Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No.

12

   “Chapter 12”
Electrostatics
(A product of PAK ACADEMY)

FEW TERMINOLOGIES ( O P T I O N A L )
Electric charge
Electric charge is the fundamental/basic physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
Point charges
The charges whose sizes/magnitudes are very small as compared with the spatial distances between them, are called point charges.
Polarity of charges
There are two types of charges: a) Positive charge b) Negative charge
Electrostatics
The branch of physics that deals with the study of characteristics of (electronic) charges in the state of rest under the action of electric force is called
electrostatics.
Law of electrostatics
Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other.
Static electricity
The process of production/transfer of electric charges (on a conductor) by some mechanical means is known as static electricity.
Electrostatic induction
The process of redistribution of electric charges in a neutral object when a charged object is brought near to it (without touching) is known as
electrostatic induction.
Electrostatic equilibrium
The state of two conductors, in contact with each other, in which they have some magnitude and polarity of charges, is called electrostatic equilibrium.
---------------------------------

COULOMB’S LAW (L.Q)

Description:-

In 1784 A.D. Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736 - 1806) gave a quantitative relationship for electric/electrostatic force present between point charges
known as Coulomb’s law.

Statement:-

The magnitude of electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the product of magnitudes of point charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance present between them.

Mathematical form:-
q1 q2
F=k
r2
Or, ⃗ = (k q1q2
F 2
) r̂
r
Proof:-

Consider an isolated system consisting two-point charges. Let ‘q1 ’ and ‘q2 ’ be the magnitudes of the point charges and ‘r’ be the distance between them,
then according to coulomb’s law the electrostatic force present between them will be;

F ∝ q1 q2
1
F∝ 2
r
q1 q2
F∝
r2
q1 q2
F=k
r2
Here ‘k’ is constant of proportionality also known as coulomb’s constant.

Dependence of coulomb’s constant:-

Value of coulomb’s constant depends upon two factors;
(i) System of units (ii) Nature of medium present between the charges.
If we use SI units and vacuum is present between the charges then its value is given as;
1
K=
4πϵo
C2
‘ϵo ’ is known as permittivity of free space and its value is 8.85 x 10−12
Nm2
1
K = (4)(3.14)(8.85×10−12)
Nm2
K = 9 x 109 C2

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12
Now, coulomb’s force/law is given as: 𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐅=
𝟒𝛑𝛜𝐨 𝐫 𝟐
Direction of coulomb’s force:-
Coulomb’s force between two point charges is always directed along the line joining the charges.

Vector form of coulombs law:-

Magnitude of coulomb’s force between two point charges ‘q1 ’ and ‘q2 ’ is given as;
q q
F = k 12 2
r
If r̂ (unit vector) represents the direction of coulomb’s force then in vector form force is given as;
q1 q2
⃗ = (k
F ) r̂
r2
We know that, r = r r̂
⃗r
Or r̂ =
r
⃗F = (k q12q2 ) ⃗r q1 q2
∴ or ⃗ = (k
F )r
r r r3
Coulombs force is a mutual force:-

The forces which obey Newton’s third law of motion (action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction) are known as mutual
forces.

Proof:
Consider a system of two point’s charges having magnitudes as ‘q1 ’ and ‘q2 ’ are separated by distance ‘r’ as
shown in figure.
Here; ⃗ 12 = Coulomb’s force exerted on ‘q1 ’by ‘q2 ’
F
⃗ 21 = Coulomb’s force exerted on ‘q2 ’by ‘q1 ’
F
r̂12 = Unit vector of force F ⃗ 12 or unit vector directed from ‘q2 ’ to ‘q1 ’
r̂21 = Unit vector of force F ⃗ 21 or unit vector directed from ‘q1 ’ to ‘q2 ’
We know that
⃗ 12 = (k q12q2 ) r̂12 − − − − − − − −→ (i)
F
r
⃗ 21 = (k q12q2) r̂21 − − − − − − − −→ (ii)
F
r
From figure it is clear that, r̂12 and r̂21 both are unit vectors, having same magnitudes but opposite directions. So, we may write as,
̂ 21 = − r̂12
R
Now, equation (ii) becomes;
⃗ 21 = (k q12q2) (− r̂12 )
F
r
Multiplying both sides by ‘-1’, we get;
− F ⃗ 21 = (k q12q2) (r̂12 ) − − − − − −→ (iii)
r
Comparing equation (i) and (iii), we can write as;
⃗ 12 = − F
F ⃗ 21

i.e. magnitudes of forces exerted by both charges are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Hence, coulomb’s force between two point charges
is a mutual force (i.e. it is in accordance with Newton 3rd law of motion).
Dielectric:-

Any insulating material placed between point charges is called dielectric.

Effect of dielectric on coulombs force:-

When a dielectric is placed between point charges then coulomb’s force between them reduces by a factor ‘ϵr ’ known as relative permittivity of the
medium or dielectric constant.
F
Fdieelectric or Fmed = vac
ϵr
Or, 1 q1 q2
Fmed =
4πϵo ϵr r 2
𝐃𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 constant:-

Dielectric constant is the ratio of coulomb’s (electrostatic) force between two point charges when there is no medium (vacuum) between them to the
coulomb’s (electrostatic) force between same two charges when some medium is placed between them;
F
ϵr = vac
Fmed
Dependence of coulomb’s force:-

Coulomb force depends upon;

(i) Magnitudes of the charges
(ii) Distance between the charges
(iii) Nature of the medium placed between the charges.

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---------------------------------
MCQ.s:

Case – I: When the magnitudes of Case – II: When the distance between Case – III: When the magnitudes of
charges become double. the charges become double. charges and distance between the
charges become double.
When the magnitudes of charges become When the distance between the charges
double and distance remains same then become double and magnitudes of When the magnitudes of charges and
coulomb’s force between them becomes charges remain same then coulomb’s distances between them become double (or
four times. force between them reduces by four increase by same amount) then there will
times. be no change in magnitude of coulombs
Here, q1́ = 2 q1 force.
q2́ = 2 q2 Here, ŕ = 2 r
q q
q́ q́ ́
F́ = k 12 2 Here, q1́ = 2 q1 , q2́ = 2 q2
F́ = k 12 1 ŕ
r q q ŕ = 2 r
(2 q1 )(2 q2 ) F́ = k 1 22
F́ = k (2r) q́ q́
F́ = k 12 2
r2 1 q q ŕ
q q
F́ = 4 (k 12 2) F́ = (k 12 2 ) (2q1 ) (2q2 )
r 4
1
r
q1 q2
F́ = k
(2r)2
F́ = 4F (∴ F = k
q1 q2
) F́ = F (∴ F = k ) 4 q q
r2
r2 4
F́ = (k 12 2 )
4 r
q q
F́ = k 12 2
r
q1 q2
F́ = F (∴ F = k )
r2

𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐬 of coulomb’s force:-

(i) Coulomb’s force present between point charges depends upon or varies directly with the magnitudes of the charges (F ∝ q1 q2 ).
1
(ii) Coulomb’s force obeys inverse square law (F ∝ 2).
r
(iii) Coulomb’s force may be attractive or repulsive in nature.
(iv) It is a mutual force.
(iv) It is a short range force.
(v) It is a medium dependent force.
(vi) Coulomb’s force is approximately 1036 times greater than gravitational force or force due to gravity between two electrons.
---------------------------------

ELECTRIC FIELD (S.Q)

Definition:-

The space or region around a charge in which it exerts electric force on other charges is called electric field.
Or
The space or region around the charge with in which it can produce its electrostatic effect (electrostatic force) on any other charge is called Electric field.

Transmission of force: (optional)

According to Michael Faraday it is an intrinsic property of a charge to have an electric field around it. When another charge (test charge) comes closer
to the first charge, fields of both charges interact with each other and exert electric force mutually. Electric field is considered to be a force field because
it exerts a force on other charges placed in that field.

Steps for interaction of electric force: (optional)

The interaction between a charge ‘q’ and test charge ‘qo’ is completed into two steps:
(i) The charge ‘q’ produces afield
(ii) The field of ‘q’ interacts with the (field of) charge ‘qo’ to produce a force on ‘qo’.

Features of electric field: (optional)

(i) Strength of electric field depends upon the magnitude of electric charge.
(ii) Field is stronger near the charge and vice versa.
(iii) Naturally spherical shape field exist around point charges.
(iv) The existence of electric field in a particular region can be described by the existence of electric field lines.

Electric field intensity:-

Definition:-
The electrostatic force per unit charge is known as electric field intensity or electric field strength.
Or
Electric field strength or electric field intensity at any point is defined as “the electric force experienced by a test charge (qo) placed at that point.

Formula:-
F ⃗
E= Or ⃗ =F
E
Q q

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kq 1 q
Or, E = Or E=
r2 4π∈o r2
Unit:-
Dimensions: (optional)
The SI units of electric field intensity are N c −1 or Jm−1 c −1 or V m−1 . As, E =
F
F N qo
As, E = ⇒ N
qo C =
N m Nm C
= x ⇒ kg m s−2 q C
C m mC
J = (As, I = ⇒A= ⇒ C = A s)
= (∴ N m = J) As t s
mC
V J E = kg m s−3 A−1
= (∴ = V)
m C [E] = [M L T −3 A−1 ]
Direction:-

Direction of electric field intensity is along the direction of motion of test charge in the field of central or source charge.

Electric field of an isolated charge:

Consider a point ‘p’, where a test charge ‘qo ’ is placed, in the electric field of central charge ‘q’ as shown in fig.
The coulomb’s force between ‘q’ and ‘qo ’ is given as;
qq
F = k 2o
r
Now according to the definition of electric field intensity;
F qq
E= ⇒ E = k 2o ⁄qo +q qo
qo r
q
E=k
r2
⃗ = kq2 r̂
E
r
1 q 1
Or, ⃗ =
E r̂ (∴ k = ) r
4π∈o r2 4π∈o
---------------------------------
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES (S.Q)
Definition:-

The visual/graphical representation of an electric field in the form of lines are known as electric field lines.
Or
Electric field line is an imaginary line on which a test charge (one coulomb positive charge) moves in an electric field.

Explanation: (optional)

The concept of electric field lines was introduced by Michael Faraday, which helped him to easily visualize the electric field.

Consider a source charge ‘q’ is placed at an arbitrary point ‘p’ in space. This charge will produce its electric field around it. We place test charge ‘qo’ at
different points around the charge. At each point test charge ‘qo’ will experience electric force (coulomb’s force) and starts to move away or towards the
source charge ‘q’. Draw graphical lines in the direction of motion of the test charge ‘qo’ at different points. These lines are known as electric field
lines.

Pattern of electric field: (optional)

(i) Electric field lines for positive charge are taken outward.
(ii) Electric field lines for negative charge are taken as inward.
(iii) Electric field lines between similar charges.
(iv) Electric field lines between opposite charges.
(v) Electric field lines between oppositely charged plates.

Features of electric field lines:

(i) Electric field lines originate/start from positive charges and end on negative charge.
(ii) The number of field lines is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
(iii) Electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the charge
(iv) The electric field where the field lines are straight, parallel and uniformly spaced is called uniform electric field.
(v) The electric field where the field lines are curved, non-parallel and unequally spaced i.e. irregular at every
point is called the non-uniform electric field or fringing field. The non-uniform field has a different magnitude and directions at different
points in space.
(vi) The number of field lines passing per unit area held perpendicular to the direction of lines, is proportional to the strength of the electric field.
(vii) The field is strong when the lines are close together, and it is weak when the field lines move apart from each other.
(viii) The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point. Also, this is the path on which a positive test charge
will tend to move if free to do so.
(ix) No two field lines can cross each other. This is because E ⃗ has only one direction at any given point. If the lines across E ⃗ could have more than
one direction which is impossible.
(x) If the charge is single, then they start or end at infinity.

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(xi) The electric field lines can never form closed loops, as line can never start and end on the same charge.
(xii) These field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
(xiii) If the electric field in a given region of space is zero i.e. electric field lines do not exist. This region is called field free region.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS

Following are the few applications of electrostatics;

(i) Photocopier (ii) Inkjet printer (iii) Laserjet printer (iv) Paint spray machine, etc.

PHOTOCOPIER (S.Q)

Description:-
The device which works on the principle of ‘xerography’ to produce image of the documents is known as photocopier.
Or
Photocopying machine, also called Photocopier, is a device for producing copies of text or graphic material by the use of light, heat, chemicals, or
electrostatic charges.

Xerography:-
‘Xeros’ mean dry and ‘graphos’ mean writing, so, xerography is the technique to produce images of documents by using dry ink (with the use of
electrostatic force).

Discovery/ History:- (optional)

In 1937 A.D. Chester Carlson invented the process of xerography. In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced and commercialized the first xerographic
copier called the Model A. Commercial xerographic office photocopying was introduced by Xerox in 1959.

Principle:-
Photocopier works according to the principle of electrostatics i.e. like charges repel and opposite charges attract each other.

Construction:-
(i) Corotron or corona wire: The part of the machine which provides positive charge to the drum of the machine.
(ii) Lamp: It is used to throw light on the document.
(iii) Lens: It produces image of document on the drum.
(iv) Drum: It is made up of aluminum coated with selenium (photoconductor). It is known as heart of photocopier.
(v) Toner cartridge: It is negatively charged powered ink used to produce permanent image of document on the paper by the photocopier.
(vi) Heated pressure rollers: These are used to compress toner or ink on the paper.

Working:-
1. Charging: Cylindrical drum, made up of aluminum coated with a
photoconductive medium selenium, is electrostatically charged by high voltage wire
known as corona wire.
2. Exposure: A bright lamp illuminates (‫ )رو شن‬the original document, and the white
areas of the original document reflect the light onto the surface of the
photoconductive drum via lens. The areas of the drum that are exposed to light
become conductive and therefore become discharged. The area of the drum not
exposed to light (those areas that correspond to black portions of the original
document) remains negatively charged.
3. Developing: The toner is negatively charged ink. When it is applied to the drum
to develop the image, it is attracted and sticks to the areas that are positively charged
(i.e. on black or dark areas of drum).
4. Transfer: The resulting toner image on the surface of the drum is transferred
from the drum onto a piece of paper.
5. Fusing: The toner is melted and bonded to the paper by heated pressure rollers.
----------------------------
S.Q) Why drum is called heart of photocopier?
Ans.) Drum is known as heart of photocopier because it plays core role in the process of photocopy. It is made of aluminum coated with selenium which
is a photoconductor. Corotron gives positive charge to the drum. When light is incident on the drum after reflecting from the document to be copied then
only those areas/portions of drum contains positive charge on which dark image or shadow of document is present. When negatively charged ink (toner)
is provided to the drum then it sticks only on the positive regions or charges on the drum. When paper rolls over the drum then this tonner is being
transferred onto the paper producing a permanent image on the paper.
---------------------------------

INKJET PRINTER (S.Q)

Description:-
An inkjet printer is a computer output device that produces hard copy of soft documents by spraying ink onto paper.
Or
It is an electric device which is capable to print documents by using fast moving droplets of liquid ink.

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Principle:-
It works on the principle of electrostatics.
Construction:-
Mainly inkjet printer consists of;
a) Ink reservoir b) Pump c) Nozzle of printhead d) Charging electrodes e) Deflecting plates f) Charging control g) Gutter
Working
(i) Nozzle of printhead sprays droplets of ink of size approximate 0.1mm, by using pump and ink
reservoir.
(ii) Print head shuttles back and forth on the document.
(iii) When the printhead moves over the region of document which is not to be inked then charging control
‘switch on’ the charging electrodes. When the droplets move through charging electrodes, these are
charged and being deflected by deflecting plates and droplets moves toward gutter where the wasted ink
is stored.
(v) When printhead moves over the document where ink is required the charging control ‘switch off’ the
charging electrodes. Now ink droplets moves through these electrodes and remain neutral, that is why,
these are not affected by deflecting plates and reaches to the paper and make permanent impression there.
---------------------------------
Vector area:
A vector whose magnitude is equal to the surface area of figure but its direction is perpendicular/normal to the
plane of figure or surface area is called vector area.
--------------------------------

ELECTRIC FLUX (S.Q)

Qualitative definition:
Number of electric field lines passing through any area held perpendicular to the direction of field lines is known as electric flux.

Quantitative definition:
Dot product of electric field intensity and vector area is called electric flux.

Origin: (optional)
Flux is a Latin word which means ‘to flow’. Electric flux is a property of an electric field that may be thought of as the number of electric lines of force
(or electric field lines) that intersect a given area.

Formula:-
Φe = ⃗E. ⃗A
Or Φe = E A cos θ

Dependence:-
Electric flux depends upon;
No. of electric field lines (magnitude of electric charged or electric field intensity or density of flow of electric field lines).
Magnitude of surface area.
Orientation of surface area i.e. angle between electric field intensity and vector area.

Nature:-
Electric flux is a scalar quantity because it is a dot product of electric field intensity and vector area. Dimensions: (optional)
Φe = E A cos θ
Unit:- N
N = m2
SI unit of electric flux is m2 or V m. C
C kg m s−2
As, Φe = E A cos θ = m2
As
N (Nm) J
Φe = m2 = m= m=Vm = kg m3 s−3 A−1
C C C
[Φe ] = [M L3 T −3 A−1 ]
Minimum flux:
When ‘θ = 90°’ between electric field intensity (E ⃗ ) i.e. electric field intensity vector is perpendicular to vector area then electric flux
⃗ ) and vector area (A
becomes minimum or zero.
Or
When electric field lines are parallel to the surface area then flux will be minimum or zero.
As, Φe = E A cos θ
For minimum flux, θ = 90° between ⃗E & ⃗A.
Φmin = E A cos 90o
Φmin = 0 (cos 90° = 0)

Maximum flux:
When ‘θ = 0°’ between electric field intensity (E ⃗ ) i.e. electric field intensity vector is parallel to vector area then
⃗ ) and vector area (A
electric flux becomes maximum.
Or
When electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface area then flux will be maximum.

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As, Φe = E A cos θ
For maximum flux, θ = 0° between ⃗E & ⃗A.
Φmax = E A cos 0o
Φmax = E A (cos 0° = 1)

Intermediate flux:
When ‘0° < θ < 90°’ between electric field intensity (E ⃗ ) and vector area (A⃗ ) then electric flux becomes intermediate.
Φe = E A cos θ
--------------------------------
MCQ.s:
Positive flux: If number of field lines emerging out of the surface area are greater than the number of field lines entering into the surface then flux is
taken as positive i.e.it is due to some source (electric charge) inside the surface.
Negative flux: If number of field lines entering into the surface is greater than the number of field lines leaving that surface then flux is taken as negative
i.e. due to some sink (some absorbing material) present inside the surface.
Zero flux: If number of field lines emerging out from the surface are equal to the number of field lines entering into the surface then net flux is taken as
zero i.e. flux through a surface enclosing a dipole or quadrupole or octa-pole is zero.
--------------------------------

ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE (L.Q)

Description:-
1
Electric flux passing through a closed surface enclosing a charge is equal to ‘ ’times the charge enclosed by the surface.
εo
Formula:-
1
Φe = (q)
εo
Proof:-
Consider a closed surface in the shape of sphere having radius ‘r’ enclosing a charge ‘+q’ as shown in figure.

Necessary condition:-
In order to calculate electric flux by using formula Φe = E ⃗ (i.e. flux by definition), surface (area) must be flat. Now, we divide area of sphere into n-
⃗ .A
equal patches ΔA⃗ 1 , ΔA
⃗ 2 , ΔA
⃗ 3 , … , ΔA
⃗ n , through which electric field E
⃗ 1, E
⃗ 2, E
⃗ 3, … , E
⃗ n , passes respectively, as shown in figure.

Calculation:-
Electric flux through first patch of area, Φ1 = E ⃗1
⃗ 1 . ΔA
Electric flux through second patch of area, Φ2 = E ⃗2
⃗ 2 . ΔA
// // // //
// // // //
Similarly, Electric flux through nth patch of area, Φn = ⃗En . ΔA ⃗n
Net flux
Φe = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + ⋯ + Φn
Φe = ⃗E1 . ΔA ⃗ 1 + ⃗E2 . ΔA
⃗ 2 + ⃗E3 . ΔA⃗ 3 + ⋯ + ⃗En . ΔA ⃗n
Φe = E1 ΔA1 cos θ1 + E2 ΔA2 cos θ2 + E3 ΔA3 cos θ3 + ⋯ + En ΔAn cos θn
Through all patches θ = 0o between ⃗E and ⃗A.
Φe = E1 ΔA1 cos 0o + E2 ΔA2 cos 0o + E3 ΔA3 cos 0o + ⋯ + En ΔAn cos 0o
Φe = E1 ΔA1 + E2 ΔA2 + E3 ΔA3 + ⋯ + En ΔAn (As cos 0o = 1)
As all the patches are have equal surface area and equidistant from the centre of sphere (i.e. from charge), hence;
E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = ⋯ = En = E
Φe = E ΔA1 + E ΔA2 + E ΔA3 + ⋯ + E ΔAn
Φe = E (ΔA1 + ΔA2 + ΔA3 + ⋯ + ΔAn )
Φe = E (Area of sphere) (As, ΔA1 + ΔA2 + ΔA3 + ⋯ + ΔAn = Area of sphere)
kq 1 q
As, electric field of a point charge, E = 2 = 2 and area of sphere = 4π r 2
r 4πεo r
1 q
Φe = (4π r 2 )
4πεo r2
1
Φe = (q)
εo
Conclusions:
Flux passing through a closed surface is independent of shape or geometry of surface.
Flux depends upon magnitude of charge and medium inside the closed surface.
In the presence of some dielectric inside the closed surface enclosing charge the electric flux is given as;
1 1
Φe = (q)
εo εr
--------------------------------
GAUSS’S LAW (S.Q)

Statement:-
1
Total electric flux passing through any (arbitrary shaped) close surface is equal to ‘ ’ times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
εo

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Or
The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within
that closed surface.
History:-
The law was formulated (presented) by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867.
Formula:-
1
Φe = (q)
εo
1
Φe = ∑ni=1(qi )
εo
Where, q or ∑ni=1(qi ) is the total charge enclosed by the close surface and ‘εo ’ is permittivity of free space.
Proof:-
Consider a close surface of arbitrary (irregular) shape containing (enclosing) ‘N’ number of charges inside it. Now, assume/imagine that a spherical
surface around each charge in such a way that charge lies at the centre of each sphere, as shown in figure.
1
We know that electric flux through a sphere due to a charge at its centre is ‘ ’ times the charge enclosed by the surface. Electric flux through each
εo
sphere can be calculated as;
1
Electric flux through surface S1 is Φ1 = (q1 )
εo
1
Electric flux through surface S2 is Φ2 = (q2 )
εo
// // // //
// // // //
1
Electric flux through surface SN is ΦN = (qN )
εo
Total flux, ΦN = Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + ⋯ + ΦN
1 1 1
ΦN = (q1 ) + (q2 ) + ⋯ + (qN )
εo εo εo
1
ΦN = (q1 + q2 + ⋯ + qN )
εo
1
ΦN = (∑ni=1(qi ))
εo
1
Φe = (Q) (Let (∑ni=1(qi ) = Q)
εo
---------------------------------
MCQ.s:
In physics, Gauss's law is also known as Gauss's flux theorem.
Gauss’s law is a law relating the distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field.
Gauss’s law can be used to derive Coulomb’s law, and vice versa.
Coulomb’s law only applies to stationary charges, therefore, Gauss’s for electrostatics also holds true for stationary charges.
---------------------------------
Q) What is Gaussian surface and how electric intensity can be found using gauss’s law?
Ans) An imaginary closed surface of arbitrary shape around a charge which passes through those points where we want to calculate electric field
intensity.
Steps required to calculate electric field intensity:
By using Gauss’s law, we can find electric field intensity by applying following steps;
(i) Consider an imaginary closed surface around a charge i.e. Gaussian surface.
(ii) We calculate the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(iii) We calculate electric flux through Gaussian surface by definition ( Φe = ⃗E . ⃗A )
1
(iv) We calculate electric flux and electric intensity by using Gauss’s law ( Φe = (q))
εo
---------------------------------
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
INTENSITY OF FIELD INSIDE A HOLLOW CHARGED SPHERE (S.Q)
Description:
Electric field intensity inside a hollow charged sphere is zero i.e ⃗E = 0.
Proof:
Consider a sphere having radius ‘R’ whose outer surface contains positive charges which are distributed uniformly over the surface.
1) Gaussian Surface:
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface inside the charged sphere having radius R’.
2) Charged enclosed:
From fig. it is clear that the charged enclosed by Gaussian surface is zero i.e ‘q = 0’.
3) Electric flux by definition:
Electric flux by definition is given as, Φe = ⃗E . ⃗A -------------------- (i)
4) Electric flux by Gauss’s law:
By applying Gauss’s law we get;
1
Φe = (q)
εo
1
Φe = (0) (As, q = 0)
εo
Φe = 0 -------------------- (ii)
Conclusion:
Comparing equation (i) & (ii), we get;

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⃗E . ⃗A = 0
As A⃗ ≠0
Therefore, E ⃗
⃗ =0
--------------------------------

ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO AN INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE (L.Q)

Description:-
1
Electric intensity at a point near an infinite sheet of charge is equal to ‘ ’ times the surface charge density of the sheet.
2∈o

Formula:-
σ
E=
2ϵo
σ
Or, ⃗ =
E r̂
2ϵo
Proof:-
Consider a plane sheet of uniformly distributed positive charges of infinite extent having charge density ‘σ’.

i) Gaussian Surface:-

Consider a Gaussian surface of cylindrical shape that passes through the sheet containing the charges, as shown in figure

ii) Charge enclosed:-

Consider,
σ = Surface charge density of charged sheet, Α = Area of cylindrical Gaussian surface, q = Amount of charge
q
Then, σ= ⟹ q = σA
A
(iii) Calculation of electric flux by definition:-

Electric flux at point ‘P’ near the infinite sheet of charge can be calculated as;
a) Flux through left flat surface:-
Φe1 = ⃗E. ⃗A = E A cos θ
= EA cos0° = EA
b) Flux through right flat surface:-
Φe2 = ⃗E. ⃗A = E A cos θ
= EA cos0° = EA
c) Flux through curved surface:-
Φe3 = E ⃗ = E A cos θ
⃗ .A
= EAcos90° = 0
d) Net flux:-
Φe = Φe3 + Φe3 + Φe3
= EA + EA + 0
Φe = 2EA ------------------------ (i)

(iv) Electric flux by Gauss’s law:-

According to Gauss’s law;

1
Φe = (Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)
∈0
1
Φe = (A σ) ----------------------- (ii)
∈0
Comparing both eq. (i) and (ii); we get,
1
2EA = (A σ)
∈0
σ q
E= or ⃗E = r̂
∈o 2∈o
---------------------------------

ELECTRIC INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITE CHARGED PARALLEL PLATES (L.Q)

Description:-
1
Electric field intensity at any point between two oppositely charged parallel plates is equal to ‘ ’ times the surface charge density of one of the plates.
∈o

Formula:-
σ σ
E= Or ⃗E = (r̂)
ϵo ϵo

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Proof:-

Consider two parallel and closely spaced metal plates (like capacitor plates) separated by vacuum, having equal and opposite charges which is uniformly
distributed on the plates such that it is concentrated on the inner surfaces of the plates, as shown in figure.

(i) Gaussian surface:-

Consider a rectangular hollow Gaussian surface whose one side passes through upper plate and other is in between two oppositely charged plates, as
shown in figure.

(ii) Charge enclosed:-

Consider σ = Surface charge density of charged sheet, Α = Area of cylindrical Gaussian surface,
q = Amount of charge
q
Then, σ= ⟹ q = σA
A

(iii) Calculation of electric flux by definition:-

a) Electric flux through lower surface/side of Gaussian surface is EA i.e.
Φe1 = E ̅ = EA cos θ
̅. A
= EAcos0° = EA
b) Electric flux through the left and right sides of Gaussian surface is zero because field lines are parallel to the surface or θ = 90° between ⃗E and ⃗A.
Φe2 = Φe4 = ⃗E. ⃗A
= E A cos θ
= EAcos90° = 0
c) Electric flux through upper surface/side of Gaussian surface is zero because no charge is present inside
the surface i.e.
Φe3 = E ⃗ = EA cos θ
⃗ .A
= (0)(Acosθ) = 0 (∴ q = 0, so, E = 0)
d) Net flux, Φe = Φe1 + Φe2 + Φe3 + Φe4
= 0 + 0 + 0 + EA
Φe = EA ------------------------- (i)

(iv) Electric flux by Gauss’s law:-

According to Gauss’s law,

1
Φe = (q)
∈0
1
Φe = (σ A) ------------------------ (ii)
∈0
Comparing eq. (i) and (ii); we get,
1
2EA = (σ q)
∈0
σ
E=
ϵ0
Or, in the vector form, we may write as;
⃗E = σ (r̂)
ϵo
--------------------------------
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (S.Q)
Electric Potential difference:-
Electric potential difference between two points is the amount of work done in carrying/bringing a unit (positive) charge from one point to the other,
while keeping the charge in electrostatic equilibrium.
Or
Potential difference between two points is the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between these two points.
Formula:-
W W
∆V = ab or Vb − Va = ab
q0 q0
∆U Ub −Ua
Or, ∆V = or Vb − Va =
q0 q0
Nature:-
Electric potential difference or electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Explanation:- (optional)
Consider a test charge ‘qo ’ is present between two oppositely charged plates. Test charge experiences force ‘Fe = E qo ’ and moves from positive plate
(plate B) to negative plate (plate A) i.e. in the direction of electric field, as shown in figure. In order to move ‘qo ’ charge from low potential energy
(plate A) i.e ‘Ua ’ to high potential energy (plate B) i.e. ‘Ub ’an external force of magnitude ‘F = E qo ’ must be supplied
in opposite direction to electric field and work is done on the change in moving from plate ‘A’ to ‘B’.
∆U = Ub − Ua
According to work energy principal; we may write as,
Wab = ∆U
According to the definition of electric potential difference between two plates ‘A and B’,

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∆U
∆V = Vb − Va =
q0
Ub −Ua Wab
Vb − Va = or Vb − Va =
q0 q0
Unit:-
SI unit of electric potential or electric potential difference is volt or J C -1 or N m C-1.

One Volt:-
If one joule of work is done on one coulomb charge in moving it between two points then potential difference between these points will be equal to ‘one
volt’.

Electric potential or absolute potential:-

The amount of work done on unit (positive) charge in bringing it from infinity to a point or from any point to infinity by keeping electrostatic equilibrium
is known as electric potential or absolute potential at that point.
Mathematical form:- Dimensions: (optional)
W
Wab As, V =
As Vb − Va = qo
qo J
=
Let point ‘A’ is at infinity (reference point), so, VA = 0 C
W Nm (kg m s−2 )m
Vb − (0) = ab = =
As As
q0 kg m2 s−2
In general, at any point, electric potential or absolute potential is given as, = = kg m2 s −3 A−1
As
V=
W [V] = [M L2 T −3 A−1 ]
qo
-----------------------------------
ELECTRIC FIELD AS POTENTIAL GRADIENT (S.Q)
Potential gradient:-
Maximum change in electric potential with respect to space or distance is called potential gradient.
Formula:-
∆V
E=−
∆r
Where, E = magnitude of electric field, ∆V= Change in potential, ∆r = Change in distance
Proof:-
Consider a test charge ‘qo ’ is present in electric field ‘E’ due to two oppositely charged plates. The test charge experiences a force ‘Fe = E qo’ and move
in the direction of electric field, as shown in figure. In order to move ‘qo ’ in opposite direction to electric field an external force ‘F = E qo ’ must be
supplied and work is done on charge in moving it from plate ‘a’ to ‘b’. According to the definition of electric potential difference between plates ‘A and
B’ is given as,
W
∆V = Vb − Va = ab ----------------- (i)
qo
As we know that, Wab = F ⃗
⃗ .d
Wab = Fdcosθ
⃗
⃗ and d
Here, from figure it is clear that, θ = 180° between F
Now, Wab = (Eqo )(d)( cos180°)
Wab = − Eqo d
Eq d
Now eq. (i) ⇒ ∆V = − 0 = −Ed
q0
∆V
E=−
d
For smaller distance between two points, we take d = ∆r,
∆V
E=−
∆r
∆V
The quantity ‘ ’ gives the maximum value of change in electric potential with respect to distance. It is known as potential gradient.
∆r
E = −grad (V)
Conclusion:-
Electric field is the negative gradient of potential.
--------------------------------
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE (OR) ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL (L.Q)
Description:-
Electric potential or absolute potential at a point due to a point charge is ‘the amount of work done on charge in bringing it from infinity to that point,
keeping electrostatic equilibrium’.
Formula:-
kq 1 q
V= (Or) V=
r 4π∈0 r
Proof:-
Consider a test charge is moved from point B to point A in the electric field of charge ‘q’ as shown in figure.
Now assume that, Here, points ‘A and B’ are very close to each other to make electric field constant.
Distance of point A from charge q = ra , Distance of point B from charge q = rb
Electric potential at A = Va , Electric potential at B = Vb
Potential difference between the points ‘A and B’, ∆V = VB − VA
Calculation of ‘r2’:-
Distance of midpoint between ‘A and B’ from charge ‘q’= r
r +r
So, r= A B ---------------------- (i)
2

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Distance between ‘A and B’, ∆r = rB − rA
rB = rA + ∆r ----------------- (ii)
Put eq. (ii) in eq. (i); we get,
rA +rA +∆r
r=
2
2rA +∆r 2rA ∆r
r= = +
2 2 2
∆r
r = rA +
2
By taking square on both sides; we get,
∆r 2
(r)2 = (rA + )
2
∆r2 ∆r
r 2 = rA 2 + + 2(rA ) ( )
4 2
∆r2 ∆r2
Here ≪ rA 2 . Therefore we can neglect . Now,
4 4
2 2
r = rA + rA ∆r
r 2 = rA 2 + rA (rB − rA ) (∴ ∆r = rB − rA )
r 2 = rA 2 + rA rB − rA 2
r 2 = rA rB
Calculation of electric potential:-
∆r
As we know that, electric field is negative gradient of potential i.e. E = −
∆V
Therefore, ∆V = −E ∆r ------------------ (a)
kq
For a point charge, expression for electric field is given as, E = 2 and r 2 = rA rB .
r
kq
Therefore, E=
rA rB
kq
Now eq. (a) ⇒ VB − VA = − ( ) (rB − rA )
rA rB
rB −A
= −kq ( )
rA rB
rB rA
= −kq ( − )
rA rB rA rB
1 1
VB − VA = −kq ( − )
rA rB
Calculation of absolute potential:-
For absolute potential at point ‘A’, Consider point ‘B’ is at infinity, i.e. rB = ∞ and VB = 0 (As point ‘B’ is taken as reference point.)
1 1 1 1
0 − VA = −kq ( − ) ⇒ −VA = −kq ( − 0) (∴ = 0)
rA ∞ rA ∞
kq
VA =
rA
In general, electric potential ‘V’ at a point having ‘r’ distance from a point charge is given as;
kq 1 q 1
V= Or, V= (∴ k = )
r 4π∈0 r 4π∈0

Dependence:-
Electric potential or absolute potential of a charge at a point depends upon:
Magnitude of charge
Distance of charge from reference point
Medium around the charge
-------------------------------------
ELECTRON VOLT (S.Q)
Definition:-
The amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron when it travels or traverses between two points having potential difference of one volt is called
one electron volt.
Or
‘1.6 × 10−19 J’ energy is known as one electron volt.
Formula:-
1 ev = 1.6 × 10−19 J
Proof:-
Consider a point charge ‘q’ is moved from point A having potential VA (low potential) and electric potential energy UA to a point B having potential VB
(high potential) and electric potential energy UB . Then difference of electric potential energy between these points is given as;
∆U = UB − UA
According to the definition of potential difference between points A and B, we can write as;
∆U
∆V =
q
∆U = q ∆V
When this charge is allowed to move freely then it will acquire ∆K. E as;
∆U = ∆K. E (According to law of conservation of energy.)
∴ ∆K. E = q∆V
If q = 1e = 1.6 × 10−19 C and ∆V = 1V. Then,
∆K. E = 1e V = 1.6 × 10−19 J
--------------------------------------

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COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRIC FORCE AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE (S.Q)
Similarities:-
❖ Both forces exist between two particles/objects (having masses or charge)
❖ Both are conservative forces i.e. work done by these forces is independent of the path.
1
❖ Both forces obey inverse square law i.e. Fe and Fg ∝ 2
r
❖ Both are mutual forces i.e. both obey Newton’s third law of motion
❖ Both forces obey super position principle.
Differences:-
Electric force Gravitational force
❖ Electric force between two point charges ‘q1 ’and ‘q2 ’ is given as: ❖ Gravitational force between two point masses ‘m1 ’ and ‘m2 ’is given as;
kq1 q2 m m
Fe = 2 Fg = G 12 2
r r
❖ Value of electric constant or coulomb’s constants is very high i.e. ❖ Value of gravitational constant is very small, i.e. G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2
9x109 N m2 C-2. kg-2
❖ It is a short-range force ❖ It is a long-range force
❖ It is a relatively strong force as compared with gravitational force. ❖ It is a weak force
❖ It depends upon medium between the charges. ❖ It is independent of the medium between masses or objects or particles.
❖ It can be shielded. ❖ It cannot be shielded.
❖ For two electrons, Fe = 1036 FG ❖ For two electrons, Fg = 10−36 Fe

------------------------------------
CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN’S METHOD (L.Q)
Description:-
In, 1909, ‘R.A. Millikan’ devised a technique to find a charge on an electron.
Principal:-
A charged oil drop can be suspended within two metallic plates having electric field between. We adjust the value of electric field, so that electric force
on the droplet becomes equal to the weight of drop.
Construction:-
i) An observation chamber ‘C’ ii) Glass window ‘W1 ’ for light iii) Glass window ‘W2 ’ for X-rays iv) Two parallel plates while upper
plate has a small hole at its centre. v) A ‘dc’ source (battery) vi) Atomizer to spray oil drops in chamber vii) Light source
viii) Microscope

Working:-
i. Atomizer sprays tiny oil drops into the observation chamber ‘C’.
ii. These drops become negatively charged due to friction between the drops and walls of atomizer.
iii. Few drops enter into hole ‘H’ in the upper plate.
iv. A ‘dc’ source is used to produce electric field between the plates.
v. Value of electric field is adjusted so that electric force on charged drops becomes equal to the gravitational force (weight of drop) and
drops becomes suspended between the plates.
vi. Source of light and microscope is use to observe oil drops.

Charge on drop:-
Oil drop becomes suspended between plates when;
Fe = Fg
Eq = mg
Eq
m=
g
V
As we know that, E=
d
q V
Therefore, m=
gd
mgd
q= ------------------ (i)
V
Mass of drop:-
When electric field is removed then drops move downward and attain terminal velocity, i.e.Fd = Fg
6π η r vt = mg
6π η r vt
m= ------------------ (ii)
g
Terminal velocity:-
Velocity of drop can be found by using relation;
d
vt =
t
Where ‘d' is the distance (magnitude of displacement) between two plates.
Radius of drop:-
As we know that ;
m m 4
ρ= = ⁄ 3 (∴ volumeof spherical oil drop = πr 3 )
volume 4 3 πr 3
4
m = πr 3 ρ ----------------- (iii)
3
6π η r vt 4
Comparing eq. (ii) and (iii), = πr 3 ρ
g 3

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3 η vt 2 2
= r ρ
g 3
9 η vt 2
=r
2 ρg
9 η vt
Or, r=√
2 ρg
Charge on an electron:-
Millikan found that on each drop, charge is an integral multiple of 1.6 × 10−19 C . Hence, he suggested that on an electron charge is 1.6 × 10−19 C and
total charge on drop can be calculated as;
Q=ne
Where ‘n’ is a positive integer and ‘e’ = charge on an electron
-------------------------------
CAPACITOR (S.Q)
Definition:-
A device which is capable to store electric charge is called capacitor.
Or
A device which is capable to store electric potential energy is called capacitor.
Principal:-
It works on the principle of electrostatic induction.
Charging of a capacitor:- (optional)
Consider a battery or a source of potential is connected across a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in figure. When ‘V’ potential is applied across the
terminal of the capacitor then opposite charges of magnitude ‘Q’ is deposited on both of the plates by using principal of electrostatics.
∴Q∝V
Q=CV
This is equation of capacitor and ‘C’ is a constant of proportionality, known as capacitance of the capacitor.
Capacitance:-
The ability or capability of a capacitor to store charge is called capacitance.
Or
Ratio of magnitude of charge stored on either plate of the capacitor to the potential difference between the plates is called capacitance, i.e.
Q
C=
V
Unit:-
SI unit of capacitance is farad.
C
F=
V
One Farad:-
Capacitance of a capacitor will be one farad if one coulomb charge is stored on either of its plates by applying one-volt potential difference between the
plates.
Or
If one-volt potential difference is produced by adding one coulomb charge on each plates of a capacitor then capacitance of the capacitor will be one
farad.
Note:- (optional)
Farad is a large unit of capacitance while its smaller units used in the daily life are;
Micro farad, μF = 10−6 F
Nano farad, nF = 10−9 F
Pico farad, pF = 10−12 F
---------------------------------
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR (L.Q)
Capacitance:-
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called capacitance.
Or
The capacity of a capacitor to store electric potential energy is called capacitance.

Case- I: Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when vacuum or air is in between its plates:

When vacuum or air is placed between the plates of the capacitor, then its capacitance is given as;
A∈
C or Cvac = o
d
Explanation:-
Consider a battery having potential difference ‘V’ is connected across a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance ‘C’. Also assume that;
A = Area of one of the plates of capacitor, Q = Charge on one of the plates, σ = Surface charge density of plate, E = Electric field between the plates.
Q
As, Cvac = ------------ (i) (As, Q = C V)
V
Potential difference between the plates can be calculated by the following relation.
V
E=
d
V=Ed
σ
According to Gauss’s law, electric field intensity between the oppositely charged plates is, E =
∈0
σ
Therefore, V= d
∈o
Q
As, σ=
A

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(Q/A) Qd
So, V= d ⟹ V=
∈0 A ∈0
Q
Now equation (i) ⟹ Cvac = Qd
A ∈0
A∈0
Cvac =
d

Case- II: Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when dielectric is placed between its plates:-

Dielectric:-
Any insulating material placed between the plates of capacitor is known as the dielectric.
Effects of the dielectric on capacitance:-
When some dielectric is placed between the plates of the capacitor then its capacitance is increased by factor ‘∈r ’ known as the dielectric constant.
Formula:-
A∈ ∈
Cdie or Cmed = o r
d
Proof:-
Consider a dielectric having dielectric constant ‘∈𝑟 ’ is placed between the plates of the capacitor having capacitance ‘C’ as shown figure. Also consider,
A = Area of one of the plates, d = Distance between the plates, σ = Surface charge density, E = Electric field between plates
As we know that, when vacuum is placed in between the plates of capacitor then its capacitance is given as;
Q
Q = Cvac V ⟹ Cvac =
V
In the presence of dielectric between the plates of capacitor,
Q
Cdie = ------------ (i)
Vdie
Potential difference between the plates can be calculated by the following relation.
V
E=
d
V=Ed
σ
According to Gauss’s law, electric field intensity between the oppositely charged plates is, E =
∈o
In the presence of a dielectric between the plates of capacitor, electric field is reduced by a factor
‘∈r ’ known as dielectric constant,
σ
Edie =
∈o ∈r
σ
Therefore, Vdie = d
∈0 ∈r
Q
As, σ=
A
(Q/A) Qd
So, Vdie = d ⟹ Vdie =
∈o ∈r A ∈0 ∈r
Q
Now equation (i) ⟹ Cdie = Qd
A ∈o ∈r
A ∈0 ∈r
Cdie or Cmed =
d
Dielectric constant:-
Ratio of capacitance of a capacitor when some dielectric is placed between its plates to the capacitance of the same capacitor in the presence of vacuum
between its plates is called dielectric constant.
C
∈r = die
Cvac
Experimental verification:- (optional)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor, a source of potential and volt-meter is connected in series. When dielectric is placed between the plates then voltage
decreases and hence capacitance increases because,
Q 1
C = ⁄V OR C∝
V
Dependence of capacitance:-
Capacitance depends upon;
Area of the plates in front of each other.
Distance between the plates.
Medium placed between the plates.
-------------------------------------
ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC (S.Q)
Electric polarization:-
The phenomenon of production and arrangement of dipoles of the dielectric due to the presence of external electric field is called electric polarization.
Dipoles:-
Two equal and opposite charges separated by some fixed distance is called /constitute an electric dipole.
Dielectric in the absence of electric field:-
The dielectric consists of atoms and molecules which are electrically neutral. The centers of positive and negative charges coincide in the absence of an
electric field.
Dielectric in the presence of electric field:-
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field between the plates of a capacitor, electric field exert an electric force on the
positive and negative part of the atom. The centers of positive and negative charges now no longer coincide with each other.
Thus, the molecules of the dielectric under the action of electric field become dipoles and the dielectric is said to be polarized.
Effect of polarization on capacitance:-
Capacitance increases due to electric polarization because

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by inserting dielectric between the plates of capacitor, surface charge density reduces
σ
Electric field between the plates also reduces E =
∈o
Due to decrease in electric field, potential difference between the plates reduces i.e. V = E d
1
Capacitance of capacitor increases because C ∝
V
--------------------------------
ENERG Y STORED IN A CAPACITOR (L.Q)
Description:-
Capacitor is a device which is capable to store electric potential energy (E.P.E in the electric field) between its plates.
Formula:-
1 1 1
U= qV or U = C V2 or U = ∈o E 2 A d
2 2 2
Explanation:-
When a battery is connected across the plates of a parallel plate capacitor then work is being done in moving charge from one of its plates to other
(electrostatic induction). This work is stored in the form E.P.E between the plates of capacitor.
Proof:-
Let us consider;
Capacitance of capacitor = C
When battery was not connected then initial potential difference across the capacitor palates = 0
After connection of battery, final potential difference across the capacitor palates becomes = V
Initial charge on the plates of capacitor = 0
Final charge on the plates of capacitor becomes = q
0+V V
Vav = =
2 2
Work or P.E
We know that, Vav =
q
W = (Vav )(q)
V
W = ( ) (q)
2
V
Therefore, W = ( ) (CV) (As, q = C V)
2
1
W= CV 2
2
1
U = C Vi2 (As, W = U = E. P. E)
2
Energy stored in terms of electric field:-
Electric potential energy is stored in the electric field present between the plates of capacitor. We know that,
A∈
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is, C = o and V = E d
d
1 A ∈o
U= ( ) (E d)2
2 d
1 A ∈ 0 E 2 d2
U=
2 d
1
U = E2 ∈0 (A d)
2
A ∈r ∈0
But in case of dielectric; Cdie =
d
1 A ∈0 ∈r 1 A ∈0 ∈r
Now, Udie = ( ) (E d)2 = ( ) (E2 d2 )
2 d 2 d
1 2
Udie = E ∈o ∈r (A d)
2
Energy density
Energy stored per unit volume is called energy density.
U
u=
Volume
In the absence of dielectric, energy density is given as;
1
E2 ∈o (A d)
u=2 (A d)
(∴Volume between the plates of capacitor =A d)
1
u= ∈o E 2
2
1
Udie E2 ∈o ∈r (A d)
In case of the dielectric; udie = =2 (A d)
volume
1
udie = ∈o ∈r E2
2
-------------------------
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR (S.Q)

Charging of a capacitor Discharging of a capacitor

Circuit diagram for charging a capacitor is Circuit diagram for discharging a capacitor is given as;
given as;

Direction of the current in the charging Direction of current in the discharging circuit is opposite
circuit is opposite to the discharging current to charging circuit i.e. anticlockwise
i.e. clockwise.
Potential drop across resistor and capacitor is given
Potential drop across resistor and capacitor below.
is given below.

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After any time “t” the value of charge on one of the capacitor plates After any time “t” the value of charge on one of the capacitor plates is given
is given as; as;
τ τ
q = qo (1 − e−RC ) q = qo e−RC
Where, qo = Maximum charge and τ = Time constant. Where, qo = Maximum charge and τ = Time constant.
Time constant in the charging process is the time during which Time constant in the discharging process is the time during which ‘63%’ of
‘63%’ of the maximum charge is stored on one of the plates of the the maximum charge is discharged on one of the plates of the capacitor or
capacitor or 37% of maximum charge is left to be stored on one of 37% of maximum charge is left to be discharged on one of capacitor plate.
the plates of capacitor. i.e. i.e.
τ
q = qo (1 − e−RC )
τ
q = qo (1 − e−RC )
When; τ = RC When; τ = RC
RC
q = qo (e−RC ) = qo (e−1 )
RC
q = qo (1 − e−RC ) = qo (1 − e−1 )
1 1
= qo (1 − ) = qo ( )
e e
= qo (1 − 0.37) = qo (0.37)
q = 0.63 qo q = 0.37 qo
or q = 63% of qo or q = 37 % of qo
Value of the time constant depends upon the value ‘R’ and ‘C’. The value of time constant depends upon the value of ‘R’ and ‘C’.
A capacitor whose time constant is large will be charged slowly A capacitor whose time constant is large will be discharged slowly and vice
and vice versa. versa.

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12

Short Questions (Exercise)

12.1 (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electric field zero or non-zero in this region? Explain. (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Ans:
Answer of this question has two possibilities.
Possibility # 1:
As we know that,
∆V
E= − --------------------------- (i)
∆r
As electric field is the rate of change of potential difference w.r.t distance. So, if potential is constant i.e.
∆V=0
0
Then, E=− =0
∆r
From above discussion it is clear that electric field is zero in the region where electric potential is constant.

Possibility # 2:
In case of equipotential surface, potential remains constant throughout the surface but electric field is also
present and perpendicular to the surface.

12.2
Suppose that you follow an electric line due to positive point charge. Do electric field and the potential increase or decrease?
Ans:
As we know electric field is inversely proportional to the square of distance from a positive point charge and an electric potential is inversely (A product of
PAK ACADEMY) proportional to the distance from a positive point charge. Mathematically;
1
E∝ 2
r
1
V∝
r
So, when we follow an electric line of force due to a positive charge, we move away from the charge hence both electric field and potential will
decrease but rate of decrease of electric field is greater than the rate of decrease of electric potential.
12.3
How can you identity which plate of a capacitor is positively charged?
Ans:
By using a device called gold leaf electroscope, (A product of PAK ACADEMY) we can identify the nature of charge on the plates of capacitor.
Procedure;
Firstly, rub an uncharged polythene strip on the metal cap of a gold leaf electroscope so that electroscope is positively charged as shown in fig.
When a positively charged plate of (A product of PAK ACADEMY) capacitor is taken close to the electroscope, the divergence of the gold leaf of a positively
charged electroscope increases, whereas in case of negatively charged plate the divergence decreases as shown in fig.

Hence only an increase in the divergence of gold leaf gives a clear identification of the positively charged plate of capacitor.

12.4
Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed b/w parallel plates (a) with similar and equal charges
(b) with opposite & equal charges?
Ans:

(a) When a positive point charge placed between two parallel plates with similar & equal charges will experience no force,
because (A product of PAK ACADEMY) electric intensity E1 due to one plate is equal & opposite to the electric intensity E2 due to the
other plates so resultant intensity E will be
E = E1 + (- E2)
E=0
And F=Eq
If, E = 0 then, F = (0) q = 0
Hence the positive point charge will not experience any force.

(b) When a positive point charge is placed between two parallel plates with opposite & equal charges, it will move towards the
negatively charged plate (low potential region). This is because field intensities E1 & E2 due to oppositely charged plates are
equal and in the same direction so,
E = E1 + E2

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12
σ
We know that electric field intensity between two oppositely charged plates is, E = ≠0
εo
And F=Eq
σ
Therefore, F=( )q≠0
εo
This force on positive charge is from positive to negatively charged plate as shown in figure.

12.5
Electric lines of force never cross. Why? (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Ans:
⃗ has only one direction at a given point. If they cross then E
Electric lines of force never cross because E ⃗ could have more than
one direction which is impossible for a vector to have more than one direction at a point.

12.6
If a point charge q of mass m is related in non-uniform electric field pointing in the same direction. Will it make a
rectilinear motion?
Ans: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Answer of this question has two possibilities.

Possibility # 1:
When a charge is released, in a non-uniform field having non-uniformity in magnitude as well as in direction i.e. have curved field lines, the charge will
not make a rectilinear motion because force applied by the field on the charge will move it in a curved path i.e. in the direction of field line.

Possibility # 2:
When a charge is released, in a non-uniform field having non-uniformity only in its magnitude but has straight field lines, the charge will make a
rectilinear motion because force applied by the field on the charge will move it in straight path i.e. in the direction of field line.

12.7
⃗ necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon is spherical? Assume that charge is disturbed uniformly over the surface?
Is 𝐄
Ans: (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Yes, E is zero inside a charged rubber balloon because, according to Gauss’s law,
q
Φe =
εo
Inside the charged rubber balloon q = 0 so,
0
Φe =
ϵo
Φe = 0 ----------------- (i)
As, Φe = E ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . A ----------------- (ii)
Comparing (i) & (ii), we get;
E . ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ A =0
Either E = ⃗0
⃗⃗⃗ or ⃗⃗⃗
A = ⃗0
But ⃗⃗⃗
A ≠0 ⃗ so ⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗0
E
Therefor electric field intensity is zero inside a charged rubber balloon.

12.8
Is it true Gauss’s law states that the total numbers of line of force crossing any closed surface in the outward direction is proportional to the
net positive charge enclosed with in surface? (A product of PAK ACADEMY)
Ans:
Yes, the statement is true because total numbers of lines of forces crossing any closed surface in outward direction is actually the electric flux passing
through the surface enclosing a charge i.e. Total numbers of lines of force crossing (A product of PAK ACADEMY) any closed surface in outward direction is
directly proportional to the total charge ‘Q’ enclosed by the surface. Symbolically above proportionality can be written as,
Q
Φe =
εo
Q
Φe ∝
εo
The above proportionality is the Gauss’s law.

12.9
Do electrons tend to go to region of high potential or of low potential?
Ans:
Electrons are negatively charged, so they always tend to move from low potential region (negatively charged region or plate) to the region of higher
potential (positively charged region or plate). (A product of PAK ACADEMY)

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12

Numericals
Q. 12.5:
Two points charges 𝐪𝟏 = −𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 C and 𝐪𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 C
(A product of PAK ACADEMY)
are separated by 3.0 m distance. Find zero field location and
Q.12.1:
given justification.
Compare magnitudes of electrical and gravitational forces
Solution:
exerted on an object (mass=10.0g, charge=20.0 µ C) by an
identical object that is placed 10.0 cm from the first. (G=6.67× q1 = −1.0 × 10−6
q2 = 4.0 × 10−6
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 N𝐦𝟐 kg-2).
r=3m
Solution:
Zero field location = ?
Mass of both objects, m1 = m2 = 10.0g = 0.01kg
Let us consider point ‘P’ is the zero-field location for given charges q1
Charge on both objects, q1 = q2 = 20.0 μc = 20 × 10−6 C
& q2
Distance, r = 10.0 cm = 0.1 m
Fe P q1 q2
=?
Fg
Firstly, for electrical force;
k q1 q2 9×109 (20×10−6 )2 3.6 d 3m
Fe = = =
r2 (0.1)2 0.01 3+d
Fe = 360 N Then, according to given condition, at point ‘P’ = E1 + E2 = 0
For gravitational force; So, E1 = −E2
Gm1 m2 6.67×10−11 ×(0.01)2
Fg = = k q1 kq
= − (3+d)2 2 ⟹
q1 q2
= − (3+d)
r2 (0.1)2
d2 d2 2
Gm1 m2 6.67×10−15
Fg = = = 6.67 × 10−13 N q1 (3 + d)2 = − q2 (d)2
r2 0.01
Fe 360 −1 × 10−6 (3 + d)2 = −4 × 10−6 (d2 )
Therefore, =
Fg 6.67×10−13 (3 + d)2 = 4 (d)2
Fe
= 5.4 × 1014 (3 + d)2 = (2d)2
Fg
Take square root on both sides, we get;
Q. 12.3: 3 + d = ± 2d
A point charge 𝐪 = −𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂 is placed at origin. Calculate Either, 3 + d = 2d or 3 + d = − 2d
electric field at point 2.0 m from origin on z-axis. 3 = 2d − d or 3 = − 2d − d = −3 d
Solution: d=3m or d = − 1 m (Which is not possible)
Given is, q = −8.0 × 10−8 C Justification:
r = 2.0 m Zero field location is close to q1 because it is smalles charge and it
⃗E =? cannot be between the two opposite charges, so, it is 3m form q1 and
6m from q2 .
As we known
q
⃗ =k
E (r̂)
r2 Q. 12.6:
9×109 (−8×10−8 ) Find the electric field strength required to hold suspended a
⃗E = k̂ (Given is r̂ = k̂)
4
particle of mass 1.0×10-6 kg and charge 1.0 µC between two
= 180 N C−1 (−k̂)
plates 10.0 cm apart.
⃗E = 180 (−k̂) N C−1
Solution:
Mass of particle, m = 1.0 × 10−6 kg
Q. 12.4:
charge, q = 1 × 10−6 C
Determine electric field at point 𝐫 = (𝟒𝐢̂ + 𝟑𝐣̂) m caused by a
Distance = 10 cm = 0.1 m
point charge, 𝐪 = 𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 C placed at origin. ̅ =?
E
Solution:
For the suspension of the charge in electric field, Fe = Fg
Given is, r = (4î + 3ĵ) m
Eq=mg
q = 5 × 10−6 C mg (1.0×10−6 ) (9.8)
⃗ =? E= =
E q (1.0×10−6 )
As we known E = 9.8 N C-1
q
⃗E = k (r̂) -------- (i)
r2
Q. 12.7:
As we know that, r = r r̂
A particle having a charge of 20 electrons on it, falls through a
⃗r
Therefore, r̂ = potential difference of 100 volts. Calculate the energy acquired
r
|r| = r = √(4)2 + (3)2 = √25 = 5 by it in electron volts (eV).
⃗r 4î+3ĵ Solution:
r̂ = =
r 5 q = 20 e
Now equation (i) implies that, ∆v = 100 V
q 9×109 (5×10−6 ) 4î+3ĵ
⃗ =k
E (r̂) = [ ]( ) ∆K. E =?
r2 (5)2 5
= 360 (4î + 3ĵ) As We know; ∆K. E = q (∆V)
⃗ = (1440î + 1080ĵ) N C−1 ∆K. E = 20 e (100 V) = 2000 eV
Electric field intensity, E
∆K. E = 2 × 103 e V
∆K. E = 2 keV

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12
Q. 12.8: Work done is ‘positive’ because force is acting in the direction of
In Millikan’s experiment, oil droplets are introduced into the electric intensity.
space between two flat horizontal plates, 5.00 mm apart. The (c) Change in P.E = ∆P. E =?
plate voltage is adjusted to exactly 780 V so that the droplet is As we know that, ∆U = − ∆W
held stationary. The plate voltage is switched off and the As proton is moving towards low potential, so, change in P.E will be
selected droplet is observed to fall a measured distance of 1.50 ‘negative’.
mm in 11.2 s. Given that the density of the oil used is 900 kg m- ∆U = −500 eV
3, and the viscosity of air at laboratory temperature is 1.80×10- (d) Change in K.E = ∆K. E =?
5 Nm-2s, calculate (a) The mass, and (b) The charge on the As we know, Loss in P.E = Gain in K.E
droplet (Assume g = 9.0ms-2). Therefore, Gain in K.E = −∆U = −(−500 eV)
Solution: ∆K. E = 500 eV
Distance between plates, d = 5.0 mm = 5x10-3 m (e) velocity of proton = ?
1
Potential difference, v = 780 V ∆K. E = mv 2
2
Distance covered = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-³ m 2 ∆ k.E
v2 =
Time taken, t = 11. 2 sec m
2 × 500 × 1.6 × 10−19
ρ = 900 kg m-3 v2 =
1.67 × 10−27
Viscosity, η =1.80× 10−5 N s/m2 v = 3.09 × 105 ms−1
(a) Mass: Direction of velocity will be towards decreasing potential.
As know that,
4
m= πr 3 × ρ − − − −(1) (∴ ρ = mass/( 43 πr3 )) Q. 12.10:
3
9 η vt 2 g r2 ρ Using reference point at infinity, determine the amount by
r2 = − − − − (2) (∴ vt = )
2ρg 9 η
which a point charge of 4.0×10-8 C alters the electric potential
Distance
Also, vt = Terminal velocity =
time taken
at a point 1.2 m away, when (a) Charge is positive, (b) Charge
1.5 × 10−3 is negative.
So, vt =
11.2 Solution:
vt =1.34 × 10−4 ms −1 Given is, q = 4.0×10-8 C
9 (1.80 × 10−5 ) (1.34 × 10−4 )
Equation (ii) ⟹ r2 = (900) (9.8)
r = 1.2 m
2
(a) Electric potential when charge is positive:
r2 = 1.23 × 10−12
k (q+ve )
r = 1.11 × 10−6 As we know that, v+ =
r
3 (9 × 109 ) (4.0 × 10−8 ) 36×109−8
Equation (i) ⟹ m = (3.14)(1.11 × 10−6 )(900) v+ = =
4 1.2 1.2
m = 5153.2 × 10−18 kg v+ = + 3.0 × 102 V
m = 5.15 × 10−15 kg (b) Electric potential when charge is negative:
(b) Charge on droplet: k (q−ve )
As we know that, v− =
mgd r
As we know that; q = 9×109 ×(− 4.0×10−8 )
v v− =
5.15 × 10−15 × 9.8 × 5 × 10−3 1.2
q= v− = − 3.0 × 102 V
780
q = 3.23 × 10−19 C Q. 12.11:
In Bohr’s atomic model of hydrogen atom, the electron is in an orbit
Q. 12.9: at a distance of 5.29×10-11 m with a speed of 2.18×106 ms-1. (e=1.6×
A proton placed in a uniform electric field of 5000 NC-1 directed 9.10 ×10-31 kg). Find (a) The electric potential that a proton exert
to right is allowed to go a distance of 10.0 cm from A to B. energy of the atom in eV and (c) The ionization energy for the atom
Calculate (a) Potential difference between the two points (b) Solution:
Work done by the field (c) The change in P.E. of proton (d) The Given is; r = 5.29 x 10-11 m
change in K.E. of the proton (e) Its velocity (mass of proton is Velocity of electron, v = 2.18 x 106 ms-1
1.67×10-27 kg). Charge of electron, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Solution: Mass of electron = 9.10 x10-31 kg
Electric filed,E = 5000 N C−1 (a) Electric potential, V = ?
Distance, ∆r = 10.0 cm = 0.1 m kq
As we know that, V =
Mass of proton, m = 1.67 × 10−27 kg r
(9 × 109 ) (1.60 × 10−19 ) 1.44 × 10−9
(a) ∆V =? V= =
5.29 x 10−11 5.29 × 10−11
−∆V
As we know that, E = ⟹ ∆V = −E(∆r) V = 27.2 V
∆r
∆V = −5000 (0.1) (b) Total Energy = ?
∆V = −500 V We know that, Etotal = K. E + P. E − − − − − (i)
Negative sign indicates that 𝐄̅ is towards decreasing potential. Also, P.E of electron, P.E = qV (As, V = P.E/q)
(−1.6 × 10−19 )(27.20)
(b) ∆W =? P. E =
1.6 × 10−19
∆W
As we know that, ∆W = (∆V) (q) (As, ∆V = ) P. E = −27.27 eV
q
1 1
∆W = (500 V)(1 e) (e = charge of proton) Also, K.E = mv 2 = (9.1 × 10−31 )(2.18 × 106 )2
2 2
∆W = 500 eV 21.6×10−19
K. E = 216 × 10−19 J = eV
1.6×10−19

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Lecture Notes on Physics by Prof. Usman Danish Class: Second Year Chapter No. 12
K. E = 13.51 eV Q. 12.13:
Equation (i) ⟹ Etotal = −27.2 + 13.51 The capacitor has a capacitance of 2.5×10-8 F. In the charging
Etotal = −13.6 eV process, electrons are removed from one plate and placed on
the other one. When the potential difference between the
(c) Ionization energy, Eionization =?
plates is 450 V, how many electrons have been transferred?
By definition, Eionization = − (Etotal) (e=1.6×10-19 C)
Eionization = −(−13.6 eV)
Eionization = 13.6 eV Solution:
Given is, C = 2.5 × 10-8 F
Q. 12.12: V = 450 V
The electronic flash attachment for a camera contains a Charge of electron, e = 1.6×10-19 C
capacitor for storing the energy used to produce the flash. In No. of electrons transferred from one plate to other, n = ?
one such unit, the potential difference between the plates of a As we know that, Q = C V
750µF capacitor is 330 V. Determine the energy that is used to Also, Q=ne
produce the flash. Therefore, ne=CV
CV
n=
e
Solution: (2.5 × 10−8 ) (450)
Given is, C = 750µF = 750 x 10-6 F n=
1.6 × 10−19
V = 330 V n = 7 × 1013 electrons
Energy, U = ?
As we know that, U = ½ C V2 (A product of PAK ACADEMY) 
U = ½ (750 x 10-6) (330)2
U = 40.8 J 

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