is passed.
What is Cohesion?
Cohesion refers to how closely related and focused the responsibilities of a single
module are. It measures the strength of the relationship between the elements
within a module. Higher cohesion within a module is desirable because it means
that the module performs a single task or a group of related tasks, making it
more understandable, reusable, and maintainable.
1. Coincidental Cohesion: Elements are grouped arbitrarily and have little to
no meaningful relationship to each other.
2. Logical Cohesion: Elements are grouped because they perform similar
kinds of activities. This type is better than coincidental cohesion but still
not ideal, as it can lead to less clarity about the module’s primary purpose.
3. Temporal Cohesion: Elements are grouped because they are involved in
activities that are related in time. While more related than logical
cohesion, it still mixes unrelated.
4. Procedural Cohesion: Elements are grouped because they always follow a
certain sequence of execution. This is better than temporal cohesion but
still not ideal, as it focuses on the order of execution rather than the
functional relationship.

5.Differentiate between validation and verification.

Verification and Validation is the process of investigating whether a software
system satisfies specifications and standards and fulfills the required purpose.
Verification and Validation both play an important role in developing good
software development. Verification helps in examining whether the product is
built right according to requirements, while validation helps in examining
whether the right product is built to meet user needs. In this article, we will learn
the difference between Verification and Validation.
Validation is the process of checking whether the software product is up to the
mark or in other words product has high-level requirements. It is the process of
checking the validation of the product i.e. it checks what we are developing is
the right product. It is validation of the actual and expected products. Validation
is dynamic testing. Validation means Are we building the right product?
Verification is the process of checking that software achieves its goal without
any bugs. It is the process to ensure whether the product that is developed is
right or not. It verifies whether the developed product fulfills the requirements
that we have. Verification is static testing. Verification means Are we building the
product, right?
6.Describe the characteristics of software.
The characteristics of software play a critical role in determining its success and
impact. Whether it’s a mobile app, a web application, or an enterprise software
solution, understanding and prioritizing these characteristics are vital to creating
high-quality software that fulfils the requirements.
Software characteristics are the key qualities that define the behaviour,
performance, and usability of software. These characteristics evaluate and
measure the holistic quality of software systems.
Functionality: It refers to the degree of performance of the software against its
intended purpose. It basically means are the required functions.
Reliability: A set of attributes that Bear on the capability of software to
maintain its level of performances understated conditions for a stated period of
time.
Efficiency: It refers to the ability of the software to use System Resources in the
most Effective and Efficient Manner. The software should make effective use of
storage space and executive commands as per desired timing requirement.
Usability: It refers to the extent to which the software can be used with ease. Or
the amount of effort or time required to learn how to use the software should be
less.
Maintainability: Refers to the ease with which the modifications can be made
in a software system to extend its functionality, improvement, performance or
correct errors.
Portability: A set of attributes that bears on the ability of the software to be
transferred from one environment to another, without or minimum changes.

7.Write on spiral model in software engineering.

Spiral Model is also known as Meta Model because it include all the other SDLC
models. In its diagrammatic representation, it looks like a spiral with many loops
that is the reason it is called a spiral. Each loop of the spiral is called a phase of
the software development process. This model has the capability to handle risks.
Advantages of Spiral Model
-Software is produced early in the software life cycle.
-Risk handling is one of important advantages of the Spiral model, it is best
development model to follow due to the risk analysis and risk handling at every
phase.
-Flexibility in requirements. In this model, we can easily change requirements at
later phases and can be incorporated accurately. Also, additional Functionality
can be added at a later date.
-It is good for large and complex projects.
-It is good for customer satisfaction. We can involve customers in the
development of products at early phase of the software development. software is
produced early in the software lifecycle.
-Strong approval and documentation control.
-It is suitable for high risk projects, where business needs may be unstable. A
highly customized product can be developed using this.
Disadvantages of Spiral Model
-It is not suitable for small projects as it is expensive.
-It is much more complex than other SDLC models.
-Too much dependable on risk analysis and requires highly specific expertise.
-Difficulty in time management. As the number of phases is unknown at the start
of the project, so time estimation is very difficult.
-Spiral may go on indefinitely.
-End of the project may not be known early.
-It is not suitable for low risk projects.
-May be hard to define objective, verifiable milestones. Large numbers of
intermediate stages require excessive documentation.

8.What do you mean by strategic and operational planning?

A strategic plan focuses on setting direction by establishing goals and
objectives. It labels the mission of the organization which aligns with its
vision. The strategic plan serves as an overall guidance to management and
leadership of the organization and advises strategies to be adopted for the
organization to move forward with its priorities. It also provides critical
information to address future needs. This plan is to be adopted within a
timeframe which is around three to five years in average. The strategic plan
must be developed prior to the operational plan as it contains critical information
that drives the business in the organization – what, who, when and how. Finally,
the strategic plan is broad in nature and captures the overall purpose of the
organization.
The operational plan is the how we are going to achieve the why (strategic
plan). It focuses and covers the day-to-day tasks that are required to run the
organization. The operational plan is built upon the foundation of the strategic
plan and comes after, not before. It addresses activities needed to be completed
to implement strategies outlined in the strategic plan. For the operational plans
to be effective, at a minimum it is recommended that it is reviewed on a yearly
basis or less. Operational plans are considered living documents as they are
constantly updated to capture progress. the people that are accountable for each
one of the “what” (the who); the timeframes in which the what needs to be
accomplished (the when); and the resources that need to be provided in
numbers to complete the what (how much).