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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

2022-23)

SUB CODE: BME301

Department of Mechanical Engineering, AJIET, Mangaluru

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VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET

Vision of the Institute

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession
and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.

Mission of the Institute

o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

and make the students socially responsible.
o To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in
both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
o To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
o To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vision of the Department

To create globally competent and self-reliant mechanical engineers adaptive to an

interdisciplinary environment contributing to society through development, authority and
entrepreneurship.

Mission of the Department

M 1. To offer high quality graduate program in the field of Mechanical Engineering with
value education to the students and make them responsive to societal needs.
M 2. To nurture the students with a global outlook for a sustainable future with high
moral and ethical values.
M 3. To strengthen collaboration with industries, academia and research organizations
to enrich learning environment, thus enhance research and entrepreneurship
culture.
M 4. To create awareness about the need of interdisciplinary applications through
alumni industry-institution interactions.

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PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Prepare graduates with mathematical, scientific and engineering skills to design and
PEO1
develop energy efficient systems for sustainable development.
Excel graduates with high level of technical competency combined with research and
PEO2 complex problem-solving ability to generate innovative solutions in Mechanical and
multi-disciplinary areas.
PEO3 Equip graduates with modern tools, technology and advanced software’s for
deliberating engineering solutions.
Inculcate graduates with strong foundation in academic excellence, soft skills, leadership
PEO4
qualities, professional ethics, and social concerns and understand the need for lifelong
learning for a successful professional career.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and
PO1
specialization in Mechanical Engineering for the solution of complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyse complex engineering problems
PO2 reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
PO3 components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for public health and
safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
PO4 including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
PO5 and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities, with an understanding of
the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
PO6 safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal
PO7
and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
PO8
engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse
PO9
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
PO10 community and with the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
PO11 management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environment.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
PO12
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Apply the knowledge of modern engineering tools to design and analyze the products and process
related to Mechanical Engineering systems
PSO2 Develop technical and interpersonal skills pertinent to mechanical and allied engineering for careers in
industry, academia and government organizations.

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COURSE SYLLABUS

Module - 1
Stresses and Strains: Introduction, Properties of materials, Stress, Strain and Hooke’s
law, Stress strain diagram for brittle and ductile materials, True stress and strain,
Calculation of stresses in straight, Stepped and tapered sections, Composite sections,
Stresses due to temperature change, Shear stress and strain, Lateral strain and
Poisson’s ratio, Elastic constants and relations between them.
Teaching Learning Process :
1. Power-point Presentation,
2. Video demonstration or Simulations,
3. Chalk and Talk are used for Problem Solving/White board
Module - 2
Analysis of Stress and Strain: Introduction to three-dimensional state of stress,
Stresses on inclined planes, Principal stresses and maximum shear stress, Principal
angles, Shear stresses on principal planes, Maximum shear stress, Mohr circle for plane
stress conditions.
Module - 3
Shear Force and Bending Moment: Type of beams, Loads and reactions, Relationship
between loads, shear forces and bending moments, Shear force and bending moments
of cantilever beams, Pin support and roller supported beams subjected to concentrated
loads, uniformly distributed constant / varying loads. Concept of shear center.
Stress in Beams: Bending and shear stress distribution in rectangular, I and T section
beams.
Module - 4
Deflection of Beams: Relationship between moment, slope and deflection, Moment
area method, Macaulay’s method. Problems to calculate slope and deflection for
determinant beams, Beams of uniform strength, Leaf springs.
Torsion: Circular solid and hallow shafts, Torsional moment of resistance, Power
transmission of straight and stepped shafts, Twist in shaft sections,
Module - 5
Thick & Thin Cylinders: Thin cylinder: Hoop’s stress, maximum shear stress,
circumferential and longitudinal strains, Thick cylinders: Lames equations. Columns:
Buckling and stability, Critical load, Columns with pinned ends, Columns with other
support conditions, Effective length of columns, Secant formula for columns.
Introduction to Strain Energy: Strain energy due to axial, shear, bending, torsion and
impact load. Castigliano’s theorem I and II and their applications.

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Course outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to:

CO1 Understand the concepts of stress and strain in simple and compound bars.

Explain the importance of principal stresses and principal planes & Analyse cylindrical
CO2
pressure vessels under various loadings.
Apply the knowledge to understand the load transferring mechanism in beams and stress
CO3
distribution due to shearing force and bending moment.

CO4 : Evaluate stresses induced in different cross-sectional members subjected to shear loads.

CO5 Apply basic equation of simple torsion in designing of circular shafts & Columns.

Suggested Learning Resources:

1. Text Books
1. Mechanics of Materials, S.I. Units, Ferdinand Beer & Russell Johnstan, 7th Ed, TATA
McGrawHill-2014 2.
2. Mechanics of Materials, K.V.Rao, G.C.Raju, Subhash Stores, First Edition, 2007 3.
3. Strength of Materials by R.K. Bansal ,Laxmi Publications 2010 .

2. Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

1. Statics and Strength of Materials, Shehata, 2nd edition, 1994.

(http://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/TESTEVAL/PAGES/JTE12637J. htm)
2. http://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/TESTEVAL/PAGE S/JTE12637J.htm
3. http://www.freeengineeringbooks.com/Civil/Strength-of-MaterialBooks.php

3. Activity Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning

• Use Mdsolids (https://static-archives.git-pages.mst.edu/mdsolids/) or any open source software for
active teaching and learning.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
B.E, IV Semester, Mechanical Engineering
Outcome Based Education (OBE) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) (Effective
from the academic year 2022 - 23)
Course Code :BME301 CIE Marks : 50
Number of Lecture
: 2-2-0-0 SEE Marks : 50
Hours/Week (L-T-P-S)
Total Hours of Pedagogy 26+26 : 40 Exam Hours : 03
Credits – 03

Syllabus:
Module - 1

Simple stress and strain: Definition/derivation of normal stress, shear stress, and normal strain and shear s
strain diagram for brittle and ductile materials - Poisson’s ratio & volumetric strain – Elastic constants – rela
between elastic constants and Poisson’s ratio – Generalised Hook’s law – Deformation of simple and compo
Resilience, Gradual, sudden, impact and shock loadings – thermal stresses.

Module - 2

Bi-axial Stress system: Introduction, plane stress, stresses on inclined sections, principal stresses and maximum shea
graphical method - Mohr's circle for plane stress.
Thick and Thin cylinders: Stresses in thin cylinders, Lame's equation for thick cylinders subjected to internal and ex
Changes in dimensions of cylinder (diameter, length and volume), simple numerical.

Module - 3

Bending moment and Shear forces in beams: Definition of beam – Types of beams – Concept of shear force and b
S.F and B.M diagrams for cantilever, simply supported and overhanging beams subjected to point loads, uniformly dis
uniformly varying loads and combination of these loads – Point of contra flexure.

Module - 4

Theory of simple bending – Assumptions – Derivation of bending equation - Neutral axis – Determination of bendin
section modulus of rectangular and circular sections (Solid and Hollow), I, T and Channel sections – Design of simple
Shear Stresses: Derivation of formula – Shear stress distribution across various beams sections like rectangular, circul
and T sections.

Module - 5

Torsion of circular shafts: Introduction, pure torsion, assumptions, derivation of torsional equations, polar modulus,
/ stiffness of shafts, power transmitted by solid and hollow circular shafts.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

CO1: Understand the concepts of stress and strain in simple and compound bars.
Explain the importance of principal stresses and principal planes & Analyse cylindrical
CO2:
pressure vessels under various loadings

Apply the knowledge to understand the load transferring mechanism in beams and
CO3:
stress distribution due to shearing force and bending moment.

CO4: Evaluate stresses induced in different cross-sectional members subjected to shear loads

CO5: Apply basic equation of simple torsion in designing of circular shafts & Columns

.
Lesson plan for academic year 2023-24

1 Course Mechanics of Materials

2 Course Code BME301
3 Class 3rd Semester
4 L-T-P-S 2-2-0-0
5 Marks (Min/Max)
SEE 50
●
CIA 50
●
6 Physics, Mathematics, Engineering
Pre-requisite:
Mechanics,
7 Course Instructor: Mr. Harold J. D’Souza
8 Department: Mechanical Engineering
9 Course coverage: 40 Hours

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Module 1

Syllabus:
Simple stress and strain: Definition/derivation of normal stress, shear stress, and normal
strain and shear strain – Stress strain diagram for brittle and ductile materials - Poisson’s ratio
& volumetric strain – Elastic constants – relationship between elastic constants and Poisson’s
ratio – Generalised Hook’s law – Deformation of simple and compound bars, Resilience,
Gradual, sudden, impact and shock loadings – thermal stresses.

INTRODUCTION:

Preamble

Engineering science is usually subdivided into number of topics such as

1. Solid Mechanics

2. Fluid Mechanics

3. Heat Transfer

4. Materials Science etc.,

The solid mechanics as a subject which can be defined as a branch of applied mechanics that
deals with behaviours of solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings. This is usually
subdivided into further two streams i.e. Mechanics of rigid bodies or simply Mechanics and
Mechanics of deformable solids.
The mechanics of deformable solids which is branch of applied mechanics is known by several
names i.e. strength of materials, mechanics of materials etc

The mechanics of rigid bodies

It is primarily concerned with the static and dynamic behaviour under external forces of
engineering components and systems which are treated as infinitely strong and undeformable.
Primarily we deal here with the forces and motions associated with particles and rigid bodies.

Mechanics of deformable solids

The mechanics of deformable solids is more concerned with the internal forces and
associated changes in the geometry of the components involved. Of particular importance are

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

the properties of the materials used, the strength of which will determine whether the
components fail by breaking in service, and the stiffness of which will determine whether the
amount of deformation they suffer is acceptable. Therefore, the subject of mechanics of
materials or strength of materials is central to the whole activity of engineering design. Usually
the objectives in analysis here will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and deflections
produced by loads. Theoretical analyses and experimental results have an equal role in this
field.

The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to provide an engineer with
the means of analyzing and designing various machines and load bearing structures. When an
external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. Due to cohesion
between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which material of the
body opposes the deformation is known as strength of material. Within a certain limit (i.e., in
the elastic stage) the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the deformation
brought out on the material by the external force. Also, within this limit the resistance is equal
to the external force (or applied load). But beyond the elastic stage, the resistance offered by
the material is less than the applied load. In such a case, the deformation continues, until failure
takes place. Within elastic stage, the resisting force equals applied load. This resisting force
per unit area is called stress or intensity of stress.

1.1 Loads and its Types:

External forces acting on a rigid body are termed as loads. These loads may arise due to dead
loads of members, live loads, wind loads, earthquake effects, fluid pressures, support
settlements, frictional resistance, etc. In mechanics of deformable bodies, the following loads
are generally considered
(i). Dead or Steady Load: a load is said to be a dead or steady load when it does not change
in magnitude or direction.
(ii). Live or variable load: a load is said to be live or variable load when it changes continually.
(iii). Suddenly applied or Shock load: a load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load
when it is suddenly applied or removed in a very short time.
(iv) Impact load: a load is said to be an impact load when it is applied with some initial
velocity.
Loads or forces can be further classified based on the type of stress induced which is shown in
Fig.1.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Figure 1. Types of Forces

Force which points away from its point of application is called tensile force. It is also called
pull. Any member under the action of these forces is said to be under tension as shown in Fig1
(a). The force which points towards its point of application is called the compressive force as
shown in Fig1 (b). It is also called push. The tensile and compressive forces are called direct
forces and they act normally to the planes carrying them. The force which acts tangentially or
parallel to the surface under consideration is called the shear force as shown in Fig1 (c).

1.2. STRESS ( )

All externally applied loads deform an elastic material. This deformation is called strain. While
undergoing deformation, the body sets up internal resistance against deformation. The
resistance increases as the deformation increase only up to a certain limit beyond which any
increase in applied loads will continue the process of deformation to the stage of failure. This
internal resisting force per unit area is called "stress”.

The intensity of internally distributed forces that tend to resist change in shape of a body is
known as stress.
Thus, stress is defined as the resistance offered by a body per unit area of resisting section,
against the loads producing deformation.
Then by definition: stress σ =

Unit of Stress:
The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load (or force) and unit of area. In M.K.S. units, the
force is expressed in kgf and area in meter square (i.e., m 2). Hence unit of stress becomes as
kgf/m2. If area is expressed in centimetre square (i.e., cm 2), the stress is expressed as kgf/cm2.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

In the S.I. units, the force is expressed in newtons (written as N) and area is expressed as m2.
Hence unit of stress becomes as N/m2. The area is also expressed in millimetre square then unit
of force becomes as N/mm2
l N/m2 = l N/(100cm)2 = 1 N/ (10 -4 cm2) = 104 N/cm2 or 106 N/mm2 or 1 MPa= 1 N/mm2

Types of Stress: The stress may be classified as Normal stress which acts in a direction
perpendicular to the area of cross section (σ) or a shear stress (τ) which acts tangential to the
area of cross section. Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to the
area. The normal stress is further divided into tensile stress and compressive stress.

TENSILE STRESS ( ): When equal and opposite pulling forces are applied to a body and
the resistance offered by a section of the body is against the increase in length, the section is
said to offer a tensile stress. The stress offered by the section xx of the rod in Fig 2. is a tensile
stress. The intensity of the tensile stress is given by: = =

Figure 2: Illustration for Tensile force

COMPRESSIVE STRESS ( ):

When equal and opposite pushing forces are applied to a body and the resistance offered by a
section of the body is against the decrease in length the section is said to offer a compressive
stress. The stress offered by the section xx of the rod in Fig 3. is a compressive stress.

= =

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Figure 3: Illustration for Compressive force

SHEAR STRESS ( ):

When equal and opposite forces act tangentially on any cross-sectional plane of a body, tending
to slide its one part over the other at that plane, the body is said to be in a state of shear. The
corresponding stress induced in it is called shear stress. In Fig.4 a rivet of cross-sectional area
A connecting two plates tends to shear off at section xx. Producing shear stress in the cross
section of the rivet. The resistance R along the section xx is called the shear resistance.
The intensity of the shear stress is given by = =

Figure 4. Illustration for Shear Stress

1.3. STRAIN ( ):
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a member by the loads. Therefore, strain in
a member is defined as the deformation produced by the application of load per unit length of
the member. It is denoted by it is a ratio between change in dimension and original
dimension, and as such it has no unit

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Where E is Modulus of Elasticity

TENSILE STRAIN ( ):

In Fig 5. (a) the length l of the bar increases by an amount under the action of the load p.

COMPRESSIVE STRAIN ( :

In Fig 5. (b), the length l of the bar decreases by an amount under the action of the load
p.

Figure 5. Illustration for Tensile and Compressive Strain

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

SHEAR STRAIN ( ):

It is a measure of the angle through which a body is deformed by the applied force. In Figure
6. the rectangular block ABCD fixed at the bottom face AB is distorted through an angle
by the force P applied as shown. The face CD moves to the new position C’D’, as the movement
of the end C is very small and it is assumed as an arc of radius BC with B as center.

Then,

When angle is very small

Figure 6. Shear Strain

1.4. HOOKE'S LAW:
Hooke's law states that within an elastic limit stress is proportional to strain within the elastic
limit.
or

Therefore, or

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Assumptions:
While deriving the formulae on strength of materials, the following assumption made without
much of sacrifice in the accuracy of results. These assumptions will greatly simplify the
derivations.
The materials obey Hooke’s law.
⮚
The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
⮚
The member is loaded within the elastic limit.
⮚
Deformations within the elastic region are very small.
⮚
The planes of member are not distorted i.e., a plane remains as plane even after the
⮚
application of load, without being distorted to another to another shape.
The section of interest is not very close to points of application of load.
⮚
The member is completely free of stress when the load is removed or in other words
⮚
the member does not carry any residual stresses.

1.5. STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS:

Certain important properties of materials used for engineering applications can be determined
by conducting laboratory tests on small specimens of the material. One such common test is
tension test. Tension test involves application of gradually increasing axial tensile load on a
standard specimen (the test is performed using Universal Testing Machine aptly called UTM).
After performing tension or compression test and determining stress and strain at various
magnitudes of load, we can obtain a diagram by plotting stress along Y-axis and strain along
X-axis. The stress-strain diagram is of immense help in conveying information about
mechanical properties and behaviour of the material.

The value of Young's modulus is determined from the stress-strain graph of the
⮚
material. Some materials are equally strong in compression and tension (metals and alloys);
such materials are usually tested in tension.
The test results usually pertain to a circular bar of uniform cross section. The load on
⮚
the test specimen is increased gradually from zero, in suitable increments, till the specimen
fails (breaks). The elongation of the specimen is measured over a specific length known as
gage length (usually 50 mm to 200 mm) at each load step.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

The stresses and the corresponding strains are computed from the load and the
⮚
corresponding elongation readings. Materials such as concrete, stones and bricks those are
stronger in compression than in tension, are tested in compression.
Stress-strain values are plotted in the form of a graph, and the value of Young's modulus
⮚
is determined from the slope of the curve for any stress value. In the case of materials with
linear stress-strain behaviour
Young's modulus is constant up to the elastic limit. For materials with non-linear stress-
⮚
strain relationship, the average value of the slope is adopted for Young's modulus, or the value
is defined at a specified stress or strain value (for instance, at the origin, when it is known as
the initial tangent modulus).

The behavior of a few typical materials is discussed in this section.

MILD STEEL:

The stress-strain behavior of mild steel is of specific interest to engineers because of the
extensive use of mild steel as construction material. The behavior is also significant because
no other material has all the characteristics of mild steel. The specimen should be tested as
specified in IS: 1521-1972. A typical stress-strain curve of a mild steel specimen is indicated
qualitatively in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Stress – Strain diagram for Mild Steel

The stress up to which Hooke's law is obeyed is known as , the proportionality

⮚
limit (indicated by A in the figure).

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

The material, however, remains elastic (that is, elongation vanishes completely on the
⮚
removal of load) even beyond the limit of proportionality.
The stress up to which the material remains elastic is known as the elastic limit
⮚
(indicated by B in the figure).
If the specimen is loaded beyond its elastic limit, it will not regain its original
⮚
dimensions; it suffers permanent strain known as residual (or plastic) strain on unloading.
If the specimen is loaded further beyond the elastic limit (point C in Fig.), it reaches a
⮚
point where a sudden increase in strain occurs without an appreciable increase in stress. This
feature is known as yielding of the material and is represented by y in the figure; the
corresponding stress is known as the upper yield point ( ).

A careful testing of the specimen would reveal that the curve drops slightly at this point
⮚
to D and the corresponding stress is known lower yield point.
Beyond point D, further straining of the material can occur only with an increase in the
⮚
applied load. This phenomenon is known as strain hardening of the material
The stress-strain curve continues to rise till E, the maximum stress the material can
⮚
sustain; this value is known as the ultimate stress ( ) of the material.
At last the specimen fractures at the point F.
⮚
True stress and strain:

Figure 8: True stress-strain

For engineering stress (σ) and engineering strain ( ϵ), the original (gauge) dimensions of

specimen are employed. However, length and cross-sectional area change in plastic region.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Therefore, True stress ( ) and true strain ( ) are used for accurate definition of plastic

behaviour of ductile materials by considering the actual (instantaneous) dimensions.

True stress ( ) is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the
instantaneous cross-sectional area. Thus, under tensile load, instantaneous area is less than
original area and under compressive load, instantaneous area is more than original area.

Strain values are calculated at various intervals of gradually increasing load considering
original gauge length of the specimen, such a strain is nominal or engineering strain. Nominal
strain is change in dimension to corresponding original dimension.

True strain ( ) is the rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length. As

the load keeps on increasing, the gauge length will also keep on varying (e.g., gauge length
increases under tensile loading). If actual length is used in calculating the strain, the strain
obtained is true strain. Crisply, change in dimension to instantaneous dimension is true strain.
In most of the engineering designs, the stresses considered will be well within proportional
limit and as the strain involved up to this limit is very small, the change in area is not at all
appreciable. Therefore, original area of cross section is considered while defining the stress for
all practical purposes.
The relation between true stress and engineering stress is given as = σ (1+ ϵ) and the

relation between true strain and engineering strain is given by

ϵ)

1.6. Stress-Strain Diagram for Other Materials

Every material has its own strength characteristics. Unlike steel, other materials do not show
clear points of yield stress. But initial linear behaviour is shown by almost all materials. Figure
9 presents the stress-strain behaviour of some important materials. Table presents elastic
properties of certain metals.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Figure 9: Stress-Strain diagram for other materials

Proof Stress

Figure. 10. Proof Stress

Most of the metals except steel, do not show well-defined yield point and yet undergoes large
strains after the proportional limit is exceeded. An arbitrary yield stress called proof stress for
these metals can be found out by offset method. On the stress-strain diagram of the metal under
consideration, a line is drawn parallel to initial linear part of the curve (Figure.10) this line is
drawn at a standard offset of strain value, such as 0.002 (0.2%). The intersection of the offset
line and the stress-strain curve (point A in the figure) defines the yield point for the metal and
hence yield stress. Proof stress is not an inherent property of the metal. Proof stress is also
called offset yield s

tress.

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

1.7. Materials: Classification and Properties

Materials that are used as raw material for any sort of construction or manufacturing in an
organized way of engineering application are known as Engineering Materials. For example,
the computer or the pen we use, are manufactured through controlled engineering processes.
The application of Engineering materials depends on its properties, structure and
manufacturing processes.
Classification of Engineering Materials
Depend on the nature of deformation and mode of failure; the engineering materials are
basically classified as ductile and brittle materials and which are discussed below

Figure 11. Stress-Strain curve for Ductile and Brittle materials

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

Ductile materials:
Ductile is the measure of material’s ability to deform. Ductile materials undergo large plastic
deformations before fracture. Low carbon steels and mild steel are some of the examples of
ductile materials. When a ductile material such as mild steel is subjected to tensile force,
considerable reduction in area of its weaker section known as necking is observed before
fracture. Ductility of a material is measured by the percentage increase in length and percentage
reduction in cross sectional area.

Ductile material such as low carbon steel (mild steel) and aluminium exhibit “cup and cone”
type of fracture as shown in above Fig. when subjected to axial tensile force.

Brittle material:
Materials undergoing small plastic strain are known as brittle materials. High carbon steel, cast
iron and glass are some of examples of brittle materials. Most of the brittle materials are
stronger in compression than in tension. They do not exhibit the phenomenon of necking before
fracture.

Engineering materials can also be classified based on the properties that they possess. The
different types of Engineering materials with respect to their properties are
1. Elastic materials: They are deformed when subjected to an external loading and the
deformation disappears on the removal of the load (eg. Rubber).
2. Plastic materials: They are continuously deformed during the period of loading and
the deformation is permanent. They do not regain their original dimensions on the removal of
the load (eg. Aluminium).
3. Rigid materials: Rigid materials do not undergo any deformation when subjected to
an external loading (eg. Rock)

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Properties of Materials

The behaviour of materials under various external excitations represents the properties of
materials. The different types of properties based on the external excitation are

1. Mechanical Properties
2. Electrical Properties
3. Chemical Properties
4. Physical Properties
5. Thermal Properties
However, in this module, we deal with only Mechanical Properties which are further divided
with respect to Properties elastic and plastic region.

Mechanical Properties in Elastic Region:

Linear Elastic properties
1. Stiffness: It is the resistance offered by the material to elastic deformation.
2. Elastic Strength: The highest stress at which the behavior of material remains elastic
3. Resilience: Ability of the material to absorb the energy when it is loaded elastically
and give back the same energy when the load is removed. Eg: Spring.
Resilience can be calculated by area of elastic region under stress-strain curve.

Figure: Resilience in Elastic region

Non-Linear Elastic properties

1. Secant Modulus: Secant modulus is the slope of a line drawn from the origin of the
stress-strain diagram and intersecting the curve at the point of interest. Therefore, the secant
modulus can take different values depending on the location of intersect. ... Secant modulus is
commonly denoted by Es.

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Figure 13: Secant Modulus

2. Tangent Modulus: Tangent modulus is the slope of the stress–strain curve at any
specified stress or strain. Below the proportional limit (the limit of the linear elastic regime)
the tangent modulus is equivalent to Young's modulus.

Figure 14: Tangent Modulus

3. Resilience: Ability of the material to absorb the energy when it is loaded elastically
and give back the same energy when the load is removed in an non-linear stress-strain curve.
The strain energy absorbed is not fully recovered. So Resilience is the ratio of area under
curve-2 to the area under curve-1 as shown in the Figure 14.

Figure: Resilience under non- linear stress-strain curve

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Mechanical Properties in Plastic Region:

1. Ductility: It is the ability of the materials to undergo plastic deformation under tensile
load. It is a property of a material by which it can be drawn into thin wires.
Eg: Copper, Aluminium.
% Elongation= (L-Lo)/Lo*100

2. Malleability: It is the ability of the materials to undergo plastic deformation under

compressive load. It is a property of a material by which it can be flattened into thin sheets
without cracking. Eg: Lead.
3. Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically
deform without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per
unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.

1.8. POISSON'S RATIO ( ):

Stress of one nature, tensile or compressive in longitudinal axis produces strains of same nature
in that axis known as the longitudinal strain but produces strains of opposite nature in the other
two mutually perpendicular axes, which are known as lateral strains. A rectangular bar under
longitudinal tension extends along its length but at the same time there will be a shortening of
its breadth as well as thickness.

Figure. Illustration of Lateral Strain and Poisson’s Ratio

The ratio between the lateral strain and the longitudinal strain is called Poisson's ratio and is
denoted by )

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For most metals lies between 0.33 and 0.25.

Table 1: Poission’s Ratio for some materials:

Sl. No. Material Poisosion’s Ratio

1 Steel 0.25 to 0.33
2 Cast Iron 0.23 to 0.27
3 Copper 0.31 to 0.34
4 Brass 0.32 to 0.42
5 Aluminium 0.25 to 0.36
6 Concrete 0.08 to 0.18
7 Rubber 0.45 to 0.50

1.8. DEFORMATION (ELONGATION) IN TAPERING CIRCULAR BAR:

A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end to a diameter D2 at the other end is
shown in Fig. 16.
Let P = Axial tensile load on the bar
L = Total length of the bar
E = Young's modulus.
Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let the
diameter of the bar be ‘d’ at a distance x from the left end.

Figure 16. Taper Bar of Circular Cross Section

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Change in diameter is D1-D2

Rate of change in diameter is

The diameter of the element is

Where,

Area of cross – section of the element at a distance x,

Deformation in the element

Total deformation of the entire bar δ =

= (with Limit 0 to L)

= (with Limit 0 to L)

By substituting the value of k and applying limits,

δ =

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1.8. DEFORMATION (ELONGATION) IN TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR:

A bar of uniform thickness ‘t’ tapers from the width of ’a’ from one end to ‘b’ at the other end
in a length Las shown in the Fig.17.

Figure 17. Bars with rectangular cross section

P = Axial load on the bar

L = Length of bar
a = Width at bigger end
b = Width at smaller end
E = Young's modulus
t = Thickness of bar Consider any section X-X at a distance x from the bigger end.

Consider an element length at a distance x from the larger end.

Rate of change of width is

Width at section x is b1 =

= where

Cross sectional area of the element is A = t ( )

Since force acting at the entire section is P

Deformation of the element = where

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Total extension of the bar is = δ =

δ=

1.9. BARS WITH CROSS SECTIONS VARYING IN STEPS:

Consider a bar of varying three sections of length L1,L2,L3.having respective areas of cross
section A1,A2,A3.subjected to an axial pull P as shown in the Fig. 18. Let ,
be the changes in length of the respective three sections of the bar,

Figure 18. Bars with Cross Sections Varying In Steps

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The elongation of section 1 is

The elongation of section 2 is ,

The elongation of section 3 is

The total elongation of bar is

1.10. DEFORMATION (EXTENSION) OF A BAR DUE TO SELF WEIGHT:

Consider a prismatic or circular bar of cross-sectional area A and length L hanging freely under
its own weight as shown in Fig. 19. This circular bar experiences zero load at the free end and
maximum load at the top. Mass of a body is given by the product of density and volume. Let ρ
be the density of the material. Consider a small section of thickness dx at a distance x from the
free end.

Figure 19. Circular bar subjected to self-weight

The deformation of the element is given by δ = ……… (1)

Where

ρ (Since ρ =

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ρ
ρ (Since V = ………………………… (2)
By substituting (2) in (1),
δ =

δ = =

Total extension due to self weight is δ =

Therefore deformation in a uniform bar due to self-weight is half the deformation due to the
force equal to its self-weight

1.11. TEMPERATURE STRESSES

Every material expands when temperature increases and contracts when temperature decrease.
Thus, the length of the material also changes. If the material is free to expand, no stresses are
developed in the material. However, if the material is constrained, stresses are developed in the
materials which are known as temperature stresses.
A general procedure or technique for computing the loads and stresses caused when
temperature deformation is prevented is outlined as follows:
Imagine the structure relieved of all applied forces and constraints so that temperature
●
deformation can occur freely. Represent these deformations on a sketch and exaggerate their
effects.
Now Imagine sufficient loads applied to the structure to restore it to the specified
●
conditions of restraints. Represent these loads and corresponding deformations on the sketch.

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The geometric relations between the temperature and load deformations on the sketch
●
give equations which together with the equations of static equilibrium maybe solved for all
unknown quantities.
However, when constraints are imposed on the deformation of a body completely or partially,
it is subjected to thermal stresses under changed temperature condition. We consider three
cases of a body subjected to change in temperature.
1. Free expansion
2. Completely resistant of deformation
3. Partial resistant of deformation

Free expansion
Consider a bar of length L. If its temperature is increased through ΔT°, its length is increased
by an amount LαΔT, where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion. But if the bar is
constrained and is prevented from expansion,

Figure. 20. Illustration for Free Expansion

α is called coefficient of thermal expansion and is defined as change in unit length of the
material due to unit change in temperature. This value is difference for different materials.
Values for some of the commonly used engineering materials are listed
below
Material Co-efficient of Thermal
expansion
Steel / °C
Copper / °C
Stainless steel / °C
Brass, Bronze / °C
Aluminium / °C

1.12. Stresses in compound bars (Composite sections)

Any members consisting of two or more materials subjected to axial forces are considered as
composite sections. The different materials may have same length or different length. If two

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members are considered with respective applied loads P 1 and P2. According to static
equilibrium conditions, P1 + P2 = P
Compatibility conditions states that =

Figure 21: Composite member

1.13. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

When a number of loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain, according to principle of
superposition, will be the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads.
While using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a number of direct forces
(tensile or compressive) at different sections along the length of the body, first the free body
diagram of individual section is drawn. Then the deformation of the each section is obtained.
The total deformation of the body will be then equal to the algebraic sum of deformations of
the individual sections

1.14. Generalized Hooke’s law:

Generalized Hooke’s law states that when an elastic body is subjected to normal stress along
coordinate axes, the strain along these directions can be found by using Hooke’s law and
principle of superposition.
Relationship between stress and strain

Figure 22. 2-D body subjected to stress

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Consider a two-dimensional body ABCD, subjected to two mutually perpendicular stresses

as shown in the above Figure 22.

Let

Consider the strain produced by

The stress will produced strain in the direction x and also in the direction y. the strain in
the direction of x will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to whereas the strain in the

direction of y will be lateral strain and will be equal to

Therefore

Now Consider the strain produced by

The stress will produced strain in the direction of y and also in the direction of x. the
strain in the direction of y will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to

Whereas the strain in the direction of x will be lateral strain and will be equal to

Let

Now total strain in the direction of x due to stress

Similarly, total strain in the direction of y due to stress

Therefore,

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The above two equations give the stress and strain relationship for the two-dimensional stress
system. In the above equations, tensile stress is taken to be positive whereas the compression
stress negative.

For Three-Dimensional Stress System:

Fig.23. Shows a three-dimensional body subjected to three orthogonal normal stresses
acting in the directions of x, y and z respectively.

Figure 23. 2-D body subjected to stress

Consider the strains produced by each stress separately

The stress will produce strain in the direction of x and also in the directions of y and z.
The
strain in the direction of x will be whereas the strains in the direction of y and z will be

Similarly, the stress will produce strain in the direction of y and strain of

in the

direction of x and y each

Also, the stress will produce strain in the direction of y and strain of

in the
direction of x and y each
Total strain in the direction of x due to stresses

Similarly, total strains in the direction of y due to stresses

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And the total strain in the direction of z due to stresses

Let are total strains in x y and z directions

Then

The above three equations

give the stress and strain
relationship for
the three orthogonal
normal stress systems.

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1.15. Elastic Constants

Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Rigidity Modulus and Poisson’s ratio are the elastic
constants for an elastic material with in the elastic limit.

Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of linear stress to linear strain within
elastic limit is called Young's modulus.

Modulus of Rigidity: Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain with
in the elastic limit.

Bulk Modulus: Bulk modulus is the ratio of identical stress in the mutually perpendicular
direction to the volumetric strain.

Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity:

Consider a square element ABCD of sides ‘a’ subjected to pure shear τ as shown in the Figure.
AECD is the deformed shape due to shear τ. Drop ┴ FB to diagonal DE. Let θ be the shear
strain and G is modulus of rigidity.

Figure24: A square member subjected to shear stress

Now, Strain in diagonal BD = = = (DF = DB)

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= =

Since angle of deformation is very small, assume ∟BEF = 45° where EF = BE Cos 45°
Therefore, Strain in the diagonal BD = = =

= = (

Therefore, strain in BD = ( ………………(1)

Now, the above pure shear give rise to axial tensile stress τ in the diagonal direction of DB
and axial compression τ at right angle to it. These two stresses cause tensile strain along the
diagonal DB.

Tensile strain along the diagonal DB = +µ = µ)…………(2)

Comparing the equations (1) and (2)
= µ)

E = 2G (1+ µ)

Relation between Young’s modulus and Bulk modulus:

A cube of side ‘a’ subjected to tensile stress on all its faces is shown in Fig. 25.

Figure 25. 3-D body subjected to stress

From generalized Hooke’s law, strain along x- axis is given by

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We have volumetric strain

Bulk modulus

Substituting the value of

or

or

Relation between Young’s Modulus E, Rigidity Modulus G and Bulk Modulus K

The relation between young’s modulus and modulus of rigidity and the relation between
young’s

modulus and bulk modulus are given by

…..1

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…..2

Substituting the value of E from eqn (1) into eqn (2) we get

… 3

Substitute the value of ( ) eqn (3) into eqn (1) we get

Question bank

1. State Hooke’s law. Sketch the typical stress – strain curve for aluminium.

2. Derive an expression for the extension of a tapering bar whose diameter D1 at one end
tapers linearly to a diameter D2 at the other end in a length L, under an axial pull P and the
elastic modulus of its material is E. [VTU, DEC2013/JUNE 2014] , June Jan 2018
3. Derive an expression for total deformation of a tapering rectangular bar of cross section
a and b when it is subjected to an axial forces ‘P’.
4. Draw the stress - strain diagram of mild steel and aluminium specimens subjected to
tension test and explain the salient points.

Question bank and Solution

Problems:

1. A short piece of steel pipe is to carry an axial compressive load of 1000KN.with a factor
of safety of 2 against yielding. if the thickness of the pipe to be 1/5 th of outside diameter.
find the minimum required outside diameter d. yield stress of steel is 280 MPa.
[VTU, JAN/FEB 2004]

Data: P=1000KN=106 N: FOS=2 MPa=280 N/mm2 : t=1/5 x OD = d/5=0.2d

Solution :

Since many ductile materials have the same yield point in tension and compression

=280 N/mm2

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Permissible or working stress, N/mm2

Inner diameter of pipe , d1- d0 – 2t = d-2 x 0.2d = 0.6d

Also working stress,

Therefore, outer diameter of pipe, = d = 119.2068 mm

2. A solid light alloy bar of 40mm in diameter is used as a tie. If the permissible tensile
stress in the material is 320 MN/m2, determine the capacity of the bar. If a hollow steel
bar with internal diameter of 20 mm is used instead of solid alloy bar, determine its
external diameter for steel bar. The permissible stress is 150 MN/m2.
[VTU, JULY 2007]

Data: d= 40 0mm: 320 MN/m2 = 320 N/mm2

di = 20 mm for steel hollow bar, 150 MN/m2 = 150 N/mm2\

Solution:

Solid alloy bar

Permissible stress,

i.e., 320 =

Therefore capacity of the bar, P = 402123.86 N = 402.124kN

Steel hollow bar

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Permissible stress,

i.e., 150

Therefore, external diameter, do = 61.7522 mm.

3. Tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from
the test.

Diameter of steel bar = 16 mm

gauge length of the bar = 80 mm
Load at proportionality limit = 72 KN
Extension at a load of 60 KN = 0.115 mm
Load at failure = 80 KN
Final gauge length of bar = 104 mm
Diameter of the rod at failure = 12 mm

Determine :
i. Young’s modulus
ii. Proportionality limit
iii. True breaking stress
iv. Percentage elongation
[VTU, DEC06/JAN/JULY2013, DEC2014/JAN2015, June July 2018]

Solution :
i. Young’s modulus

Stress, N/mm2

Strain,

Young’s modulus, E = =
N/mm2

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ii. Proportionality limit

Proportionality limit =

= 358.1 N/mm2

iii. True breaking stress

True breaking stress =

= 707.3553 N/mm2

iv. Percentage elongation

Percentage elongation = 100 =

= 30

4.A brass bar having cross-section area 300 mm2 is subjected to an axial forces as shown
in fig below. find the total elongation of bar, E= 84GP.
[VTU, MARCH 2011, J UNE/JULY 2013, DEC 2015/JAN2016]

For the equilibrium of the bar, the load acting towards right side must be equal to the load
acting towards left side

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i.e., 80=50+20+10
i.e., 80=80 hence bar is in equilibrium

Elongation of segment (1)

Contraction of segment (2)

Contraction of segment (3)

Therefore total change in length of the bar,

=
Therefore, Total change in length of the bar,
(contraction)

5.Determine the magnitude of the load P necessary to produce zero net change in the
length of the straight bar in fig below A= 400 mm2
[VTU AUG/2001, DEC 2014/JAN 2015]

Solution:
Let the reaction R at the support act towards right

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For the equilibrium of the bar, the load acting towards right side must be equal to the load
acting towards left side

The free body diagram of different segments are shown in fig below

Contraction of segment AB

Extension of segment BC

Extension of segment CD

Therefore, total change in length of the bar,

i.e.,

i.e., 5P – 500 = 350

Therefore, load P = 170KN

6. Determine the stresses in various segments of the circular bar shown in the fig.
Compute the total elongation taking young’s modulus to be 195Gpa
[VTU,AUG/SEP,2000]

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Solution:

For the equilibrium of the bar, the load acting towards right side must be equal to the load
acting towards left side.
300 + P4 = 100 + 250
Therefore, Load P4 = 50KN
Stress in segment AB, =

(tensile)

Stress in segment bc, =

(compressive)

Stress in segment CD, =

(tensile)

Elongation of segment AB

Contraction of segment B

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Elongation of segment CD

Therefore total change in length of the bar,

i.e., Total change in length of the bar, = 0.037mm (Contraction)

7. A stepped bar is subjected to an external load as shown in the fig. Calculate the change
in length of bar ,G= 200Gpa for steel, E= 70Gpa for aluminium and E= 100Gpa for
copper. [VTU,DEC04/JAN08,JUNE/JULY2014]

Data:
ES=200Gpa = 200 x 103 N/mm2; Ea=70Gpa = 70 x 103 N/mm2;
Ec=100Gpa = 100 x 103 N/mm2; P=40 KN = 40 x 103 N

Solution:
The free body diagram of different sections are shown in fig.

As the load on all the sections is the same

The total elongation,

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] [

= 0.3772 mm

8.A member ABCD is subjected to point loads as shown in fig. Calculate

(i) Force P necessary for Equilibrium
(ii ) Total elongation of the bar .Take E= 210GN/m2
[VTU,DEC09/JAN10,JUNE2012]

Solution: (i) Force P

For the equilibrium of the bar, the load acting towards right side must be equal to the load
acting towards left side.
I.E., P+ 200 = 50+500
Therefore, F= 350KN

(ii) Total Elongation

The free body diagram of different sections are shown in fig.

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Total elongation of the bar ,

= 0.9127 mm

9. A vertical circular steel bar of length 3l fixed at both of its ends is loaded at intermediate
section by forces W and 2W as shown in the fig. Determine the end reactions if W= 1.5
KN.
[VTU, DEC 2013/JUNE 2014]

Solution:
The end reaction will be as shown in fig

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For equilibrium ,R1 + R2 = 2W +W = 3W= 3 X 1.5 = 4.5KN

Therefore, R1 = 4.5 - R2
As both the ends are fixed, total change in length,

Change in length for segment AB, =

Change in length for segment BC, =

Change in length for segment DC, =

As

i.e., 4.5 - R2=

i.e., 4.5+ =3

i.e.,

Now R1 = 4.5 - R2 = 4.5 -2.5KN;

Therefore, R1= 2.5 KN and R2 = 2 KN

10. Calculate the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus of a cylindrical bar of diameter
25 mm and length 1.6 m, If the longitudinal strain in the bar during tensile test is four
times the lateral strain . also find the change in volume, when the bar is subjected to a
hydrostatic pressure of 100N/mm2.
E=1 X 105N/mm2.
[VTU, MAY/JUNE 2010]

Data:
D=25mm; E=1 X 105N/mm2; l=1600mm; N/mm2

Solution :

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Original volume, v =

Longitudinal strain = 4 x lateral strain

Therefore, Poisson’s ratio, µ = = 0.25

Modulus of rigidity

i.e.,1 x 10 = 2G [1+ 0.25]

Therefore, Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.4 X 105 N/mm2

11. At room temperature, the gap between bar A and bar B is 0.25 mm. What are the
stresses induced in the bar if temperature rise is 35° C?
Given: = 1000 mm2 = 800 mm2
= 2 × 105 = 1 × 105

= 12 × 10-6 /° C = 23 × 10-6 /° C
= 400 mm = 300 mm [VTU, June/July 2018]

Solution
Given data: = 1000 mm2 = 800 mm2
= 2 × 105 = 1 × 105

= 12 × 10-6 /° C = 23 × 10-6 /° C
= 400 mm = 300 mm
Rise in temperature = 35° C
Expansion
Expansion of bar A = T
= 12 × 10-6 × 35 × 400 = 0.168 mm

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Expansion of bar B = T
-6
= 23 × 10 × 35 × 300 = 0.2415 mm

Stresses
Stress induced in bar A = T
= 12 × 10-6 × 35 × 2 × 105 = 84

Expansion of bar B = T
= 23 × 10-6 × 35 × 1 × 105 = 80.5

Assignment -1

[1] Define the following terms:

1. Hooke’s law
2. True stress
3. Proof stress
4. Poisson’s ratio
5. Modulus of elasticity
6. Elasticity
7. Strain
8. Bulk modulus
9. Factor of safety
10. Elastic limit
11. Stress
12. Engineering stress
13. Stiffness
14. Plasticity
15. Toughness

[2] State Hooke’s law. Sketch the typical stress – strain curve for aluminium.

[3] Derive an expression for the extension of a tapering bar whose diameter D 1 at one end
tapers linearly to a diameter D2 at the other end in a length L, under an axial pull P and the
elastic modulus of its material is E. [VTU, DEC2013/JAN 2014] , June Jan 2018

[4] Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered circular bar cross section of
diameter D1 and D2 when it is subjected to an axial pull of load P.[VTU, JUNE/JULY 2020]

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[5] Derive an expression for total deformation of a tapering rectangular bar of cross section
a and b when it is subjected to an axial forces ‘P’.[VTU, MAY/JUNE 2014]

[6] Prove that the extension of uniform bar due to self-weight is half of the extension when
the load equal to its self-weight is applied at the end of suspended bar.[VTU, MAY/JUNE
2018]

[7] Draw the stress - strain diagram of mild steel and aluminium specimens subjected to
tension test and explain the salient points.[VTU, DEC2019/JAN 2020]

[8] A stepped bar is subjected to an external load as shown in the fig. Calculate the change
in length of bar ,G= 200Gpa for steel, E= 70Gpa for aluminium and E= 100Gpa for copper.
(DEC 2020/JAN 2021).

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MODULE 2

SYLLABUS:
Bi-axial Stress system: Introduction, plane stress, stresses on inclined sections, principal stresses and maximum
shear stresses, graphical method - Mohr's circle for plane stress.
Thick and Thin cylinders: Stresses in thin cylinders, Lame's equation for thick cylinders subjected to internal
and external pressures, Changes in dimensions of cylinder (diameter, length and volume), simple numerical.

ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

In actual Engineering problems, stresses will be combined. The member may be subjected to
direct stresses in different directions. The shear stresses (direct or due to torsion) may also act.
A beam is always under bending and shear. A shaft may be under torque, bending and direct
forces. In this chapter we will see the effect of combined/compound stresses. In a three-
dimensional stress system, the various stresses acting are shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1. 3-D state of stress

In some problems, two dimensional idealizations is possible which is known as plane state of
stress. A plane stress system involves a point in a structural or a machine member subjected to
the stresses in a single plane as shown in the Fig. 2.2. The stresses will be induced along x and
y directions and along the z directions, the stresses are zero

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Figure 2.2. 2-D state of stress

Sign Conventions

1. The direct tensile stress which tends to pull the plane is considered to be positive.
2. The direct compressive stress is considered as negative.

Figure 2.4. Sign convention for direct (normal) stress

3. The shear stress which tend to rotate the plane in the clockwise direction is considered
to be positive.
4. The shear stress which tend to rotate the plane in the counter clockwise direction is
considered to be negative.

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Figure 2.5. Sign convention for shear (tangential) stress

2.2. Stresses on oblique (inclined) plane:

Till now we have dealt with either pure normal direct stress or pure shear stress. In in actual
case, an infinite number of inclined planes can be passed through a point in a member and the
stresses in these planes will be different. It is required to find the magnitude and the direction
of the stresses acting on this inclined plane. The stress which is acting in the normal direction
to this inclined plane is called Normal stress and the stress acting

tangential to the plane is called shear stress

The following three types of stress conditions are considered,

1. Uniaxial direct stress

2. Biaxial direct stress
3. General two-dimensional stress system

2.2.1. Stresses on an inclined plane for the element subjected to uniaxial direct stress

Consider an element subjected to uniaxial force F which induces uniaxial direct stress

as shown in the Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Stresses on inclined plane for uniaxial loading

Consider a plane inclined at an angle .

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Let be the normal stress acting on the inclined plane and be the shear stress.

Let the block be of unit depth. Now considering the equilibrium of forces on the triangle portion
ABC

Considering the summation of forces perpendicular to BC,

BC 1= . AB . 1

but AB/BC = sin or AB = BC sin

Substituting this value in the above equation, we get

……..(1)

Tangential Force,

Now resolving the forces parallel to BC

.BC.1 = . AB . 1

again AB = BC cos

BC.1 = . BC sin .1

……..(2)

Equation (1) and (2) are the expressions for Normal and shear stress on an inclined plane under
uniaxial loading.

If = 900 the BC will be parallel to AB and = 0, i.e. there will be only direct stress or
normal stress.

By examining the equations (1) and (2), the following conclusions may be drawn

(i) The value of direct stress is maximum and is equal to y when = 900.

(ii) The shear stress has a maximum value of 0.5 y when = 450

(iii) The stresses and are not simply the resolution of

2.2.2. Element subjected to two mutually perpendicular (biaxial) direct stresses:

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Now consider a rectangular element of unit depth, subjected to biaxial direct stresses both
tensile, and acting right angles to each other.

Figure: 2.7. Stresses on inclined plane for biaxial loading

for equilibrium of the portion ABC, resolving the forces perpendicular to AC,

. AC.1 = . BC.1 + sin AB.1………….(1)

converting AB and BC in terms of AC so that AC cancels out from the sides,

ie, BC = AC and AB = AC sin

Therefore, Equation (1) becomes

= cos2 + sin2 ……….(2)

Further, cos2 - sin2 = cos2 or (1 - cos2 )/2 = sin2 …… (3)

Similarly (1 + cos2 )/2 = cos2 ………(4)

By substituting (3) and (4) in (2), We get

= + ( + - (

= + ( ……….(5)

Now resolving the forces parallel to AC

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AC.1= BC.sin .1 - cos .AB.1………….(6)

The – ve sign appears because this component is in the same direction as that of AC.

= sin – cos ………………… (7)

From Figure 2.7. = cos and = sin

Therefore Equation (7) becomes

= sin – sin cos

= –

……………………………(8)

Equation (5) and (8) are the expressions for Normal and shear stress on an inclined plane under
biaxial loading.

2.2.3. Element subjected to combined direct and shear stresses:

Consider a general stress system subjected to mutually perpendicular direct stresses x and
y , also shear stress as shown in the Figure 2.8. The distribution of forces are also

displayed.

Figure 2.8. Element subjected to biaxial direct and shear stress.

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or b the normal stress and or be the shear stress on inclined plane.

Let yx = xy

Considering the equilibrium of forces perpendicular to the inclined plane,

(BE × t) = (AB × t) cos + (AB × t) sin + (AE × t) sin +

(AE × t) cos

or

= cos + sin + sin +

cos …………………….(1)

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From the Figure 2.8.

= cos and sin

Therefore equation (1) becomes

= + sin +
+ cos

or = + + cos

= + +

cos

= +

= +

…………………(2)

Equation (2) is the expression for normal stress on inclined plane

Considering the equilibrium of forces parallel to the inclined plane,

(BE × t) = (AB × t) sin - (AB × t) cos - (AE × t) cos +

(AE × t) sin

or

= sin - cos - cos +

sin …………………….(3)

From the Figure 2.8.

= cos and sin

Therefore equation (3) becomes

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= cos - cos -
+

= -

= - -

+ -

= - -

= -

………………………….(4)

Equation (4) is the expression for Shear stress on inclined plane

2.1. Principal stress and principal planes

Let us consider member which is stressed in all 3 directions as shown in Figure 2.3 (x,y,and z
direction). Now it is difficult to find the magnitude and direction of maximum stress because
of the combined forces acting on the member. In order to resolve this problem. The concept of
principal stress and principal planes is introduced. Any point in this strained member will have
infinite number of sectional planes which have both direct stress and shear stress but among
those planes, there are three mutually perpendicular planes on which there only direct stress
and shear stress is zero. These three planes on which shear stress is zero is called Principal
planes and the direct stress on these principal planes are called Principal stresses (

) Where is maximum principal stress and is minimum

principal stress.

There are two methods two find the magnitude and direction of principal stress i.e analytical
method which adopts formulae and graphical method with Mohr’s circle.

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Principal plane is the plane on which shear stress is zero which means

ie, = - =0

= ………………(1)

The direction of principal plane 1,

The direction of principal plane 2, is + 90°

Let and be the solution with respect to the equation (1)

Figure 2.9: Direction of principal stress

From the Figure 2.9.

………………………..(2)
= …………………………(3)

Similarly,

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………………………..(4)
=

………………………..(5)
The magnitude of principal stresses on the principal planes are given by

= +

= ± ±

Or

= ±

………………………(6)

Where is the maximum principal stress and is the minimum principal stress.

2.5. Maximum and Minimum Shear Stress

The maximum and minimum shear stresses induced in the element are obtained by
differentiating the equation of with respect to and equating it to zero.

= -

………………………..(A)

……………(1)

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2 cos 2 +2 =0

Tan 2 =-

Or ……………………………(2)

Equation (2) represents the direction of shear stress

And = + 90°

Therefore,

Sin 2 =± …………………(3)

Cos 2 =± ………………(4)

Substituting equations (4) and (5) in (A)

= ± ±

= ±

=± ………………(6)

Equation (6) is the magnitude of shear stress on the inclined plane.

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Figure 2.10: Direction of Principal Stres

2.6. GRAPHICAL SOLUTION – MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE

The circle used in the preceding section to derive some of the basic formulas relating to the
transformation of plane stress was first introduced by the German engineer Otto Mohr (1835—
1918) and is known as Mohr's circle for plane stress. As you will see presently, this circle can
be used to obtain an alternative method for the solution of the various problems. This method
is based on simple geometric considerations and does not require the use of specialized
formulas. While originally designed for graphical solutions, it lends itself well to the use of a
calculator.

2.6.1. Construction of Mohr's Circle

Consider a square element of a material subjected to plane stress as shown in the Figure2.11.
Let and be the components of the stress exerted on the element.

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Figure 2.11: Illustration of Mohr’s circle

Plot a point X of coordinates and - and a point Y of coordinates and

. If is positive, point X is located below the axis and point Y above, as
shown in Fig. 2.11 &. If is negative, X is located above the axis and Y below.
Joining X and Y by a straight line,

Define the point C of intersection of line XY with the axis and draw the circle of center C
and diameter XY. Noting that the abscissa of C and the radius of the circle are respectively
equal to the quantities ave and R defined by Equations,

and R=

Thus, the abscissas of points A and B where the circle intersects the axis represent
respectively the principal stresses max and min at the point considered.

We also note that, since tan (XCA) = 2 /( – ) the angle XCA is equal in
magnitude to one of the angles 2θp that satisfy the equation,

tan 2 =

Thus, the angle that defines the orientation of the principal plane corresponding to point
A can be obtained by dividing in half the angle XCA measured on Mohr's circle.

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The construction of Mohr’s circle for plane stress is greatly simplified if we consider separately
each face of the element used to define the stress components. when the shearing stress exerted
on a given face tends to rotate the element clockwise, the point on Mohrs circle corresponding
to that face is located above the axis. When the shearing stress on a given face tends to
rotate the element counter clockwise, the point corresponding to that face is located below the
axis . As far as the normal stresses are concerned, the usual convention holds, i.e., a tensile
stress is considered as positive and is plotted to the right, while a compressive stress is
considered as negative and is plotted to the left.

Figure 2.12: Sign convention on axis

To draw a Mohr's stress circle consider a complex stress system as shown in the figure

The above system represents a complete stress system for any condition of applied load in two
dimensions

The Mohr's stress circle is used to find out graphically the direct stress s and sheer stress t on
any plane inclined at q to the plane on which x acts. The direction of here is taken in
anticlockwise direction from the BC.

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STEPS:

In order to do achieve the desired objective we proceed in the following manner

(i) Label the Block ABCD.

(ii) Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) and shear stress (as ordinate)

(iii) Plot the stresses on two adjacent faces e.g. AB and BC, using the following sign
convention.

Direct stresses - tensile positive; compressive, negative

Shear stresses – tending to turn block clockwise, positive

– tending to turn block counter clockwise, negative

[ i.e shearing stresses are +ve when its movement about the centre of the element is clockwise
]

This gives two points on the graph which may than be labeled as respectively to
denote stresses on these planes.

(iv) Join .

(v) The point P where this line cuts the s axis is than the centre of Mohr's stress circle and the
line joining is diameter. Therefore the circle can now be drawn.

Now every point on the circle then represents a state of stress on some plane through C.

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Proof:

Consider any point Q on the circumference of the circle, such that PQ makes an angle 2 with
BC, and drop a perpendicular from Q to meet the s axis at N. Then OQ represents the resultant
stress on the plane an angle q to BC. Here we have assumed that x > y

Now let us find out the coordinates of point Q. These are ON and QN.

From the figure drawn earlier

ON = OP + PN

OP = OK + KP

OP = y + 1/2 ( x- y)

= y /2+ y /2+ x /2+ y /2

=( x + y )/2

PN = R cos ( 2 -β)

hence ON = OP + PN

=( x + y ) / 2 + R cos( 2 -β )

=( x + y ) / 2 + Rcos2q cos b + Rsin2qsinb

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now make the substitutions for R cos and Rsin β

If we examine the equation (1) and (2), we see that this is the same equation which we have
already derived analytically

Thus, the co-ordinates of Q are the normal and shear stresses on the plane inclined at q to BC
in the original stress system.

N.B: Since angle PQ is 2 on Mohr's circle and not q it becomes obvious that angles are
doubled on Mohr's circle. This is the only difference, however, as They are measured in the
same direction and from the same plane in both figures.

Further points to be noted are :

(1) The direct stress is maximum when Q is at M and at this point obviously the sheer stress is
zero, hence by definition OM is the length representing the maximum principal stresses s1 and
2 1 gives the angle of the plane 1 from BC. Similar OL is the other principal stress and

is represented by s2

(2) The maximum shear stress is given by the highest point on the circle and is represented by
the radius of the circle.

This follows that since shear stresses and complimentary sheer stresses have the same value;
therefore the centre of the circle will always lie on the s axis midway between x and y .

[ since + xy & - xy are shear stress & complimentary shear stress so they are same in
magnitude but different in sign. ]

(3) From the above point the maximum sheer stress i.e. the Radius of the Mohr's stress circle
would be

While the direct stress on the plane of maximum shear must be mid – may between x and
y i.e

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(4) As already defined the principal planes are the planes on which the shear components are
zero.

Therefore are conclude that on principal plane the sheer stress is zero.

(5) Since the resultant of two stress at 900 can be found from the parallogram of vectors as
shown in the diagram.Thus, the resultant stress on the plane at q to BC is given by OQ on
Mohr's Circle.

6) The graphical method of solution for a complex stress problems using Mohr's circle is a very
powerful technique, since all the information relating to any plane within the stressed element
is contained in the single construction. It thus, provides a convenient and rapid means of
solution. Which is less prone to arithmetical errors and is highly recommended.

Question bank

1. Show that the sum of the normal stresses on any two planes at right angles in a general
two-dimensional stress system is constant.

2. A point in a strained material is subjected to pure shear stress as shown in fig. determine
the maximum and minimum stress induced and orientation of their planes by mohr’s circle
method.

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3. Using the Mohr’s circle , determine the principle stress and the planes of maximum
shear stress and the planes .show the same on the elements separately.

4. Derive the expressions for normal and shear stress on an inclined plane for an element
subjected direct and shear stress.

VTU,DEC06/JAN.07JUNE/JULY 08,DEC2011,JUNE 2012,JUNE/JULY 2013]

5. Find the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal diameter 160mm
to withstand an internal fluid pressure of 8 N/mm2. The maximum allowable or permissible or
hoop stress in the section is not to exceed 35 N/mm 2.
[VTU,DEC06/JAN.07JUNE/JULY,10]

6. Derive an expression for normal stress, shear stress and resultant stress on an oblique
plane inclined at an angle θ with vertical axis in a biaxial stress system σ x, σy and τxy. Also
find the angle of obliquity. VTU, Dec- Jan 2018

VTU, June-July 2018, Dec- Jan 2018

7. Derive an expression for normal stress, shear stress and resultant stress on an oblique
plane inclined at an angle θ with vertical axis in a biaxial stress system σ x, σy and τxy. Also
find the angle of obliquity. VTU, Dec- Jan 2018

Question bank and solution

Problems

1. A circular bar 40 mm diameter carries an axial tensile load of 105 kN. What is the
Value of shear stress on the planes on which the normal stress has a value of 50
MN/m2 Tensile.

Solution:

tensile stress y= F / A = 105 x 103 / π x (0.02)2

= 83.55 MN/m2

Now the normal stress on an oblique plane is given by the relation

2
= ysin

50 x 106 = 83.55 MN/m2 x 106sin2

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= 50068'

The shear stress on the oblique plane is then given by

= 1/2 y sin2

= ½ x 83.55 x 106 x sin 101.36

= 40.96 MN/m2

Therefore the required shear stress is 40.96 MN/m2

2. For a given loading conditions the state of stress in the wall of a cylinder is expressed
as follows:

(a) 85 MN/m2 tensile

(b) 25 MN/m2 tensile at right angles to (a)

(c) Shear stresses of 60 MN/m2 on the planes on which the stresses (a) and (b) act; the
sheer couple acting on planes carrying the 25 MN/m2stress is clockwise in effect.

Calculate the principal stresses and the planes on which they act. What would be the
effect on these results if owing to a change of loading (a) becomes compressive while
stresses (b) and (c) remain unchanged

Solution:

The problem may be attempted both analytically as well as graphically. Let us first obtain the
analytical solution

The principle stresses are given by the formula

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For finding out the planes on which the principle stresses act us the equation

The solution of this equation will yeild two values i.e they 1 and 2 giving 1=
0
31 71' &

2= 121071'

b) In this case only the loading (a) is changed i.e. its direction had been changed. While the
other stresses remains unchanged hence now the block diagram becomes.

Again, the principal stresses would be given by the equation.

= ±

= ±

= -30 ± 81.4

51.4 MPa

-111.4 MPa

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Therefore -23.74°

Thus, the two principle stresses acting on the two mutually perpendicular planes i.e principle
planes may be depicted on the element as shown below

So this is the direction of one principle plane & the principle stresses acting on this would
be s1 when is acting normal to this plane, now the direction of other principal plane would be
900 + because the principal planes are the two mutually perpendicular plane, hence rotate
the another plane + 900 in the same direction to get the another plane, now complete the
material element if is negative that means we are measuring the angles in the opposite
direction to the reference plane BC .

Therefore the direction of other principal planes would be {- + 90} since the angle -q is
always less in magnitude then 90 hence the quantity ( - + 90 ) would be positive therefore
the Inclination of other plane with reference plane would be positive therefore if just complete
the Block. It would appear as

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If we just want to measure the angles from the reference plane, than rotate this block through
1800 so as to have the following appearance.

So whenever one of the angles comes negative to get the positive value,

first Add 900 to the value and again add 900 as in this case = 23074'

0 0 0 0
so 1 = 23 74' + 90 = 66 26' .Again adding 90 also gives the direction of other principle

planes

i.e 2 = 66026' + 900 = 156026'

This is how we can show the angular position of these planes clearly.

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION:

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Mohr's Circle solution: The same solution can be obtained using the graphical solution i.e
the Mohr's stress circle,for the first part, the block diagram becomes

Construct the graphical construction as per the steps given below.

Taking the measurements from the Mohr's stress circle, the various quantities computed are

1 = 120 MN/m2 tensile

2 = 10 MN/m2 compressive

1 = 340 counter clockwise from BC

2 = 340 + 90 = 1240 counter clockwise from BC

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Part Second : The required configuration i.e the block diagram for this case is shown along
with the stress circle.

By taking the measurements, the various quantites computed are given as

1 = 56.5 MN/m2 tensile

2 = 106 MN/m2 compressive

1 = 66015' counter clockwise from BC

2 = 156015' counter clockwise from BC

Salient points of Mohr's stress circle:

1. complementary shear stresses (on planes 900 apart on the circle) are equal in magnitude

2. The principal planes are orthogonal: points L and M are 180 0 apart on the circle (900 apart
in material)

3. There are no shear stresses on principal planes: point L and M lie on normal stress axis.

4. The planes of maximum shear are 450 from the principal points D and E are 900 , measured
round the circle from points L and M.

5. The maximum shear stresses are equal in magnitude and given by points D and E

6. The normal stresses on the planes of maximum shear stress are equal i.e. points D and E
both have normal stress co-ordinate which is equal to the two principal stresses.

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As we know that the circle represents all possible states of normal and shear stress on any plane
through a stresses point in a material. Further we have seen that the co-ordinates of the point
‘Q' are seen to be the same as those derived from equilibrium of the element. i.e. the normal
and shear stress components on any plane passing through the point can be found using Mohr's
circle. Worthy of note:

1. The sides AB and BC of the element ABCD, which are 90 0 apart, are represented on the
circle by and they are 1800 apart.

2. It has been shown that Mohr's circle represents all possible states at a point. Thus, it can be
seen at a point. Thus, it, can be seen that two planes LP and PM, 180 0 apart on the diagram and
therefore 900 apart in the material, on which shear stress is zero. These planes are termed as
principal planes and normal stresses acting on them are known as principal stresses.

Thus, 1 = OL

2 = OM

3. The maximum shear stress in an element is given by the top and bottom points of the circle
i.e by points J1 and J2 ,Thus the maximum shear stress would be equal to the radius of i.e. the
corresponding normal stress is obviously the distance, Further it can also be seen that the planes
on which the shear stress is maximum are situated 90 0 from the principal planes ( on circle ),
and 450 in the material.

4.The minimum normal stress is just as important as the maximum. The algebraic minimum
stress could have a magnitude greater than that of the maximum principal stress if the state of
stress were such that the centre of the circle is to the left of origin.

i.e. if 1 = 20 MN/m2 (say)

2 = 80 MN/m2 (say)

If should be noted that the principal stresses are considered a maximum or minimum
mathematically e.g. a compressive or negative stress is less than a positive stress, irrespective
or numerical value.

5. Since the stresses on perpendicular faces of any element are given by the co-ordinates of two
diametrically opposite points on the circle, thus, the sum of the two normal stresses for any and
all orientations of the element is constant, i.e. Thus sum is an invariant for any particular state
of stress. Sum of the two normal stress components acting on mutually perpendicular planes at
a point in a state of plane stress is not affected by the orientation of these planes.

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This can be also understood from the circle Since AB and BC are diametrically opposite thus,
whatever may be their orientation, they will always lie on the diameter or we can say that their
sum won't change, it can also be seen from analytical relations

4. An Element is subjected to the stresses as shown in the Figure. Determine 1) Principal

stresses and their directions 2) Normal and Tangential stresses on the plane AC.
VTU June – July 2018

Solution
Given: = + 40
= 40 °
The load of 60 can be resolved in to tensile stress on face AB, = 60 sin 45°

= 42.42 and

Shear stress parallel to the face AB, = 60 cos 45° = 42.42

1. The principle stresses are given by the formula

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2. To find the planes on which the principle stresses act,

The solution of this equation will yeild two values i.e they 1 and 2 giving 1=

44.18 ° &

2= 44.18 +90 = 134.18 °

3. Normal and Tangential stress on the plane AC

= +

= 83.19

= -

= -6.17

5. Show that the sum of the normal stresses on any two planes at right angles in a
general two-dimensional stress system is constant.

[VTU,JULY2007,DEC07/JAN,08,DEC08/JAN09,JUNE2013,DEC2013/JAN2014]

Solution:

Fig shows a body subjected to general two dimensional stress system.consider an element at
the body wherein normal on its two faces make the orientation of and =
to the plane of Now we have to prove

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Normal stress ,

When

…..(1)

When

Therefore,

…..(2)

From equation 1 and 2 gives

Thus, sum of normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes is

constant and is equal to

6. A point in a strained materials is subjected to pure shear stress as shown in

fig.determine the maximum and minimum stress induced and orientation of their planes
by mohr’s circle method.

[VTU,JUNE/JULY 2000]

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Solution: The face of the element are not subjected to normal stress.hence the radius of the
mohr’s circle is equal to in the case of pure shear.therefore with 0 as centre and radius
equal to N/MM2,Draw the circle to suitable scale and this circle is called
Mohr’s circle and it cuts the x-axis at P and Q.

From Mohr’s circle

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i.Major principal stress

[Tensile]

ii.Minor principal stress

[Comp]

iii.Maximum and minimum shear stress

v.Location of maximum and minimum shear stress planes

7. An element with the stress acting on it,is as shown is in fig. By Mohr’s circle method
determine

i.Normal and shear stress acting on a plane whose normal is at angle of 110 wrt to X-
axis

ii.Principal shear stress and their locations

iii.Maximum shear stress and their locations

[VTU,DEC2014/JAN2015]

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Data: ;
;

Solution: From the Mohr’s Circle:

i.Normal stress
[COMPRESSIVE]

ii.Shear tangential stress

iii.Resultant stress

iv. Major principal stress

[Tensile]

v. Minor principal stress

[Comp]

vi. Maximum and minimum shear stress

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vii. Location of maximum and minimum shear stress planes

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8. Using the Mohr’s circle ,determine the principle stress and the planes of maximum
shear stress and the planes .show the same on the elements separately.

[VTU,DEC07/JAN09]

Solution:

Data: ;
;

From the Mohr’s Circle:

i. Major principal stress

[Tensile]

ii. Minor principal stress

[Comp]

vi. Maximum and minimum shear stress

vii. Location of maximum and minimum shear stress planes

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Normal stress on maximum shear stress plane

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MODULE 3
Syllabus

Bending moment and Shear forces in beams: Definition of beam – Types of beams – Concept of
shear force and bending moment – S.F and B.M diagrams for cantilever, simply supported and
overhanging beams subjected to point loads, uniformly distributed loads, uniformly varying loads and
combination of these loads – Point of contra flexure.

Introduction:

In many engineering structures members are required to resist forces that are applied laterally
or transversely to their axes. These types of members are termed as beams.

There are various ways to define the beams such as

Definition I: A beam is a laterally loaded member, whose cross-sectional dimensions are small
as compared to its length.

Definition II: A beam is nothing simply a bar which is subjected to forces or couples that lie
in a plane containing the longitudinal axis of the bar. The forces are understood to act
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

Definition III: A bar working under bending is generally termed as a beam.

Materials for Beam:

The beams may be made from several usable engineering materials such commonly among
them are as follows:

● Metal
● Wood
● ncrete
● Plastic
Examples of Beams:

Refer to the figures shown below that illustrates the beam

Fig 1 Fig 2

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In the fig.1, an electric pole has been shown which is subject to forces occurring due to wind;
hence it is an example of beam.

In the fig.2, the wings of an aero plane may be regarded as a beam because here the
aerodynamic action is responsible to provide lateral loading on the member

Geometric forms of Beams:

The Area of X-section of the beam may take several forms some of them have been shown
below

Issues Regarding Beam:

Designer would be interested to know the answers to following issues while dealing with
beams in practical engineering application

• At what load will it fail

• How much deflection occurs under the application of loads.

Types of Beams / Classification of Beams: (June-July 2018)

Beams are classified on the basis of their geometry and the manner in which they are supported.

Classification I: The classification based on the basis of geometry normally includes features
such as the shape of the X-section and whether the beam is straight or curved.

Classification II: Beams are classified into several groups, depending primarily on the kind of
supports used. But it must be clearly understood why do we need supports. The supports are
required to provide constrainment to the movement of the beams or simply the supports resist

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the movements either in particular direction or in rotational direction or both. As a consequence

of this, the reaction comes into picture whereas to resist rotational movements the moment
comes into picture. On the basis of the support, the beams may be classified as follows:

Cantilever Beam: A beam which is supported on the fixed support is termed as a cantilever
beam: Now let us understand the meaning of a fixed support. Such a support is obtained by
building a beam into a brick wall, casting it into concrete or welding the end of the beam. Such
a support provides both the translational and rotational containment to the beam, therefore the
reaction as well as the moments appears, as shown in the figure below

Simply Supported Beam: The beams are said to be simply supported if their supports create
only the translational constraints:

Some times the translational movement may be allowed in one direction with the help of
rollers and can be represented like this

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Statically Determinate or Statically Indeterminate Beams:

The beams can also be categorized as statically determinate or else it can be referred as
statically indeterminate. If all the external forces and moments acting on it can be determined
from the equilibrium conditions alone then. It would be referred as a statically determinate
beam, whereas in the statically indeterminate beams one has to consider deformation i.e.
deflections to solve the problem.

Types of loads acting on beams: (June-July 2018)

A beam is normally horizontal whereas the external loads acting on the beams is generally in
the vertical directions. In order to study the behaviors of beams under flexural loads. It becomes
pertinent that one must be familiar with the various types of loads acting on the beams as well
as their physical manifestations.

A. Concentrated Load: It is a kind of load which is considered to act at a point. By this we

mean that the length of beam over which the force acts is so small in comparison to its total
length that one can model the force as though applied at a point in two-dimensional view of
beam. Here in this case, force or load may be made to act on a beam by a hanger or through
other means

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B. Distributed Load: The distributed load is a kind of load which is made to spread over a
entire span of beam or over a particular portion of the beam in some specific manner

In the above figure, the rate of loading ‘q' is a function of x i.e. span of the beam, hence this
is a non-uniformly distributed load.

The rate of loading ‘q' over the length of the beam may be uniform over the entire span of
beam, then we cell this as a uniformly distributed load (U.D.L). The U.D.L may be
represented in either of the way on the beams

Sometimes the load acting on the beams may be the uniformly varying as in the case of dams
or on inclind wall of a vessel containing liquid, then this may be represented on the beam as
below:

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The U.D.L can be easily realized by making idealization of the ware house load, where the
bags of grains are placed over a beam.

Concentrated Moment:

The beam may be subjected to a concentrated moment essentially at a point. One of the possible
arrangements for applying the moment is being shown in the figure below:

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Concept of Shear Force and Bending moment in beams:

When the beam is loaded in some arbitrarily manner, the internal forces and moments are
developed and the terms shear force and bending moments come into pictures which are helpful
to analyze the beams further. Let us define these terms

Now let us consider the beam as shown in fig 1(a) which is supporting the loads P 1, P2,
⮚
P3 and is simply supported at two points creating the reactions R 1 and R2 respectively.
Now let us assume that the beam is to divided into or imagined to be cut into two
⮚
portions at a section AA.
Now let us assume that the resultant of loads and reactions to the left of AA is F
⮚
vertically upwards,
And since the entire beam is to remain in equilibrium, thus the resultant of forces to the
⮚
right of AA must also be F, acting downwards.
This forces F is as a shear force. The shearing force at any x-section of a beam
⮚
represents the tendency for the portion of the beam to one side of the section to slide or shear
laterally relative to the other portion.

Therefore, now we are in a position to define the shear force F to as follows:

At any x-section of a beam, the shear force ?F' is the algebraic sum of all the lateral components
of the forces acting on either side of the x-section.

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Sign Convention for Shear Force:

The usual sign conventions to be followed for the shear forces have been illustrated in figures
2 and 3.

Fig 2: Positive Shear Force Fig 3: Negative Shear Force

Bending Moment:

Fig 4

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Let us again consider the beam which is simply supported at the two prints, carrying loads P 1,
P2 and P3 and having the reactions R1 and R2 at the supports Fig 4. Now, let us imagine that the
beam is cut into two potions at the x-section AA. In a similar manner, as done for the case of
shear force, if we say that the resultant moment about the section AA of all the loads and
reactions to the left of the x-section at AA is M in C.W direction, then moment of forces to the
right of x-section AA must be M in C.C.W. Then M is called as the Bending moment and is
abbreviated as B.M. Now one can define the bending moment to be simply as the algebraic
sum of the moments about an x-section of all the forces acting on either side of the section

Sign Conventions for the Bending Moment:

For the bending moment, following sign conventions may be adopted as indicated in Fig 5
and Fig 6.

Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams:

The diagrams which illustrate the variations in B.M and S.F values along the length of the beam
for any fixed loading conditions would be helpful to analyze the beam further.

Thus, a shear force diagram is a graphical plot, which depicts how the internal shear force ‘F'
varies along the length of beam. If x dentotes the length of the beam, then F is function x i.e.
F(x).

Similarly a bending moment diagram is a graphical plot which depicts how the internal bending
moment ‘M' varies along the length of the beam. Again M is a function x i.e. M(x).

Fig 5: Positive Bending Moment Fig 6: Negative Bending Moment

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Some times, the terms ‘Sagging' and Hogging are generally used for the positive and negative
bending moments respectively.

Basic Relationship Between the Rate of Loading, Shear Force and Bending Moment:

(VTU Dec-Jan 2018)

The construction of the shear force diagram and bending moment diagrams is greatly simplified
if the relationship among load, shear force and bending moment is established.

Let us consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a uniformly distributed load w/length.
Let us imagine to cut a short slice of length dx cut out from this loaded beam at distance ‘x'
from the origin ‘0'.

Let us detach this portion of the beam and draw its free body diagram.

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The forces acting on the free body diagram of the detached portion of this loaded beam are
the following

• The shearing force F and F+ F at the section x and x + x respectively.

• The bending moment at the sections x and x + x be M and M + dM respectively.

• Force due to external loading, if ‘w' is the mean rate of loading per unit length then the total
loading on this slice of length x is w. x, which is approximately acting through the centre
‘c'. If the loading is assumed to be uniformly distributed then it would pass exactly through the
centre ‘c'.

This small element must be in equilibrium under the action of these forces and couples.
Now let us take the moments at the point ‘c'. Such that

Conclusions: From the above relations, the following important conclusions may be drawn

From Equation (1), the area of the shear force diagram between any two points, from
⮚
the basic calculus is the bending moment diagram

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The slope of bending moment diagram is the shear force, thus

⮚

Thus, if F=0; the slope of the bending moment diagram is zero and the bending moment
⮚
is therefore constant.
The maximum or minimum Bending moment occurs where
⮚

The slope of the shear force diagram is equal to the magnitude of the intensity of the
⮚
distributed loading at any position along the beam. The + ve sign is as a consequence of our
particular choice of sign conventions

Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram:

Preamble:

The advantage of plotting a variation of shear force F and bending moment M in a beam as a
function of ‘x' measured from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the
maximum absolute value of shear force and bending moment.

Further, the determination of value of M as a function of ‘x' becomes of paramount importance

so as to determine the value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading.

Construction of shear force and bending moment diagrams:

A shear force diagram can be constructed from the loading diagram of the beam. In order to
draw this, first the reactions must be determined always. Then the vertical components of forces
and reactions are successively summed from the left end of the beam to preserve the
mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a section is simply equal to the sum of all
the vertical forces to the left of the section.

When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with
the previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam. No shear force acts through

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the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear force diagram closes in this
fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations.

The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of beam
from the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams giving due regard to
sign. The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram by summation
is exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.

It may also be observed that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending
moment, resulting in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain
portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. It may also
further observe that dm/dx= F therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the
maximum or minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero. In order to check the validity
of the bending moment diagram, the terminal conditions for the moment must be satisfied. If
the end is free or pinned, the computed sum must be equal to zero. If the end is built in, the
moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for the
reaction. These conditions must always be satisfied.

Illustrative problems:

In the following sections some illustrative problems have been discussed so as to illustrate the
procedure for drawing the shear force and bending moment diagrams:

1. A cantilever of length carries a concentrated load ‘W' at its free end.

Draw shear force and bending moment.

Solution:

At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to the left, then F = -W (for all values
of x) -ve sign means the shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward direction and
therefore negative

Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left of the section)

M = -Wx (-ve sign means that the moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as -ve according to the sign convention)

so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. M = -W l

From equilibrium consideration, the fixing moment applied at the fixed end is Wl and the
reaction is W. the shear force and bending moment are shown as,

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2. Simply supported beam subjected to a central load (i.e. load acting at the mid-way)

By symmetry the reactions at the two supports would be W/2 and W/2. now consider any
section X-X from the left end then, the beam is under the action of following forces.

So the shear force at any X-section would be = W/2 [Which is constant upto x < l/2]

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If we consider another section Y-Y which is beyond l/2 then

for all values greater = l/2

Hence S.F diagram can be plotted as,

For B.M diagram:

If we just take the moments to the left of the cross-section,

Which when plotted will give a straight relation i.e.

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It may be observed that at the point of application of load there is an abrupt change in the
shear force, at this point the B.M is maximum.

3. A cantilever beam subjected to U.D.L, draw S.F and B.M diagram.

Here the cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load whose intensity is given
w / length.

Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end. If we just take
the resultant of all the forces on the left of the X-section, then

S.Fxx = -Wx for all values of ?x'. ---------- (1)

S.Fxx = 0

S.Fxx at x=1 = -Wl

So if we just plot the equation No. (1), then it will give a straight line relation. Bending
Moment at X-X is obtained by treating the load to the left of X-X as a concentrated load of
the same value acting through the centre of gravity.

Therefore, the bending moment at any cross-section X-X is

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The above equation is a quadratic in x, when B.M is plotted against x this will produces a
parabolic variation.

The extreme values of this would be at x = 0 and x = l

Hence S.F and B.M diagram can be plotted as follows:

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4. Simply supported beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load [U.D.L].

The total load carried by the span would be

= intensity of loading x length

=wxl

By symmetry the reactions at the end supports are each wl/2

If x is the distance of the section considered from the left hand end of the beam.

S.F at any X-section X-X is

Giving a straight relation, having a slope equal to the rate of loading or intensity of the
loading.

The bending moment at the section x is found by treating the distributed load as acting at its
centre of gravity, which at a distance of x/2 from the section

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So the equation (2) when plotted against x gives rise to a parabolic curve and the shear force
and bending moment can be drawn in the following way will appear as follows:

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Couple.

When the beam is subjected to couple, the shear force and Bending moment diagrams may be
drawn exactly in the same fashion as discussed earlier.

Eccentric loads.

When the beam is subjected to an eccentric loads, the eccentric load are to be changed into a
couple/ force as the case may be, In the illustrative example given below, the 20 kN load acting
at a distance of 0.2m may be converted to an equivalent of 20 kN force and a couple of 2 kN.m.
similarly a 10 kN force which is acting at an angle of 30 0 may be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components.The rest of the procedure for drawing the shear force and Bending moment
remains the same.

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5. Loading changes or there is an abrupt change of loading:

When there is an abrupt change of loading or loads changes, the problem may be tackled in a
systematic way. consider a cantilever beam of 3 meters length. It carries a uniformly distributed
load of 2 kN/m and a concentrated loads of 2kN at the free end and 4kN at 2 meters from fixed
end. The shearing force and bending moment diagrams are required to be drawn and state the
maximum values of the shearing force and bending moment.

Solution:

Consider any cross section x-x, at a distance x from the free end

Shear Force at x-x = -2 -2x 0<x<1

S.F at x = 0 i.e. at A = -2 kN

S.F at x = 1 = -2-2 = - 4kN

S.F at C (x = 1) = -2 -2x - 4 Concentrated load

= - 2 - 4 -2x1 kN

= - 8 kN

Again consider any cross-section YY, located at a distance x from the free end

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S.F at Y-Y = -2 - 2x - 4 1< x < 3

This equation again gives S.F at point C equal to -8kN

S.F at x = 3 m = -2 -4 -2x3

= -12 kN

Hence the shear force diagram can be drawn as below:

For bending moment diagrams ? Again write down the equations for the respective cross
sections, as consider above

Bending Moment at xx = -2x - 2x.x/2 valid upto AC

B.M at x = 0 = 0

B.M at x =1m = -3 kN.m

For the portion CB, the bending moment equation can be written for the x-section at Y-Y .

B.M at YY = -2x - 2x.x/2 - 4( x -1)

This equation again gives,

B.M at point C = - 2.1 - 1 - 0 i.e. at x = 1

= -3 kN.m

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B.M at point B i.e. at x = 3 m

=-6-9-8

= - 23 kN-m

The variation of the bending moment diagrams would obviously be a parabolic curve

Hence the bending moment diagram would be

6. Illustrative Example :

In this there is an abrupt change of loading beyond a certain point thus, we shall have to be
careful at the jumps and the discontinuities.

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For the given problem, the values of reactions can be determined as

R2 = 3800N and R1 = 5400N

The shear force and bending moment diagrams can be drawn by considering the X-sections at
the suitable locations.

7. Illustrative Problem:

The simply supported beam shown below carries a vertical load that increases uniformly from
zero at the one end to the maximum value of 6kN/m of length at the other end. Draw the
shearing force and bending moment diagrams.

Solution

Determination of Reactions

For the purpose of determining the reactions R1 and R2 , the entire distributed load may be
replaced by its resultant which will act through the centroid of the triangular loading diagram.

So the total resultant load can be found like this-

Average intensity of loading = (0 + 6)/2

= 3 kN/m

Total Load = 3 x 12

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= 36 kN

Since the centroid of the triangle is at a 2/3 distance from the one end, hence 2/3 x 3 = 8 m
from the left end support.

Now taking moments or applying conditions of equilibrium

36 x 8 = R2 x 12

R1 = 12 kN

R2 = 24 kN

Note: however, this resultant can not be used for the purpose of drawing the shear force and
bending moment diagrams. We must consider the distributed load and determine the shear and
moment at a section x from the left hand end.

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Consider any X-section X-X at a distance x, as the intensity of loading at this X-section, is
unknown let us find out the resultant load which is acting on the L.H.S of the X-section X-X,
hence

So consider the similar triangles

OAB & OCD

In order to find out the total resultant load on the left hand side of the X-section

Find the average load intensity

Now these loads will act through the centroid of the triangle OAB. i.e. at a distance 2/3 x from
the left-hand end. Therefore, the shear force and bending momemt equations may be written as

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In the same way, the shear force and bending moment diagrams may be attempted for the
given problem

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For the uniformly varying loads, the problem may be framed in a variety of ways, observe the
shear force and bending moment diagrams

In the problem given below, the intensity of loading varies from q 1 kN/m at one end to the q2
kN/m at the other end.This problem can be treated by considering a U.D.L of intensity q1 kN/m
over the entire span and a uniformly varying load of 0 to ( q2- q1)kN/m over the entire span and
then super imposed loadings.

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Point of Contraflexure:

Consider the loaded beam a shown below along with the shear force and Bending moment
diagrams for It may be observed that this case, the bending moment diagram is completely
positive so that the curvature of the beam varies along its length, but it is always concave
upwards or sagging.However if we consider a again a loaded beam as shown below along with
the S.F and B.M diagrams, then

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It may be noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case,

The bending moment diagram is partly positive and partly negative. If we plot the deflected
shape of the beam just below the bending moment

This diagram shows that L.H.S of the beam ?sags' while the R.H.S of the beam ?hogs'

The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of
contraflexure.

OR

It corresponds to a point where the bending moment changes the sign, hence in order to find
the point of contraflexures obviously the B.M would change its sign when it cuts the X-axis
therefore to get the points of contraflexure equate the bending moment equation equal to

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zero.The fibre stress is zero at such sections Note: there can be more than one point of
contra flexure.

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Module-4
Theory of simple bending – Assumptions – Derivation of bending equation - Neutral axis –
Determination of bending stresses – section modulus of rectangular and circular sections (Solid
and Hollow), I, T and Channel sections – Design of simple beam sections, Shear Stresses:
Derivation of formula – Shear stress distribution across various beams sections like rectangular,
circular, triangular, I, and T sections.

Simple Bending Theory OR Theory of Flexure for Initially Straight Beams

(The normal stress due to bending are called flexure stresses)

INTRODUCTION
When some external load acts on a beam, the shear force and bending moments are set up at
all sections of the beam. Due to the shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes
certain deformation. The material of the beam will offer resistance or stresses against these
deformations. These stresses with certain assumptions can be calculated. The stresses
introduced by bending moment are known as bending stresses. In this chapter, the theory of
pure bending, expression for bending stresses, bending stress in symmetrical and
unsymmetrical sections, strength of a beam and composite beams will be discussed.

E.g., Consider a piece of rubber, most conveniently of rectangular cross-section, is bent

between one’s fingers it is readily apparent that one surface of the rubber is stretched, i.e. put
into tension, and the opposite surface is compressed.

When a beam having an arbitrary cross section is subjected to a transverse loads the beam will
bend. In addition to bending the other effects such as twisting and buckling may occur, and to
investigate a problem that includes all the combined effects of bending, twisting and buckling
could become a complicated one. Thus, we are interested to investigate the bending effects
alone, in order to do so, we have to put certain constraints on the geometry of the beam and the
manner of loading.

Assumptions:

The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:

1. Beam is initially straight , and has a constant cross-section.

2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a longitudinal plane of
symmetry.

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3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.

4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the primary cause
of failure.

5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded and ‘E' is same in tension and compression.

6. Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending.

Let us consider a beam initially unstressed as shown in fig 1(a). Now the beam is subjected to
a constant bending moment (i.e. ‘Zero Shearing Force') along its length as would be obtained
by applying equal couples at each end. The beam will bend to the radius R as shown in Fig
1(b)

As a result of this bending, the top fibers of the beam will be subjected to tension and the
bottom to compression it is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that some where between the
two there are points at which the stress is zero. The locus of all such points is known as
neutral axis . The radius of curvature R is then measured to this axis. For symmetrical
sections the N. A. is the axis of symmetry but what ever the section N. A. will always pass
through the centre of the area or centroid.

The above restrictions have been taken so as to eliminate the possibility of 'twisting' of
the beam.

Concept of pure bending:

Loading restrictions:

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As we are aware of the fact internal reactions developed on any cross-section of a beam may
consists of a resultant normal force, a resultant shear force and a resultant couple. In order to
ensure that the bending effects alone are investigated, we shall put a constraint on the loading
such that the resultant normal and the resultant shear forces are zero on any cross-section
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member,

That means F = 0

since or M = constant.

Thus, the zero shear force means that the bending moment is constant or the bending is same
at every cross-section of the beam. Such a situation may be visualized or envisaged when the
beam or some portion of the beam, as been loaded only by pure couples at its ends. It must be
recalled that the couples are assumed to be loaded in the plane of symmetry.

When a member is loaded in such a fashion it is said to be in pure bending. The examples of
pure bending have been indicated in EX 1and EX 2 as shown below :

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When a beam is subjected to pure bending are loaded by the couples at the ends, certain cross-
section gets deformed and we shall have to make out the conclusion that,

1. Plane sections originally perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis even after bending , i.e. the cross-section A'E', B'F' ( refer
Fig 1(a) ) do not get warped or curved.

2. In the deformed section, the planes of this cross-section have a common intersection i.e. any
time originally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam becomes an arc of circle.

We know that when a beam is under bending the fibres at the top will be lengthened while at
the bottom will be shortened provided the bending moment M acts at the ends. In between these
there are some fibres which remain unchanged in length that is they are not strained, that is
they do not carry any stress. The plane containing such fibres is called neutral surface.

The line of intersection between the neutral surface and the transverse exploratory section is
called the neutral axis Neutral axis (N A) .

Bending Stresses in Beams or Derivation of Elastic Flexural formula :

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In order to compute the value of bending stresses developed in a loaded beam, let us consider
the two cross-sections of a beam HE and GF , originally parallel as shown in fig 1(a).when the
beam is to bend it is assumed that these sections remain parallel i.e. H'E' and G'F' , the final

Consider now fiber AB in the material, at a distance y from the N.A, when the beam bends this
will stretch to A'B'

Since CD and C'D' are on the neutral axis and it is assumed that the Stress on the neutral axis
zero. Therefore, there won't be any strain on the neutral axis

Consider any arbitrary a cross-section of beam, as shown above now the strain on a fibre at a
distance ‘y' from the N.A, is given by the expression

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Now the term is the property of the material and is called as a second moment of area
of the cross-section and is denoted by a symbol I.

Therefore

This equation is known as the Bending Theory Equation.The above proof has involved
the assumption of pure bending without any shear force being present. Therefore this termed
as the pure bending equation. This equation gives distribution of stresses which are normal to
cross-section i.e. in x-direction.

Section Modulus:

From simple bending theory equation, the maximum stress obtained in any cross-section is
given as

For any given allowable stress the maximum moment which can be accepted by a particular
shape of cross-section is therefore

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For ready comparison of the strength of various beam cross-section this relationship is some
times written in the form

Is termed as section modulus

The higher value of Z for a particular cross-section, the higher the bending moment which it
can withstand for a given maximum stress.

Theorems to determine second moment of area: There are two theorems which are helpful
to determine the value of second moment of area, which is required to be used while solving
the simple bending theory equation.

Second Moment of Area :

Taking an analogy from the mass moment of inertia, the second moment of area is defined as
the summation of areas times the distance squared from a fixed axis. (This property arised
while we were driving bending theory equation). This is also known as the moment of inertia.
An alternative name given to this is second moment of area, because the first moment being
the sum of areas times their distance from a given axis and the second moment being the
square of the distance or .

Consider any cross-section having small element of area d A then by the definition

Ix(Mass Moment of Inertia about x-axis) = and Iy(Mass Moment of Inertia about y-
axis) =

Now the moment of inertia about an axis through ?O' and perpendicular to the plane of figure
is called the polar moment of inertia. (The polar moment of inertia is also the area moment of
inertia).

i.e,

J = polar moment of inertia

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The relation (1) is known as the perpendicular axis theorem and may be stated as follows:

The sum of the Moment of Inertia about any two axes in the plane is equal to the moment of
inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane, the three axes being concurrent, i.e, the three
axes exist together.

CIRCULAR SECTION :

For a circular x-section, the polar moment of inertia may be computed in the following
manner

Consider any circular strip of thickness r located at a radius 'r'.

Than the area of the circular strip would be dA = 2πr. r

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Parallel Axis Theorem:

The moment of inertia about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a parallel axis
through the centroid plus the area times the square of the distance between the axes.

If ‘ZZ' is any axis in the plane of cross-section and ‘XX' is a parallel axis through the centroid
G, of the cross-section, then

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Rectangular Section:

For a rectangular x-section of the beam, the second moment of area may be computed as
below :

Consider the rectangular beam cross-section as shown above and an element of area dA ,
thickness dy , breadth B located at a distance y from the neutral axis, which by symmetry
passes through the centre of section. The second moment of area I as defined earlier would be

Thus, for the rectangular section the second moment of area about the neutral axis i.e., an axis
through the centre is given by

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Similarly, the second moment of area of the rectangular section about an axis through the
lower edge of the section would be found using the same procedure but with integral limits of
0 to D .

Therefore

These standards formulas prove very convenient in the determination of INA for build up
sections which can be conveniently divided into rectangles. For instance if we just want to
find out the Moment of Inertia of an I - section, then we can use the above relation.

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Use of Flexure Formula:

8.Illustrative Problems:

An I - section girder, 200mm wide by 300 mm depth flange and web of thickness is 20 mm is
used as simply supported beam for a span of 7 m. The girder carries a distributed load of 5
KN /m and a concentrated load of 20 KN at mid-span.

Determine the

(i). The second moment of area of the cross-section of the girder

(ii). The maximum stress set up.

Solution:

The second moment of area of the cross-section can be determained as follows :

For sections with symmetry about the neutral axis, use can be made of standard I value for a
rectangle about an axis through centroid i.e. (bd 3 )/12. The section can thus be divided into
convenient rectangles for each of which the neutral axis passes through the centroid. Example
in the case enclosing the girder by a rectangle

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Computation of Bending Moment:

In this case the loading of the beam is of two types

(a) Uniformly distributed load

(b) Concentrated Load

In order to obtain the maximum bending moment the technique will be to consider each
loading on the beam separately and get the bending moment due to it as if no other forces
acting on the structure and then superimpose the two results.

Hence

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Question bank

1. List the different types of beams with various type of loads.

2. Derive the Bending equation with necessary assumptions.
3. Sketch SFD and BMD for simply supported beam with point load at the centre and
overhanging beam with UDL.

Question bank and solution

1. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
June/July 2008

//

2. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
June/July 2009

3. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.

(Dec07/Jan 08, May/June 2010, June/July 2014)

4. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
Dec.09/Jan.10

//
5. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
June/July 2011

//

6. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
Dec.2011

//

7. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the figure.
Find the maximum bending moment and point of contraflexure.
(dec.2014/Jan.2015)

//

1. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. June/July 2008

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Solution:

Bending moment:

At A and C = 0

At D = (10.6*4)-(2*4*) = 26.4kNm

At E = (10.6*6)-(2*4)(+2)-(6*2) = 19.6kNm

At B = (16.6*10) – (2*4)(+6)-(6*6)-(3*4)=-6kNm

RA+RB = (2*4)+6+3+(3*2)

RA+12.4 = 23; RA = 10.6 kN

Shear force : at A = 10.6 kN

At D = 10.6-(2*4)-6 = -3.4 kN

At E = -3.4-3 = -6.4 kN

At B = -6.4+12.4 = 6 kN

At C = 6-(3*2) = 0

Reaction load: taking moment about A: RB *10 = (2*4)( + (6*4)+(3*6)+(3*2)(*10)= 12.4kN

RA+RB = (2*4)+6+3+(3*2)

RA+12.4 = 23; RA = 10.6 kN

Shear force : A = 10.6kN

AtD = 10.6-(2*4)-6 = -3.4 kN

At E = -3.4-3 = -6.4kN

AtB = -6.4+12.4 = 6kN

AtC =6-(3*2) = 0

2. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. June/July 2009
//

Solution:

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Reactions: taking moment about A, we get

Rd*4 + (10*2)() = 40*2+( *20 *2)(2+*2) +20*6 = 61.67kN

Rb = 100-61.67 = 38.33 kN

Shear force

@A=0

@ B = -10*2+38.33 == 18.33 kN

@ C = 18.33-40 = -21.67kN

@ D = -21.67 – ( *2*20+61.67) = 20 kN

Bending moment

@ A = E =0

@B = -(10*2)*( = -20kNm

@ C = -(10*2)(+2) + 38.33*2 = 16.66kNm

@ D = -(10*2)(+4) +(38.33*4)-(40*2) = -40 kNm

//

3. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure.
(Dec07/Jan 08, May/June 2010, June/July 2014)

Solution:

Point of contraflexure:

M=0 @ point F and G. Considering ‘x’ distance for ‘C’

M = -5(x) () + 35(x-2) = 0

X= 2.4174 m from C and D ( symmetric)

Reaction forces :Ra = Rb == 35kN

Shear force

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@C=0

@ A = -5*2+35 = +25 kN

@ B = 25-(10*5)+35 = +10kN

@D = +10-(5*2) = 0

Bending moment

@C&D=0

@ A = -(5*2)() = -10kNm

@ D = -(5*2)()+(35*12)+(35*2) = -10kNm

@E =-(5*7)()+35*(7-2) = 52.5 kNm

4. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. Dec.09/Jan.10

Solution:

Rw *11 = 100*15+(30*8.5)(8.5/2-3)=165.34kN

Shear force:
@C=0
@ A = -30*3+189.66 = -99.66kN
@ D = 99.66-30*5.5 = -65.34 kN
@ B = -65.34 +165.34 = 100 kN
@ E = 100 kN
Bending moment:
@ C = E =0
@ A = -(30*3) () = -135 kNm
@ D = (30*8.5)()+189.66*5.5)=-40.62kNm
@ B = -(30*8.5)(+5.5)+(189.66*11) = -400kNm
Ra = 355-165.34 = 189.66kN

//

5. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. Dec.2011

Solution:

BENDING MOMENT:

@A=C = 0

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@ E = 72.5*10 – (10*10)() = 225kNm

@ D = 72.5*15 –(10*10) ( +5) = 87.5 kNm

@ B = 72.5*20 – (10*10)(+10) – 20*5 = -150kNm

SHEAR FORCE:

@A = 75.5kN

@ E = 72.5 – (10*10) = 27.5kN

@ D = -27.5-20 = -47.5kN

@ B = -47.5 +77.5 = 30 kN

@C = 30 kN

Reactions:

Taking moment @ A

Rb*20 = (10*10)(10/2)+20*15+30*25

Rb = 77.5kN

Ra = 150-77.5 = 72.5kN

//

6. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. June/July 2011

//

Solution:

BENDING MOMENT:

@ A = B =0

@C = 80*2 = 160 kNm

@ D = (80*6) – (50*4) – (10*4)() = 200 kNm

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SHEAR FORCE:

@ A = 80kN

@ C = 80-50 = 30kN

@ D = 30-(10*4) – 40 = -50

@ B -50 kN

Reaction forces:

Rb*10 = (50*2) + (10*4)(+2)+(40*6)

Rb = 50kN

Ra+Rb = 50+ (10*4) +40

Ra = 130 – 50 = 80kN

//

7. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. Find the maximum bending moment and point of contra flexure.
(dec.2014/Jan.2015)

//

Solution:

Reactions:

Taking moment about A

Rb * 4 = ( * 2 *60)(1+*2) + 20*5

Rb = 60 kN

Ra = 80-60 = 20kN

Maximum bending moment:

Let the distance of point F be x meter from A

Shear force at F = +20-1/2(x-1)(30)(x-1) = 0

= 20-15(x-1)2 = 0

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= x2 – 2x -0.333 = 0

On solving above equation we get x = 2.1547 m

Bending moment at F = 20*2.1547 – ½(2.1547-1)(30)(2.1547-1){1/3(2.147-1)} =

35.396kNm

POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE:

Let the distance G be y meter from C

BM @ G = 0 = -20y+60(y-1)

-20y+60y-60 = 0

40y =60

Y =1 .5 m

Assignment questions

1. Derive the Bending Equation for a beam under simple bending

2. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure. June/July 2008

3. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for the beam shown in the
figure.

(Dec14/Jan 15, May/June 2017, June/July 2021)

Module-5
Torsion of circular shafts: Introduction, pure torsion, assumptions, derivation of torsional
equations, polar modulus, torsional rigidity / stiffness of shafts, power transmitted by solid and
hollow circular shafts.

Theory of columns – Long column and short column - Euler’s formula – Rankine’s formula.

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TORSION

A member is said to be in torsion when it is subjected to moment about its axis. The stress and
strain in the members of circular cross section that are subjected to twisting couples, or torques,
T and T’ (Fig.4.1) are analysed to be under torsion. these couples have common magnitude T,
and opposite senses.

Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. the most common
application is provided by transmission shafts. which are used to transmit power from one point
to another. for example, the shaft shown in the Fig.4.1 is used to transmit the power from engine
to the rear wheels of an automobile. these shafts can be solids as shown in the Figure 4.1.

Fig:4.1 Shaft subjected to twisting couple

4.2.1. Pure Torsion:

A member is said to be in pure torsion when its cross sections are subjected to only torsional
moments and not accompanied by axial forces or bending moments. Now consider the section
of a shaft under pure torsion as shown in the Fig 4.2.

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Fig:4.2; Pure Torsion

The internal forces are developed so as to counteract this torsional moment. Hence at any
element, the force dF is in the direction normal to radial direction. this force is obviously
shearing force and thus the elements are in pure shear. If dA is the area of the element at distance
r from the axis of shaft, then,

dF= dA

Where is the shearing stress,

And dT= dF x r

4.2.2. Assumptions in The Theory of Pure Torsion:

In the theory of pure torsion, expressions will be derived for determining shear stress and the
effect of torsional moment on cross section i.e. in finding angle of twist.in developing this
theory the following assumptions are made.

The material is homogeneous and isotropic.

⮚
The stresses are within the elastic limit i.e. shear stress is proportional to shear strain.
⮚
Cross-sections which are plane before applying twisting moment will remain plane
⮚
even after the application of twisting moment.
Radial lines remain radial even after applying torsional moment.
⮚
The twist along the shaft is uniform.
⮚

4.2.3. Derivation of Torsional Equation:

Consider a shaft of length L and radius R fixed at one end and subjected to a torque T at the
other end as shown in the Fig:4.3

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Fig 4.3: Torsion in shafts

Let O be the centre of circular section and B a point on surface. AB be the line on the shaft
parallel to the axis of shaft. Due to torque T applied let B moves to B’ if is the shear stain
(angle BOB’) and

is the angle of twist in length L then,

R =BB’=L

If s is the shear stress and G is the modulus of rigidity then,

Similarly if the point B is considered is at any distance r from the centre instead of on the
surface, it can be shown that

………………..(i)

Thus, the shear stress increases linearly from zero at the axis to the maximum value at
surface.

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Now consider the torsional resistance developed by an element area at a distance r

from centre

If is the shear stress developed in the element the resisting force is

Resisting torsional moment,

WKT

Therefore da

Total resisting torsional moment

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But is nothing but polar moment of inertia of the section. Representing

it by notation J

we get

i.e

WKT

Then …………………….(ii)

From i and ii

Where,

T= Torsional moment, N-mm

J= Polar moment of Inertia, mm4

= shear stress in element, N/mm2

r=distance of element from centre of shaft,mm

G=modulus of rigidity,N/mm2

= angle of twist, rad

L=length of shaft,mm

4.2.4. Polar Modulus:

From the torsion equations

But

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Where is the maximum shear stress (occurring at surface) and R is extreme fibre distance
from the centre. Therefore,

Or =

Where is called polar modulus of section.it may be observed that is the property of
the section and may be defined as the ratio of polar moment of inertia to extreme radial distance
of the fibre from the centre.

For solid circular section of diameter d

For hollow circular shaft with external diameter d1 and internal diameter d2

4.3. Torsional Moment of Resistance

Torsional moment of resistance or resisting torque is the maximum torque that can be carried
by the section without exceeding the maximum permissible shear stress. It is sum of the
moment of tangential shear stress acting on any transverse section.it is denoted by Tr.

Therefore

Torsional moment of resistance Tr. = Zp x

Where Zp = polar section modulus

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And = permissible shear stress

For the solid circular section,

For hollow circular section, Ts =

4.4. Power Transmitted:

Let us consider a circular shaft running at N rpm. under mean torque T. let P be the power
transmitted by the shaft in kW

The angular speed of shaft is given by the distance covered by the particle in the circle in
radians

For N revolutions per second, i.e. the particle covers 2π radians for one revolution and for N
revolutions the particle covers 2Πn radians in one minute. hence the angular speed is given
by

Rad/sec

Thus power transmitted = mean torque(KN-m/s) X angular speed (rad/sec)

i.e. KN-m/s

it is seen that from the above equation mean torque T in KN-m is obtained. It should be
converted to N-mm so that the stress due to torque can be obtained in N/mm 2. the maximum
shear stress due to torque can be obtained from the torque equation.

4.5. Power transmission of straight and stepped shafts

Transmission shafts are rotating elements and are mostly circular in cross-section. Shafts are
classified as straight, cranked, stepped and flexible. They could be either solid or hollow. Shafts
are supported by bearings for smooth running. Shafts support transmission elements like gears,
pulleys and sprockets to transmit power from one rotating member to another. The portion of
shaft that carries pulley or gear is cut as slot (keyway) on which a key is placed. The key of

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rectangular cross section partially sinks in the slot and projects from the shaft. The projected
part of key lies in the slot cut on the inside hub of the gear and holds the gear securely.

Transmission shafts may be subjected to tensile, bending or torsional shear stresses or

combinations of these. They are subjected to torque due to power transmission and bending
due to reactions on the members that are supported by them. While designing a transmission
shaft for a correct diameter, knowledge on the type of stresses involved in its application,
interaction of these stresses and the material properties of shaft must be known. Further, the
material of shafts must have (a) high strength (b) low notch sensitivity, (c) ability to be heat
treated and case hardened to increase wear resistance of journals and (d) good machine ability.
Shafts are made from ductile materials like mild steel, carbon steels or alloy steels such as
nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steels or ductile cast iron.

Drafting rollers of different surface contours used to attenuate/draft the fibre assemblies and
also to transmit power to other drafting rollers. Spindle is a short rotating shaft. Crank shafts
are used in loom to carry out beat-up operation. Shafts used for clutching operations are splined.

4.5. Twist in Shaft sections

4.5.1. Torsion in stepped shaft and composite shaft

A shaft may be stepped into number of different cross sections or different materials. Analysis
of these shafts are done by considering the torque over individual sections and then combined
together to have total torque. The angle of twist at one end (free end in cantilever) is the
summation of angle of twist of different sections.

Different cases

1. Shaft fixed at both the ends and subjected to torque T at a common point

Consider a shaft shown in the Figure 4.4. It is fixed at both the ends and subjected to the torque
at a common point.

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Figure 4.4. Shaft fixed at both the ends

Let

A and C be the fixed points

T be the applied torque at point B

and be the torque developed at the fixed ends A and C

and be the length of the fixed ends from the disc.

and

Therefore, =

Thus, can be found.

2. Shaft fixed at one end and subjected to torque T at the other end of hollow section.

Consider an example as shown in the Fig.4.4. with a tongue of 8 kN-m.

Portion AB is a solid shaft with 100 mm diameter and portion BC is hollow with external
diameter 100 mm and internal diameter 75 mm.

Let modulus of rigidity G = 80 MPa.

To find the maximum stress and maximum angle of twist.

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T = 8 kN-
m

Figure 4.5.: Shaft fixed at one end and subjected to torque T at the other end of hollow
section.

From free body diagram of each part i.e. AB and BC, It is clear that both the parts are subjected
to the torque of 8 kN-m = 8 × N – mm, G = 80 .

But the polar moment of inertia is different for the different portion.

i.e. For portion AB, = = = 9.8175

For portion BC, = = = 6.7117

Shear Stress: Maximum shear stress occurs in the portion BC since maximum radial distance
R is same in both the portion.

Shear stress in the portion AB

From torsion equation

Therefore, = = 40.3475

Shear stress in the portion BC

From torsion equation

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Therefore, = = 59.6 .

Angle of twist: Let the angle of twist in AB is and in the portion BC.

Total rotation (angle of twist) at the end C = +

From torsion equation,

θ = 0.05253 radians

Case 2: Stepped shaft

To find the maximum torque applied in the stepped shaft

Consider an example of a stepped shaft as shown in the Fig. 4.6.

Figure 4.6. Stepped Shaft under torsion

Thin walled sections

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In the case of thin-walled hollow noncircular shafts, however, a good approximation of the
distribution of stresses in the shaft can be obtained by a simple computation. Consider a hollow
cylindrical member of noncircular section subjected to a torsional loading (Fig. 3.48).‡ While
the thickness t of the wall may vary within a transverse section, it will be assumed that it
remains small compared to the other dimensions of the member. We now detach from the
member the colored portion of wall AB bounded by two transverse planes at a distance Dx
from each other, and by two longitudinal planes perpendicular to the wall. Since the portion
AB is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces exerted on it in the longitudinal x direction must be
zero (Fig. 3.49). But the only forces involved are the shearing forces FA and FB exerted on the
ends of portion AB.

Question bank

1. Derive Torsion equation with necessary assumptions.

2. Explain Maximum normal stress theory and Maximum shear stress theory.
3. What is polar modulus of Inertia. Derive the expression for solid and hollow shaft.

Question bank and solution

Problems

1. A plate of 45C8 steel is subjected to the following stresses

,

and find the factor

of safety by maximum principal stress theory and maximum shear stress theory. [VTU
Dec- Jan 2018]

Solution:

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=353M p a; ;

Maximum principal stress, +

=180.9N/mm2 (Tensile)

Minimum principal stress,

=69.19N/mm2 (Tensile)

Maximum principal stress theory

Since

Therefore, FOS = n =

1.Determine the diameter of the shaft which will transmit 440 kW at 280 rpm, if
maximum torsional shear stress is to be limited to 40N/mm2. Assume G=84 N/mm2.

[VTU, JAN/FEB 2005]

Data:

Power N=440 kW; n=280 rpm; N/mm2; G=84 kN/mm2

Solution:

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Power transmitted by shaft N=

i.e., 440 =

Therefore, mean torque transmitted by the shaft T=15 X 103 Nm

From the torsional equation

; i.e., T= . = Zp .

i.e.,

Therefore, Diameter of solid shaft, d = 124mm

2.A solid circular shaft has to transmit a power of 1000KW at 120 rpm. find the diameter
of shaft, if the shear stress of material must not exceed 80N/mm2.the maximum torque
1.25 times of its mean. what percentage of savings is material would be obtained if the
shaft is replaced by a hollow one whose internal diameter is 0.6 times its external
diameter, the length, material and maximum shear stress being same

[VTU,JAN/FEB 2006,MAY/JUNE 2010,JUNE/JULU 2011]

Data: N=1000KW; n=120rpm; N/mm2; Tmax = 1.25 Tmean; di = 0.6do

Solution:

Power transmitted by the shaft N =

i.e., 1000 =

i.e., Mean Torque

Maximum torque =1.25

= T = 99.472 X 106 N mm

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Solid circular shaft:

Design the shaft maximum torque. From the torsional equation, based on strength criterion

; i.e., T= . = Zp .

Therefore, Diameter of solid shaft d = 185mm

Hollow circular shaft :

As both shaft being made of same material and transmit the same power with the same speed,

Ts = T H

i.e., )

Therefore, outer diameter of hollow shaft =193.76mm

Inner diameter of hollow shaft

Percentage saving in material:

Weight = volume x weight density of the material

Weight of shaft,

Weight of hollow shaft,

Percentage saving in material= 100

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= 29.76

3. solid shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 25KW.find a suitable diameter of solid

shaft, if the allowable shear stress and the twist are limited to 80 N/mm 2 and 10
respectively for a length of 20 times the diameter of the shaft.

[VTU,DEC,06/JAN 07]

Data:

Tmax=25KNm=25 x 106 Nmm; N/mm2; 10= 1x π/180 radians; l=20d

Solution:

Solid shaft diameter based on strength criterion

i.e., T= . = Zp .

d = 116.75mm

Solid shaft diameter based on rigidity criterion

d= 153.934mm

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Permissible diameter is bigger among the two values

Therefore, Diameter of the solid shaft, d=153.934=154

4.what length is required for a solid steel shaft 12mm in diameter so that the cross-section
at one end can be rotated 900with respect to other end without exceeding an allowable
shear stress of 70Mpa shaft? assume G as 80Gpa.

[VTU,JAN/FEB,2004]

Data.

D=12mm;

N/mm2; G=80KN/mm2

Solution:

From the torsional equation,

Therefore, length of shaft = 10771.2mm= 10.7712m

5.A hollow circular steel shaft has to transmit 60Kw at 210rpm such that the maximum
shear stress does not exceed 60 MN/m2.if the ratio of internal to external diameter is equal
to ¾ and the value of rigidity modulus is 60 Gpa, find the dimensions of the shaft and
angle of twist in a length of 3m

[VTU,MODEL QUESTION PAPER,JUNE/JULY,2013,DEC,2015/JAN,2016]

Data: N=60KW; n=210rpm; N/mm2; G=84KN/mm2; l = 3m=3000mm;

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Solution:

Power transmitted by shaft N =

60 =

i.e., Mean Torque

Diameter of Hollow shaft

From torsional equation based on strength criterion:

i.e.,2728.37

outer diameter of shaft = 69.712mm

inner diameter of shaft

Angle of twist:

From the torsional equation, based on rigidity criterion

i.e.,

Therefore, angle of twist in 3meters

6.A solid shaft rotating at 1000rpm transmits 50KW.maximum torque is 20% more than
the mean torque. Material of the shaft has the allowable shear stress of 50Mpa and

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modulus of rigidity 80Gpa angle of twist in the shaft should not exceed 1 in one meter
length.determine the diameter of shaft.

[VTU,DEC08/JAN,09]

Data: N=50KW; n=1000rpm; N/mm2; Tmax = 1.2 Tmean; ;

G=80KN/mm2

Solution:

Power transmitted by shaft N =

50 =

i.e., Mean Torque

hence maximum torque Tmax=1.2x477.465=572.958Nm=572.958x103N.mm

based on torsional strength criterion

i.e., T= . = Zp .

Therefore, diameter of shaft d = 38.8mm

Based on torsional rigidity criterion:

d =45.2mm

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permissible diameter of solid shaft is the higher among the two values

therefore, diameter of shaft d= 45.2mm

7.A hollow shaft having internal diameter 40% of the external diameter, transmits
562.5KW power at 100rpm.determine the internal and external diameter of the shaft if
the shear stress is not to exceed 60N/mm2 and the twist in length of 2.5m should not exceed
1.3degrees.the maximum torque being greater than mean. Modulus of rigidity = 9x
104N/mm2

[VTU,JUNE/JULY 2009,JUNE/JULY 2015]

Data: N=562.5KW; n=100rpm; N/mm2; Tmax = 1.25 Tmean;

;

G=9x104 N/mm2

Solution:

Power transmitted by shaft N =

562.5 =

i.e., Mean Torque

hence maximum torque Tmax=1.25x53715.8=67143.5Nm=67143.5x103N.mm=T

Diameter of hollow shaft:

i.e.,67143.5

outer diameter of shaft = 180.2mm

Diameter of hollow shaft based on torsional rigidity:

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Outer diameter of hollow shaft ,

permissible diameter of solid shaft is the higher among the two values

permissible outer diameter of shaft = 180.2mm

permissible inner diameter of shaft = 0.4x180.2=72.08mm

Stepped shaft

8. A stepped shaft is subjected to the torques as shown in the figure. Fin the maximum value
of shear stress and the angle of twist at the end C. Take G = 76 GPa VTU (June -July 2018)

Solution

There are two sections, AB and BC

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1. Shear stress in section AB is =

Where = 14 × 105 N mm

= = = 38.31 × 103 N mm

Therefore,

2. Shear stress in section BC is =

Where = 9 × 105 N mm

= = = 17.9 × 103 N mm

Therefore,

Therefore, Maximum shear stress in the shaft is

3. Angle of twist at section AB, = =

12.6 × 10-3 radians

4. Angle of twist at section AB, = =

15 × 10-3 radians
Therefore, angle of twist at the end C, =
= 12.6 × 10-3 - 15 × 10-3

= -2.4× 10-3 radians

= - 0.14 ° or 0.14 ° (CCW)

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9. A shaft of diameter 30 mm is subjected to torques as shown in the figure. Find the

maximum shear stress and angular deformation at D with respect to A. Take G = 85 GPa.

Assignment

1. A hollow shaft having internal diameter 40% of the external diameter, transmits 562.5KW
power at 100rpm.determine the internal and external diameter of the shaft if the shear stress is
not to exceed 60N/mm2 and the twist in length of 2.5m should not exceed 1.3degrees.the
maximum torque being greater than mean. modulus of rigidity = 9x 10 4N/mm2
[VTU,JUNE/JULY 2009,JUNE/JULY 2017]

2. Find the Euler’s cripping load for a hollow cylindrical steel column of 40mm external
diameter and 4mm thick. the length of the column is 2.5m and is hinged at both ends. also
compute the Rankines cripping load using constants 335Mpa and 1/7500.take E=205Gpa
[VTU,JUNE/JULY 2019]

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3. Design the section of a circular cast iron column that can safely carry a load of 1000KN.The
length of the column is 6meters.Rankines’s constant is 1/1600,factor of safety is 3. One of the
column is fixed and other end is free. critical stress is 560Mpa.
[VTU,JAN/FEB,2018]

4. Solid round bar of 60mm diameter and 2.5m is used as a strut. find the safe compressive load
for the strut if (i)both ends are hinged (ii)both ends are fixed. Take E=205Gpa=205x10 3N/mm2
[VTU,JAN/FEB2020]

5. .A 1.5m long column has a circular cross section of 50mm diameter.one end of the column
is fixed in direction and position and the other end is free taking FOS as 3,calculate the safe
load using
[VTU,JAN/FEB2017,DEC.18/JAN.19,JUNE/JULY2022]

COLUMN AND STRUTS

INTRODUCTION:

Structural members which carry compressive loads may be divided into two broad categories
depending on their relative lengths and cross-sectional dimensions.

COLUMNS:

Long vertical members of building frame or any structural system which carry mainly axial
compressive loads are called as Columns.

STRUTS:

Long, slender columns are generally termed as struts, they fail by buckling some time before
the yield stress in compression is reached. The buckling occurs owing to one the following
reasons.

(a). the strut may not be perfectly straight initially.

(b). the load may not be applied exactly along the axis of the Strut.

(c). one part of the material may yield in compression more readily than others owing to some
lack of uniformity in the material properties throughout the strut.

Buckling and stability:

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Buckling is an instability that leads to structural failure. The failure modes can in simple cases
be found by simple mathematical solutions. For complex structures the failure modes are found
by numerical tools.

When a structure is subjected to compressive axial stress, buckling may occur. Buckling is
characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of a structural member. This may occur even
though the stresses that develop in the structure are well below those needed to cause failure
of the material of which the structure is composed. As an applied axial load is increased on a
member, such as a column, it will ultimately become large enough to cause the member to
become unstable and it is said to have buckled. Further loading will cause significant and
somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to complete loss of the member's load-
carrying capacity. If the deformations that occur after buckling do not cause the complete
collapse of that member, the member will continue to support the load that caused it to buckle.
If the buckled member is part of a larger assemblage of components such as a building, any
load applied to the buckled part of the structure beyond that which caused the member to buckle
will be redistributed within the structure.

The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross section
is called the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter lambda, λ). This ratio
affords a means of classifying columns and their failure mode. The slenderness ratio is
important for design considerations. All the following are approximate values used for
convenience.

If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity (centroid) of its cross section,
it is called an axial load. A load at any other point in the cross section is known as an eccentric
load. A short column under the action of an axial load will fail by direct compression before it
buckles, but a long column loaded in the same manner will fail by springing suddenly outward
laterally (buckling) in a bending mode. The buckling mode of deflection is considered a failure
mode, and it generally occurs before the axial compression stresses (direct compression) can
cause failure of the material by yielding or fracture of that compression member. However,
intermediate-length columns will fail by a combination of direct compressive stress and
bending.

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The theory of the behavior of columns was investigated in 1757 by mathematician Leonhard
Euler. He derived the formula, the Euler formula, that gives the maximum axial load that a
long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one that is perfectly
straight, made of a homogeneous material, and free from initial stress. When the applied load
reaches the Euler load, sometimes called the critical load, the column comes to be in a state of
unstable equilibrium. At that load, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the
column to fail by suddenly "jumping" to a new configuration, and the column is said to have
buckled. This is what happens when a person stands on an empty aluminum can and then taps
the sides briefly, causing it to then become instantly crushed (the vertical sides of the can
understood as an infinite series of extremely thin columns). The formula derived by Euler for
long slender columns is given

F = Maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),

E = Modulus of elasticity,
I = smallest area moment of inertia (second moment of area) of the cross section of the
column,
L = unsupported length of column,
K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of
the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K ≈ 0.7071.
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.
KL is the effective length of the column.

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ASSUMPTIONS IN EULERS THEORY:

1) Material is perfectly elastic

2) Flexural rigidity is uniform

3) The cross section of the column is uniform throughout its length

4) The column is initially straight and load applied is truly axial

5) Self weight of the column is negligible

6) The failure of column due to buckling alone

7) The length of column is very large

8) Direct compressive stress is neglected

9) Obeys Hooke’s law

TYPES OF END CONDITIONS

The most commonly used end conditions are,

(a) both ends are hinged

(b) Both ends are fixed

(c) One end fixed and another end is hinged

(d) one end free and the other is fixed

COLUMN WITH PINNED ENDS:

Euler’s crippling load for a column when both of its ends are hinged or pinned

(VTU, Dec.08, Jan.09, June/july 2011, Dec. 2012, June/July 2015)

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Figure shows a long column AB of length ‘l’ hinged at both ends A and B carrying a critical
load P at B. As a result of this load, let the column be deflect into a curved form A X A. consider
any section X-X at a distance x from A

Let P = critical load on the column

Y = Deflection of the column at X-X

Bending moment at section X-X, M = -Py

[-ve, since concavity towards the initial central line

= ; i.e

i.e

The general solution for this differential equation is

Boundary conditions

(i) when x = 0; y = 0, i.e at the end A, deflection = 0

Substituting these values in the equation we get

0 =A cos0 + B sin0

(ii) when x = l; y= 0, i.e at the end B, deflection = 0

Substituting these values in equation

0 = 0+B (since A=0)

i.e B =0; either B = 0 or =0

if B = 0, then there is no deflection(I.e if both the constants are zero then the column cannot
deflect at all)

then, = 0; i.e., l =0,π,2π,3π etc.

considering the least significant (non zero) value, i.e.,

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Therefore Euler,s cripping load when both ends are hinged or pinned

COLUMNS WITH OTHER SUPPORT CONDITIONS

Euler’s crippling load for a column when both ends are fixed
[VTU, Dec.07/Jan-07, Dec.2013, jan 2014, dec.2015, jan2016]

Figure shown a long column AB of length ‘l’ fixed at both ends A and B carrying a critical
load ‘P’ at B. As a result of this load let the column be deflect into a curved from A X B.
consider any section X-X at a distance x from A. the fixed ends
are subjected to reactive moments and reactive forces.
Let P be the critical load
Y be the deflection at x-x
MR = reactive moment at fixed ends
Bending moment at section x-x
M = MR – Py

i.e.,

i.e., +

The general solution for this differential equation is

+ ………(1)

Where A and B are constants of integration which can be found by using boundry conditions

Boundary conditions:

(i) At the fixed ends, slope = 0 i.e.,

Therefore

……….(2)

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When x=0; i.e.,at end A, slope =0

Substituting these values in equation (2)

Therefore

i.e.,

as P cannot be Zero , B=0

(ii) When x=0,y=0 i.e., at the end A,deflection =0

Substituting these values in equation (1)
i.e., =A+

Therefore A = -

Substituting the values of A and B in equation (1)

+ since

B=0………………………(3)

(iii) When x=l; y=0 i.e., at the end B, deflection =0

Substituting these values in equation (3)

+1)

i.e., +1=0; i.e.,

therefore = 0,2π,4π……..

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Considering the least significant (non zero) value, = 2π; i.e.,

Therefore Euler’s Cripping load when both ends are fixed

Euler’s crippling load for a column when one end of the column is fixed and other end is
free

Figure shown a long column AB of length ‘l’ fixed at both ends A and B carrying a critical
load ‘P’ at B. As a result of this load let the column be deflect into a curved from A X B. con
fixed sider any section X-X at a distance x from A. the fixed ends are subjected to reactive
moments and reactive forces.

Let P = critical load on the column

y = Deflection on the column at X-X

a= maximum deflection at the free end B

Bending moment at x-x,

(+ve because convexity towards the initial central lines)

i.e.,

i.e.,

i.e.,

The general solution for this differential quation is

……………(1)

Where A and B are constants of integration which can be found by using boundary conditions

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Boundary conditions:

(i) At the fixed ends, slope = 0 i.e.,

Therefore

……….(2)

When x=0; i.e.,at end A, slope =0

Substituting these values in equation (2)

Therefore

i.e.,

as P cannot be Zero , B=0

(ii) When x=0,y=0 i.e., at the end A, deflection =0

Substituting these values in equation (1)

Substituting the values of A and B in equation 1

…………(3)

(i) When x=l; y=a i.e., at the end B, deflection =a

Substituting these values in equation (3)

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i.e., i.e., [as a cannot be

zero]

Considering the least significant (non zero) value, , i.e.,

Therefore Euler’s cripping load when one end of the column is fixed and the other end is free

Effective or equivalent length of a column:

All expression for various end conditions can be generalized as

Where L= equivalent length of column.

I = least moment of inertia about one of the principal axes of the column’s section

The equivalent length or effective length of various conditions are given in table

9. Design the section of a circular cast iron column that can safely carry a load of 1000
kN The length of the column is 6meters. Rankins’s constant is 1/1600, factor of safety is
3. One end of the column is fixed and other end is free. critical stress is 560Mpa.

[VTU, JAN/FEB,2004]

Data:

l=6m=6000mm

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Mechanics of Materials (BME301)

; FOS=3; One end is fixed and other end free.

Solution:

Safe load =

Rankines cripping load,

Cross-sectional area of column, A=

Least moment of inertia of column, I=

Least radius of gyration,

Effective or equivalent length of column,L=2l=2 = 12000mm (one ends fixed

and other end free)

Rankine’s cripping Load,

On substitution we get

x=103183.82;ie.,

Therefore, Diameter of the column, d=321.2mm

10.Solid round bar of 60mm diameter and 2.5m is used as a strut. find the safe
compressive load for the strut if (i) both ends are hinged (ii) both ends are fixed. Take
E=205Gpa=205x103N/mm2

[VTU,JAN/FEB2005]

Data:

l=2.5m=2500mm;

E=205Gpa=205x103N/mm2; FOS=3

Solution:

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Least moment of inertia of column, I=

Both the ends are hinged:

Effective length of column, L=l=2500mm

Euler’s cripping load,

=200.92KN

Safe compressive load=

66.973KN

Both ends are fixed:

Effective length of column, L=l/2=2500/2=1250mm

Euler’s cripping load,

=803.68KN

Safe compressive load=

267.893KN

11.A 1.5m long column has a circular cross section of 50mm diameter.one end of the
column is fixed in direction and position and the other end is free taking FOS as
3,calculate the safe load using

[VTU,JAN/FEB2006,DEC.09/JAN.10,JUNE/JULY2013]

(i) Rankines formula taking yield stress 560N/mm 2 and

(ii)Euler’s formula,taking E=1.2 X 105N/mm2

Solution:

Cross-sectional area of column,A=

Effective length of column,L=2l=2x1500=3000mm

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Least moment of inertia of column, I=

Least radius of gyration,

Rankine’s cripping Load, =

Rankine’s safe Load=

Euler’s cripping load,

=40.373KN

Euler’s safe Load=

Cylinders
1. A steel penstock of 1.5m diameter and 15mm thick is subjected to 100m head of water.
Calculate the hoop stress and longitudinal stress at the bottom of the penstock.

[VTU,MODEL QUESTION]

Data: d=1.5m=1500mm; t=15mm;h=100m

Specific weight of water w=

N/m3=9.81x10-6 N/mm3

Solution:

Water pressure p=wh=9.81x10-6x105=0.981 N/mm2

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(i) Circumferential stress or hoop stress,

N/mm2

(ii) Longitudenal stress,

N/mm2

2. A thin cylindrical shell 1m in diameter and 3m long has a metal thickness of 10mm.it
is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 3Mpa.Determine

i.Circumferential and longitudinal stress

ii.Circumferential,longitudinal and volumetric strain
iii.Change in length,diameter and volume

Also find the maximum shearing stress in the shell.assume poisson’s ratio 0.3 and
E=210Gpa

[VTU,DEC06/JAN.07JUNE/JULY 08,DEC2011,JUNE 2012,JUNE/JULY 2013]

Data: d=1m=1000mm; l=3m=3000mm; t=10mm;p=3Mpa=3N/mm 2 ; 1/m=0.3; E=210Gpa

Solution:

(i) Circumferential and longitudinal stress

Hoop stress, N/mm2

Longitudenal stress, N/mm2

(ii) Circumferential, longitudinal and volumetric strain

Circumferential strain,

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Longitudinal Strain,

Volumetric strain,

(iii) Change in length, diameter and volume

Longitudinal Strain,

Therefore, change in length,

Circumferential strain,

Therefore, change in diameter,

where

Therefore, change in volume, mm3

(iv) Maximum shear stress,

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N/mm2

3.Find the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell of internal diameter 160mm
to withstand an internal fluid pressure of 8 N/mm2. The maximum alowwable or
permissible or hoop stress in the section is not to exceed 35 N/mm2.

[VTU,DEC06/JAN.07JUNE/JULY 10]

Data:

d1=160mm; r2 = 80mm; P80 = 8 N/mm2; f80 = 35 N/mm2

Solution:

Hoop stress at any radius x, fx=

When x=80mm; fx = 35 N/mm2; Px = 8 N/mm2

35 = …..1

8= ……2

Equating I and 2 we get

a=13.5 and b=137600

Substituting the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the Lame’s radial pressure equation

PX =

When x=r1 , Pr1 = 0

Therefore, outer radius of shell r1 = 100.96mm

Thickness of shell t = r1 – r2 = 100.96 – 80 = 20.96mm

4. From a thin cylinder shell, the l/d ratio is 3 and its initial volume is 20m 3.the ultimate
stress for the cylinder material is 200Mpa.Determine the wall thickness, if it has to convey
water under a head of 200mm.take FOS=2.

[VTU,DEC,2015/JAN,2016]

Data: l/d = 3; l=3d; v=20m3; N/mm2

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h= 200mm ; FOS = 2

Solution:

Permissible or allowable stress,

Initial or original volume , v=

2x1010 =

Therefore, internal diameter of cylindrical shell, d= 2039.9 mm

Permissible stress,

Therefore, wall thickness, t= 20.0124mm=20mm

Assignment Questions
1. Derive the expression for Hoop’s stress and longitudinal stress in thin cylinders.
2. Show that the sum of the normal stresses on any two planes at right andles in a general
two dimensional stress system is constant.

[VTU,JULY2007,DEC07/JAN,08,DEC08/JAN09,JUNE2013,DEC2013/JAN2014,
DEC2020/JAN2021]

2.A point in a strained materials is subjected to pure shear stress as shown in fig.determine
the maximum and minimum stress induced and orientation of their planes by mohr’s circle
method.

[VTU,JUNE/JULY 2000]

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3.An element with the stress acting on it,is as shown is in fig. By Mohr’s circle method
determine

i.Normal and shear stress acting on a plane whose normal is at angle of 110 wrt to X- axis

ii.Principal shear stress and their locations

iii.Maximum shear stress and their locations

[VTU,DEC2018/JAN2019]

4.Using the Mohr’s circle ,determine the principle stress and the planes of maximum shear
stress and the planes .show the same on the elements separately.

[VTU,DEC07/JAN09]

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5. An Element is subjected to the stresses as shown in the Figure. Determine 1) Principal

stresses and their directions 2) Normal and Tangential stresses on the plane AC. [VTU June –
July 202020]

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