Bacteria

Introduction and Definition

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that belong to the domain Bacteria, a major
group of prokaryotes. They lack a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, unlike
eukaryotic cells. Bacteria can take various shapes—such as rods (bacilli), spheres (cocci), and
spirals (spirilla or spirochetes)—and are found in nearly every environment on Earth, including
soil, water, extreme environments, and within other organisms.

They reproduce primarily through binary fission, a simple division process, and can thrive in
diverse conditions. Some bacteria are beneficial, aiding in processes like digestion, nitrogen
fixation, and bioremediation, while others can be pathogenic, causing diseases in humans,
animals, and plants. Bacteria play essential roles in ecosystems and have significant applications
in medicine, agriculture, and industry.

The general characteristics of bacteria are:

i. They are prokaryotic

ii. They are simplest of all microbial cells

iii. Bacteria are single celled organisms

iv. They have distinctive cell wall which contain peptidoglycan

v. They are measured in unit called micrometer

vi. Bacteria lack a true nucleus but have a region called the nucleoid region, i.e.
DNA is free-floating

vii. They may have additional DNA called a plasmid

viii. Their reproduction is by binary fission

ix. They are extremely diverse and numerous in soils and waters.
Ø Size, Shape and Arrangement of Bacterial Cell

Size: Bacteria are microscopic, 0.5 to 1.0 μm in diameter. Because of their small size, they have
high surface area/volume ratio, resulting in a high growth and metabolism rate. No circulatory
mechanism is needed for nutrients taken in because the mass of cell substance to be nourished is
very close to the surface. Examinations of a microbial cell require the use of a high-power
microscope usually of about 1,000 diameters.

A Basic Bacterium Cell

Ø Shape and Arrangement

The shape of a bacterium is governed by its rigid cell wall which gives it a definite shape.
Typical shapes of bacteria are:

• Cocci (Singular: Coccus), e.g. Staphylococcus spp, Streptococcus spp

• Bacilli (rods) (Singular: rod, bacillus), e.g. Bacillus subtilis

• Vibrios (Singular: Vibrio)

• Spirilla (Singular: Sprillum)

• Spirochaetes (Singular: Spirochaete), e.g. Treponema pallidum Some species of bacteria are
pleomorphic, i.e. they are able to change their forms especially when grown on artificial media.

i. Cocci: They are round, oval or spherical in diameter characteristic

arrangement when multiplying is based on arrangement of cells, they are called:

• Diplococci: cocci in pairs, e.g. meningococci and gonococci.

• Streptococci cocci in chains.

• Staphylococci: cocci in irregular clusters (like a bunch of grapes).

• Tetracocci: cocci in a group of four cells.

• Sarcinae: cocci in regular clusters.

ii. Bacilli (Rod): These are stick like bacteria with rounded, square, tapered or
swollen ends. They measure 1-10μm in length by 0.3- 1.0μm in width.

Bacilli are not arranged in patterns as complex as cocci. Most occur singly. Other
arrangements are:

• Diplobacilli: Rods in pairs.

• Streptobacilli: Rods in chains.

• Trichomes: Similar to chains but have larger area of contact between adjacent cells.

• Mass together, e.g. Mycobacterium leprae.

• Palisade arrangement cells are lined side by side like matchsticks and at angles to
each other like Chinese lecters, e.g. Corynebacterium diptheriae.
iii. Vibrios: These are small slightly curved rods, or comma shaped 3- 4μm in
length by 0.5μm in width. Most are motile with a single flagellum at one end, e.g.
Vibrio cholerae.

iv. Spirilla: These are helical bacteria, small, regularly coiled, rigid, organisms
measuring 3- 4μm in length. Each coil measures about 1μm, e.g. Spirillum minus.

v. Spirochaetes: They are helical, (complete twist), flexible, coiled organisms,

can twist and contort their shapes. Spirochaeters are divided into three main groups.

• Treponemes: Tiny and delicate with regular tight coils, measuring 6-15μm by
0.2μm in width, e.g. Treponema pallidum and Treponema pertenue.

• Borreliae: Large spirochaetes with irregular open coils 10- 20μm in length by
0.5μm in width, e.g. Borella duttoni and Borrelia vinceti.

• Leptospires: Tiny spirochaetes with many tightly packed coils that are difficult to
distinguish; 6-20μm in length by 0.1μM in width and have hooked ends, e.g.
Leptospira interrigans.

Common Shapes of Bacteria

In addition to the common bacterial shapes, many others also occur in different shapes, which
include:

• pear shaped cells, e.g. Pasteuri

• lobed spheres, e.g. Sulfolobus

• rods with squared ends, e.g. Bacillus anthracis

• disk arranged stacks of coins, e.g. Caryophanon

• rods with helically sculptured surfaces, e.g. Seliberia and many others.

Ø Bacterial Structures

Examination of a bacterial cell will reveal several components and structures. Some are external
to the cell wall while others are internal to the cell wall.

A). Structure External to the Cell Wall

1. Flagella (Singular: Flagellum): These are hair-like, helical appendages that protrude through
the cell wall, 0.01 – 0.02μm in diameter and simple in structure. Based on their location on the
cell, flagella may be polar or lateral.

i Polar: At one or both ends of bacterium.

ii Lateral: Along the sides of the bacterium.

A flagellum is composed of three parts:

i. A basal body associated with the cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall.

ii. A short hook and a helical filament which is usually several times as long as
the cell.

iii. A flagellum grows at the tip rather than at the base.

Types of Flagella

• Monotrichous: A single polar flagellum. Many that appears and functions as monopolar or
bipolar flagella consist of bundles of 2 to 50 single units (polytrichous). eg Vibrio cholerae

• Lophotrichous: A cluster of polar flagella or multiple polar flagella.

• Amphitrichous: Flagella, either single or clusters at both cell poles.

• Peritrichous: Cell surrounded by lateral flagella or flagella distributed over the entire cell
eg Escherichia coli. Function of Flagella Bacteria propel themselves by rotating their helical
flagella.

Types of Flagella

2. Pili (Singular: Pilus): They are also called fimbriae. They are hollow, non-helical filamentous
appendages that are thinner, shorter and more numerous than flagella: long, thin, straight threads
3-25μm in diameter and 12μm in length. They do not function in motility since they are found on
non-motile and motile species. Several functions are associated with different types of pili.

F pilus (Sex pilus) serves as the path of entry of genetic material during bacterial mating. Some
play major role in human infection by allowing pathogenic bacteria to attach to the epithehal
cells lining the respiratory, intestinal or genitourinary tracts, this prevents the bacteria from being
washed away by the flow of mucous or body fluids and permits infections to be established.

3. Capsules: This is a viscous substance forming a covering layer or envelope around the cell
wall of some bacteria. Capsules are known to confer resistance to phagocytosis because
complement cannot penetrate it, hence protecting bacteria against host defense to invasion. Also
protects the bacteria from desiccation. Capsules are usually antigenic for identification. Capsules
can be categorised into three based on their visualisation by light microscope using special
staining methods.

If the covering layer can be visualised by light microscope using special staining methods, it is
termed capsule.

• Microcapsule: If the layer is too thin to be seen by light microscope.

• Slime: If it is so abundant that many cells are embedded in a common matrix. Most bacterial
capsules consist of polysaccharides which can be homopolysaccharides or
heteropolysaccharides.
Cell Wall: This provides structural rigidity and forms barrier against the outside environment.
Has a high tensile strength conferred on it by a layer composed of a substance called
peptidoglycan (also known as murein or mucopeptide). Bacteria are classified as Gram +ve or
Gram –ve according to their response to Gram staining procedure i.e based on the propensity of
their cell wall to hold fast to the primary dye (crystal violet) or otherwise when exposed to a
decolorizing agent such as acetone or 95% alcohol. It is the site of antigenic determinant of the
cell surface. Lipopolysaccharide component of the Gram -ve wall is responsible for non specific
endotoxin activity. The cell wall also Shows differences in Gram reaction thereby gives basis for
classifying bacteria

B). Structures Internal to the Cell

1. Cytoplasmic Membrane: This lies immediately beneath the cell wall. It is approximately
7.5μm (0.0075μm) thick and composed primarily of phospholipids (20 to 30 percent) and protein
(60 to 70 percent). It serves as a barrier to most water-soluble molecules and contains various
enzymes involved in respiration, and metabolism and in synthesis of capsular and cell wall
component. Proteins are also synthesized in the cytoplasm.

2. Protoplast A protoplast is the portion of a bacterial, all made up of the cytplasmic membrane
and the cell material bounded by it.

3. The Cytoplasm: This is the cell material bounded by the cytoplasmic membrane and it may
be divided into:

i. The cytoplasmic area, granular in appearance and rich in the macromolecular RNA-protein
bodies called Ribosomes on which proteins are synthesised.

ii. The chromatin area rich in DNA and

iii. The fluid portion with dissolved substances.

4. Nuclear Material: Unlike eucaryotic cells bacterial cells do not have a distinct membrane
enclosed nucleus but they have an area near the centre of the cell that is regarded as the nuclear
structure, the DNA of the cell is confined to this area. The DNA is circular and bears the genes
of the cell.

5. Spores and Cysts: Certain bacteria produce spores either within the cells (endospores) or
external to the cell (exospores). The spore is metabolically dormant form which under
appropriate condition can germinate to form a vegetative cell. Endospores are extremely resistant
to desiccation, staining, disinfecting chemicals, radiation and heat. Cysts are also dormant, thick
walled desiccation resistant forms that can germinate also under favourable conditioning.

Ø Nutrition

The nutrition requirements of bacteria vary widely. Based on their source of energy, they are
classified as:

i Phototrophs: These are bacteria that use light energy as their energy sources.

ii Chemotrophs: They obtain their energy by oxidizing inorganic or organic – chemical

compounds.

Based on the source of carbon which is the major source of nutrient for all cells bacteria can be c
lassified as:

• Heterotrophs: These are bacteria that derive carbon from preformed organic nutrients such as
sugar or carbohydrate.

• Autotrophs: They derive carbon from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide.

Ø Cellular Respiration

Based on whether they need oxygen to survive or not, bacteria may be:

i. aerobic or strict aerobes: these require oxygen, e.g. Bacillus cereus.

ii. ii. anaerobic bacteria/strict anaerobes: they cannot tolerate oxygen, e.g.
Clostridium spp.

iii. iii. facultative anaerobes: These are generally aerobes but have the capacity to
grow in the absence of oxygen, e.g. Staphylococcus spp.
Ø Reproduction and Growth of Bacteria

Bacteria reproduce primarily through binary fission, an asexual process that enables rapid
population growth.

1. Binary Fission Process

- DNA Replication: The bacterial cell copies its single, circular DNA molecule.

- Cell Growth: The cell enlarges, and the DNA attaches to different parts of the cell
membrane.

- DNA Segregation: As the cell elongates, the replicated DNA molecules are pulled to
opposite ends of the cell.

- Cytokinesis: A septum (a dividing wall) forms in the middle of the cell, eventually
pinching the cell into two identical daughter cells.

Each daughter cell has an identical copy of the original DNA, making this form of
reproduction extremely efficient and quick under optimal conditions. Some bacteria can
double their population in as little as 20 minutes.

2. Other Forms of Genetic Exchange

Though binary fission is asexual, bacteria have ways to exchange genetic material to
increase diversity:

- Conjugation: Bacteria transfer genetic material through a direct connection called a pilus.

- Transformation: Bacteria take up DNA from their environment.

- Transduction: Bacterial DNA is transferred between cells by a virus (bacteriophage).

These methods contribute to genetic variation, which helps bacteria adapt to changing
environments or develop resistance to antibiotics.

Growth

In the context of bacteria, growth refers to an increase in the bacterial population rather than an
increase in cell size. Unlike multicellular organisms, which grow by increasing the size and
number of cells, bacterial growth is primarily about reproduction and population expansion
through cell division.
Bacterial growth occurs in distinct phases when bacteria are placed in a new culture medium.
These phases describe the changes in population size over time:

1. Lag Phase

- Characteristics: In this initial phase, bacteria adjust to their new environment. Cells are
metabolically active, synthesizing RNA, enzymes, and other molecules needed for growth.

- No Increase in Population: There’s little to no cell division, so the population size remains
constant.

- Duration: The length varies depending on the species and the conditions, such as the
nutrient composition of the medium.

2. Log (Exponential) Phase

- Characteristics: Cells begin to divide rapidly at a constant rate. Each cell divides by binary
fission, leading to exponential growth.

- Optimal Growth Rate: This phase represents the maximum growth rate under the given
conditions, as nutrients are plentiful, and waste products are minimal.

- Balanced Growth: Cell size and structure are generally consistent across the population.

- Sensitivity to Antibiotics: Bacteria are most sensitive to antibiotics during this phase, as
they are actively growing and synthesizing cell components.

3. Stationary Phase

- Characteristics: Growth rate slows as nutrients are depleted, and waste products accumulate.
The rate of cell division equals the rate of cell death, leading to a stable population size.

- Cellular Changes: Cells may shrink and undergo metabolic changes to survive in
nutrient-poor conditions.

- Endospore Formation: Some bacteria can form endospores (a resistant, dormant form) to
survive harsh conditions during this phase.

4. Death (Decline) Phase

- Characteristics: Nutrients become severely limited, and toxic by-products accumulate,

causing cells to die at a faster rate than new cells are produced.
- Decline in Population: The population gradually decreases, and cells may lose viability and
function.

- Survival Mechanisms: A small number of cells might enter a dormant state, allowing them
to survive until conditions improve.

These growth phases are commonly represented on a bacterial growth curve and are crucial for
understanding bacterial behaviour in laboratory settings, infection progression, and antibiotic
treatment strategies.

Factors Affecting Bacterial Growth

Bacterial growth is influenced by several factors, both environmental and nutritional. These
factors can affect the rate at which bacteria multiply, their survival, and their overall health. Here
are the main factors:

1. Temperature

- Bacteria have specific temperature ranges in which they thrive. The growth rate of bacteria
typically increases with temperature up to a point and then drops off as temperatures get too high
and cause protein denaturation.

- Types based on temperature preference:

​ - Psychrophiles: Prefer cold temperatures (0–20°C).

​ - Mesophiles: Thrive in moderate temperatures (20–45°C); most human pathogens fall in

this category.

​ - Thermophiles: Prefer higher temperatures (45–80°C).

​ - Hyperthermophiles: Thrive in extremely high temperatures (above 80°C).

2. pH Level

- Bacteria grow best in environments with optimal pH ranges. Most bacteria prefer a neutral
pH (6.5–7.5), though certain bacteria can thrive in acidic or alkaline conditions.

- Types based on pH preference:

​ - Acidophiles: Thrive in acidic environments (pH < 5.5).

​ - Neutrophiles: Prefer neutral pH (6.5–7.5).

​ - Alkaliphiles: Thrive in alkaline environments (pH > 8.0).

3. Oxygen Availability

- Bacteria can be classified based on their oxygen requirements:

​ - Obligate Aerobes: Require oxygen for growth.

​ - Obligate Anaerobes: Grow only in the absence of oxygen.

​ - Facultative Anaerobes: Can grow with or without oxygen.

​ - Microaerophiles: Require low oxygen levels.

​ - Aerotolerant Anaerobes: Don’t use oxygen but can survive in its presence.

4. Nutrient Availability

- Bacteria require certain nutrients to grow, including carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
vitamins, and trace elements.

- Nutrient-rich environments support faster bacterial growth, while nutrient-poor environments

limit their growth.

5. Moisture

- Bacteria need water for their cellular processes. High moisture levels promote bacterial
growth, while drying conditions inhibit it by causing dehydration and limiting metabolic
activities.

6. Osmotic Pressure

- Osmotic pressure, affected by the solute concentration in the environment, influences

bacterial water uptake.

- Halophiles- thrive in high-salt environments, while other bacteria may be inhibited by high
osmotic pressure, leading to cell shrinkage or plasmolysis.

7. Light and Radiation

- Some bacteria, such as cyanobacteria, require light for photosynthesis.

- However, ultraviolet (UV) light and ionizing radiation can damage bacterial DNA, inhibiting
growth or leading to death.
8. Presence of Inhibitory Substances

- Antibiotics, disinfectants, heavy metals, and other chemicals can inhibit bacterial growth by
damaging cell structures or interfering with metabolic processes.

Ø Roles of Bacteria in the Environment

Bacteria have both beneficial and harmful roles across various domains, affecting health,
agriculture, and the environment. Here are some examples of bacteria involved in each role:

Beneficial Roles of Bacteria

1. Ecological Balance

- Decomposition: Bacteria like Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas putida decompose organic
matter, recycling nutrients back into the soil, which supports plant growth.

- Nitrogen Fixation: Rhizobium species, found in the root nodules of legumes, convert
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which plants can absorb and use.

2. Human Health

- Gut Microbiome: Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidum help digest food,
produce vitamins, and outcompete harmful bacteria in the gut.

- Immune Support: The presence of beneficial bacteria, like Bacteroides fragilis, aids the
immune system in maintaining a balance in the gut, reducing inflammation and supporting
immunity.

3. Biotechnology and Industry

- Food Production: Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus are used in

yogurt production, while Propionibacterium freudenreichii contributes to Swiss cheese
production.

- Antibiotic Production: Streptomyces griseus produces streptomycin, an antibiotic used to

treat various bacterial infections.

- Bioremediation: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Alcanivorax borkumensis can degrade oil and
other pollutants, helping in cleaning up oil spills.
- Biogas Production: Methanogenic bacteria, like Methanococcus species, help produce
methane in anaerobic digesters, which is used as biogas.

4. Agriculture

- Plant Growth Promotion: Bacillus subtilis and Azospirillum brasilense stimulate plant
growth by producing growth hormones and solubilizing essential nutrients.

- Biopesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxins that target specific insect larvae,
providing a natural alternative to chemical pesticides in pest control.

Harmful Roles of Bacteria

1. Pathogenic Infections

- Human Diseases: Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis, while Streptococcus

pneumoniae is responsible for pneumonia. Vibrio cholerae causes cholera, and Escherichia coli
O157:H7 can cause severe foodborne illness.

- Antibiotic Resistance: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) have developed resistance to multiple
antibiotics, making infections challenging to treat.

2. Food Spoilage

- Pseudomonas fluorescens, Lactobacillus brevis, and Clostridium perfringens are common

spoilage bacteria that break down food components, causing off-flavors, odors, and sometimes
toxins that render food unsafe.

3. Agricultural Damage

- Plant Diseases: Erwinia amylovora causes fire blight in apple and pear trees, Ralstonia
solanacearum causes bacterial wilt in tomatoes, and Xanthomonas campestris causes black rot in
cruciferous vegetables.

- Livestock Diseases: Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax, and Brucella abortus leads to
brucellosis in cattle, both of which can result in severe economic losses.

4. Environmental Damage
- Biofouling: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio vulnificus form biofilms on surfaces,
including ship hulls and pipelines, leading to corrosion, clogging, and increased maintenance
costs.

- Toxin Production: Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) like Microcystis aeruginosa release

toxins in water, causing harmful algal blooms that disrupt aquatic ecosystems and pose health
risks to humans and animals.