PARTICULATE TECHNOLOGY LAB

LAB REPORT
Experiment 1 (a): to crush 1kg red bricks feed to reduce its size and
calculate crushing total energy and bond’s diameter, volume mean
diameter, mean volume diameter, Sauter mean diameter, length mean
diameter and plot Fractional distributional, Cumulative distributional
plot.
Objectives:
• To crush large chunks of rocks into smaller pieces like gravel.
• To get the quantity of area required for the use of ore or substance.
• Permitting simplicity of transportation and capacity.
• Parting of several mineral deposits contained by the ore and
discharging them from one another.
• Gaining the required quantity or fraction for the concentration level.
• To report the energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks (-3”, +2”)
using an imported (German) laboratory jaw crusher.
• To report the total energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks
(-3”, +2”) for the same equipment.
• To report the results of screen analysis, for the product, obtained in the
form of fractional and cumulative distributional plots, and give
inferences.
• To report different diameters for the product obtained, such as Bond’s
diameter, volume mean diameter, mean volume diameter, surface/Sauter
mean diameter, and mean length diameter.
Hypothesis:

Theory:
To make use of the rocks or ores obtained through quarrying/explosion in the Mining and
Construction sectors, the materials need to be crushed to reduce them to a smaller size. We
call this process SIZE REDUCTION or CRUSHING/ COMMINUTION. In general,
crushing is carried out in three stages, depending on the desired size of the material.
Primary Crushing
This is the first stage of the crushing process. In general, the size of the feed material, which
is between 800 and 1500 mm, is reduced to between 150 and 300 mm.

Secondary Crushing
This is the second stage of crushing. Feed size, which is around 150 to 300 mm of the rock or
ore from the primary crushing process is reduced to between 50 and 80 mm.
Tertiary Crushing
This is the third stage of crushing. The size, which is around 50–80 mm, of the ore or rock
from the secondary crushing process is reduced to between 5 and 12 mm.
We call the machine that performs the CRUSHING process a CRUSHING
MACHINE or CRUSHER.

• Crushers:
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel,
sand, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they
can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw
materials (as in rock ore) so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated.
Crushing is the process of transferring a force amplified by mechanical
advantage through a material made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and
resist deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices
hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces and apply sufficient force
to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy within the material being
crushed so that its molecules separate from (fracturing), or change alignment about
(deformation), each other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the
weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil.

• Crusher Types:
➢ Jaw crusher
➢ Gyratory crusher
➢ Cone Crusher
➢ Impact crusher
➢ Mineral sizers
➢ Crusher bucket

➢ Gyratory Crusher:
A gyratory crusher includes a solid cone set on a revolving shaft and placed
within a hollow body with conical or vertical sloping sides. Material is
crushed when the crushing surfaces approach each other and the crushed
products fall through the discharging opening.

Figure 1 A Gyratory crusher

 Cone Crusher :
Cone crusher is a modified gyratory crusher. A Cone Crusher is a compression
type of machine that reduces material by squeezing or compressing the feed
material between a moving piece of steel and a stationary piece of steel. The
closed side setting or the gap between the two crushing members at the lowest
point determines final sizing and reduction. As the wedge or eccentric rotates to
cause the compression within the chamber, the material gets smaller as it moves
down through the wear liner as the opening in the cavity gets tighter. The
crushed material is discharged at the bottom of the machine after they pass
through the cavity.

➢ Impact crusher :
Impact crushers (e.g., hammer mills and impact mills) employ sharp blows
applied at high speed to free-falling rocks where comminution is by impact
rather than compression. The moving parts are “beaters,” which transfer some of
their kinetic energy to the ore particles upon contact. Internal stresses created in
the particles are often large enough to cause them to shatter. These forces are
increased by causing the particles to impact upon an anvil or breaker plate.

➢ Mineral Sizers:
Mineral DDC-Sizers are used to process high volumes of hard rock
minerals such as iron ore, copper, gold, and nickel, as well as soft, non-
coal minerals, lower capacity battery minerals, and rare earth minerals
such as spodumene, antimony, and cobalt. These sizes are designed to
provide a more effective means for crushing clay-ridden, sticky material
that can cause problems in other types of primary crushers, such as Jaws,
Gyrators, and Impactors. With a lower height and smaller footprint than
other primary crushers, Mineral DDC-Sizers is ideal for underground
mining operations with lower headroom and other spacing restrictions.
➢ Crusher Bucket:
A bucket crusher or crusher bucket is a type of jaw crusher. It's an
attached tool for excavators for built-in crushing construction
waste and demolition materials. It has the design of a shovel, which is
open at the rear for releasing the shredded material. Compared to
normal jaw crushers, The jaw crusher bucket has a lower production,
but can be transported more easily and only needs an excavator to
operate.

➢ Jaw Crusher:

A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking ore pieces. The compressive
force is applied by two jaws (dies), one of the crusher jaws is stationary (fixed
jaw) whilst the other is moving (swing jaw). Material is fed into the top feed
opening (gape) and gradually moves downwards towards the lower discharge
outlet. As the materials pass towards the outlet, it is crushed between the
stationary and moving jaws. The V-shaped area between the two jaws is
referred to as the ‘crushing chamber’. Because the space between the two jaws
becomes narrower towards the discharge outlet, the material size is
progressively reduced.

 Jaw Crusher:
Types of Jaw Crushers:
o Blake Jaw Crusher
o Dodge Jaw Crusher
o PE Universal Jaw Crusher
o Mobile Jaw Crusher
 Blake Jaw Crusher:
Blake Crushers are Jaw Crushers with a movable jaw pivoted at the top, giving the
greatest movement to the smallest lumps. The throw of Blake’s jaw crushers is
determined by the hardness of the ore as well as the size of the machine. It may vary
from d in for hard but friable ores to 3 in for resilient material.

 Types of Blake Jaw Crusher:

Single Toggle Jaw Crusher
Double Toggle Jaw Crusher
Single Toggle Jaw Crusher: An eccentric shaft is positioned
on the top of the crusher. The swing jaw plate hangs on the
eccentric drive shaft and moves up and down in elliptical
motion, which compresses rock material as it moves down from
the feeding part.

Double Toggle Jaw Crusher: A jaw crusher in which the

motion of the eccentric shaft is transmitted through the pitman
to a toggle joint, formed by two toggle plates hinged together,
at its lower end. The opposite end of one plate is hinged on the
backplate and the opposite end of the other at the load point,
i.e., the jaw stock. The effort applied at the common hinge point
causes the obtuse angle between the plates to increase and
considerable force is produced at the jaw stock.

 Dodge Jaw Crusher: In the Dodge type jaw

crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at
the bottom which forms a tapered chute so that the
material is crushed progressively smaller and
smaller as it travels downward until it is small
enough to escape from the bottom opening. And
moveable jaw is pivoted at the bottom and the top
end executes the reciprocating motion. it has a fixed
discharging area and a changeable feeding area.
 PE Universal Jaw Crusher: Universal Jaw Crushers are overhead eccentric
jaw crushers that continuously reduce material as it passes through the crushing
chamber with its aggressive force feed action as the movable jaw compresses
inward and downward. The sharp primary blow at the top of the chamber reduces
material instantly, while a secondary crushing action at the bottom further reduces
the material to the predetermined output size. Universal Jaw Crushers offer a
compressive stroke that is nearly equal at both the top and bottom of the chamber,
producing more spec material at a lower cost per ton.

 Mobile Jaw Crusher: The mobile crusher is also called the mobile crushing
station, including tire mobile crushing station and crawler mobile crushing station,
which is a kind of rock crushing equipment newly developed. Unlike the
traditional jaw crusher, this new type of mobile crusher can be easily and flexibly
moved to the crushing site, which eliminates the obstacles caused by the crushing
sites and the conditions. And they are specialised mining and excavation equipment
used in open pit mines, designed for three main purposes, for crushing material,
screening/sorting material and conveying material to its destination at the mining
site. Therefore, it is widely applied in coal mining plants, infrastructure, road
construction, and urban construction waste recycling which have more
requirements on the mobility of the crushing sites.

LABORATORY JAW CRUSHER:

Element Description Function
ON/OFF switch and motor Starts and stops the jaw crusher drive; isolates
A protection the motor from the power supply in case of
(overload) switch overload.
B Fill hopper Allows for the feed of material; prevents
unintentionally reaching into the crushing
chamber; prevents ejection of the material being
processed.
C Receiver drawer V = 2000 ml Accepts the crushed sample material.

D Hand barrier Prevents unintentionally reaching into the

crushing chamber.
E Two machine screws The fill hopper B can be swung to the rear once
these screws have been removed.
F Limit switch Disables the drive (motor) when the fill hopper B
is swung to the rear.
G Clamping shim Secures the breaker jaws J on the breaker arms
S and T.
H Machine screws Secure the clamping shims at G.

J Breaker jaws The size reduction components.

K Two machine screws Secure the scale at M.

L Pointer Indicates at scale M the width of the gap, at a

tolerance of ±1 mm.
M Scale Indicates, in conjunction with the pointer L, the
width of the gap; used to zero the gap width
adjustment to accommodate for crusher jaw
wear.
N Lock nut Locks the threaded spindle O.

Threaded spindle Increases the gap width when turned to the left,
O
decreases when turned to the right.
P Eye bolts Attachment points when using lifting tackle to
move the device.
Q Pin Releases the breaker arm S when the fill hopper
B is swung back and the pin is pulled out.
R Handle Facilitates removal of the breaker arm S.

Breaker arm, stationary The breaker jaw J is mounted here; adjustment of

S the gap width can be adjusted with the threaded
spindle O.
Breaker arm, moving The breaker jaw J is mounted here; executes the
T crushing motion required for size reduction
without manual effort.
Wearing plates in the crushing
U Prevent damage to the side components.
chamber
Sieving and sieves:
A sieve, fine mesh strainer, or sift, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted
material or for controlling the particle size distribution of a sample, using a screen such as
a woven mesh or net or perforated sheet material and the process of particle size distribution
using sieves is called sieving or sieve analysis .

Components of a Sieve/screen:
 Aperture
 Mesh
 Mesh #
Aperture:
Aperture or Aperture width is the distance between two adjacent warp or weft
wires, measured in the projected plane at the mid positions.

Figure 2 aperture and pitch Figure 2 aperture

Figure 3 square aperture Figure 4 rectangular aperture Figure 5 no aperture

 Mesh:
The opening or perforated surface created by woven
wires is called a Mesh.

 Mesh #:
U.S. Mesh Size (or U.S. Sieve Size) is defined as the number of openings in one
square inch of a screen. For example, a 36-mesh screen will have 36 openings
while a 150-mesh screen will have 150 openings. Since the size of screen (one
square inch) is constant, the higher the mesh number the smaller the screen opening
and the smaller the particle that will pass through. Generally, US Mesh is measured
using screens down to a 325 mesh (325 openings in one square inch). Sometimes
the mesh size of a product in noted with either a minus (-) or plus (+) sign. These
signs indicate that the particles are either all smaller than (-) or all larger than (+)
the mesh size. For example, a product identified as -100 mesh would contain only
particles that passed through a 100-mesh screen. A +100 grade would contain
particles that did not pass through a 100-mesh screen. When a grade of product is
noted with a dash, or a slash is indicating that the product has particle contained
within the two mesh sizes. For example, a 30/70 or 30-70 grade would only have
particles that are smaller than 30 mesh and larger than 70 mesh.

Why 15 to 20 mins horizontal action sieving?

Grain size is a fundamental property of sediments and is commonly used to describe
sedimentary facies and classify sedimentary environments. Among the various
conventional techniques utilized to determine grain-size frequency distributions,
sieving is the most widely applied procedure. The accuracy of such analyses is,
among other factors, strongly dependent on the sieving time. However, despite a
substantial amount of research in this field, optimal sieving times for different types
of sediments have, to date, not been established. In this article, the influence of
sieving time on grain-size analyses of medium-grained microtidal and mesotidal
beach and dune sands has been determined. To assess the precision of important
textural parameters, such as median grain size, sorting, skewness and kurtosis, an
error analysis was carried out for different sieving times (2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes).
After calibrating the analytical and sampling methodologies, significant deviations
were registered when sieving time was less than 10 minutes. However, such
deviations were very small and grain-size distributions remained almost identical for
sieving times of 10 minutes and longer, relative errors being as low as 0% in some
cases.

Open Circuit Crushing:

An open circuit operation is where feed material is only run through the crusher
once. This usually occurs in a primary and sometimes secondary operation where
uniformity of product size is not as critical.

Closed Circuit Crushing:

A closed-circuit operation is where material is continuously returned to the crusher until it’s
of a size that will pass through the product screen.

 Types of Diameters :
Bond’s Diameter
Mass Mean Diameter
Volume Mean Diameter
Surface Mean Diameter
Mean Surface Diameter
Length Mean Diameter
Mean Length Diameter

• Bond’s Diameter:
The length on the graph, From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size where
80% of the particles have passed through +80 mesh.

• Mass Mean Diameter :

Diameter of a spherical particle with a mass equal to the mean mass of all the
particles in a population. Which is illustrated by equation
𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 ) 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 )
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝛴 (𝑛1𝑑1 3 ) =
𝜌𝑠 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑13 )
ρs is the density of the particles, and ki is a constant whose value depends on the shape of the
particle.

• Volume Mean Diameter:

It is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as
a particle of interest or if all the particles are of diameter d΄v, then the total volume of
particles is the same as in the mixture. It is given by equation
3 ∑ 𝑥1 1
d΄ v = √ 3 = 3√( )
Σ(x1 /d1 ) Σ(x1 /d13 )

• Surface Mean Diameter:

Sauter/ Surface mean diameter (SMD, d32 or D[3, 2]) is an average of particle size. It
is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as a
particle of interest.

𝑑𝑠 = 𝛴𝑥𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 ) = 1/𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 )

• Mean Surface Diameter:
The mean surface diameter is defined as the size of particle d΄ s which is such that if
all the particles are of this size, the total surface will be the same as in the mixture.

d΄ s = √(Σ(xi /di )/Σ(xi /di 3 ) )

• Length Mean Diameter:
𝑑𝑙 = 𝛴[(𝑛𝑖𝑑)𝑑𝑖 ]/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )
• Mean length diameter:
Mean length diameter or arithmetic mean diameter is defined as what would be the
particle size you would give to unequal particles which will form the equal length,
which will be equal to the assumed particles of equal length and equal size.

𝑑𝑙 ΄ = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 )/𝛴𝑛𝑖 = 𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 3 )

• Voidage:
Voidage is the proportion of unoccupied volume (that is, gaps or empty spaces) in a
volume of some material. The term voidage is normally used to refer to the tiny spaces
between particles in a powder or granulated material like sand. The actual calculation of
voidage is simple: it is the amount of empty space divided by the total volume.
• Bulk Density:
Bulk density, also called apparent density or volumetric density, is a property
of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference
to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances, (pharmaceutical) ingredients,
foodstuff, or any other masses of corpuscular or particulate matter (particles).
Bulk density is defined as the mass of the many particles of the material divided by the
total volume they occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void
volume, and internal pore volume.

• APPARATUS:
German jaw crusher
US ASTM Sieves
Energy meter
Stopwatch
Sieve shaker
• Procedure:
• Prepare 5 kg of feed (red bricks) of the size that can pass through a 3 in holethe and retain on
a 2 in the hole.
• Note down the time (t1) required for 2 revolutions (n1) of the energy meter disc under
unloaded conditions. Also, note down the energy meter factor (N).
• Note down the initial meter reading (R1) and turn on the crusher. Start introducing the feed
pieces one by one and start the stopwatch simultaneously to measure the total time (T)
required for the crushing.
• While crushing, note down the time (t2) required for 2 revolutions (n2) under loaded
conditions.
• When crushing is completed, stop the stopwatch and turn off the crusher. Note down the total
time required for crushing and the final meter reading (R2).
• Again, turn on the crusher and note down the time required for 2 revolutions under unloaded
conditions. Take the average value of two t1 s.
• Analyse the material by sieving (using preferably 2, 4, 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 US
ASTM mesh sieves) and weigh out the mass retained on each sieve and in the pan.

• Observations & Calculations:

Energy:
Total weight of the feed taken = W = 1 kg

No. of revolutions of energy meter for un-loaded conditions = n1 = 2 rev

Time elapsed for “n1” revolutions = t1 = 5.28 s

No. of revolutions of energy meter for loaded conditions = n2 = 2 revs

Time elapsed for “n2” revolutions = t2= 8.55 s

Energy meter factor =N= 600 rev/kWh

Total time of crushing = T = 46.71 s

Energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-tonn material
(E),

E= , Kwh/ton

Putting values, we have

E = 11.2781 Kw/ton
Total energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-ton material
=ET

ET , Kwh/ton

Putting value, we have

ET = ..... Kw/ton

An alternate method for the measurement of the energy required for crushing:

Initial meter reading = R1 =............ Kwh

Final meter reading = R2= .............Kwh

Total energy required = R2 - R1 = ............ Kwh

The total energy required for one ton of material

ET Kwh/ton
Distribution of particle size

US ASTM FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT CUMALATIVE DISTRIBUTIONAL

MESH PLOT
Weight retained Weight Average Stated A cumulative
(g) fraction particle size particle size fraction less than
(X) “d” μm (μm) the stated size
+4 314 0.314 15875 25400 0.686
-4 +8 364 0.364 4762.5 6350 0.636
-8 +10 60 0.060 2857.5 3175 0.94
-10 +12 28 0.028 2328.3333 2540 0.972
-12 +20 54 0.054 1693.3333 2116.6667 0.946
-20 +35 28 0.028 997.85714 1270 0.972
-35 +48 36 0.036 627.44047 725.71428 0.964
-48 +65 18 0.018 459.96794 529.16667 0.982
-65+100 14 0.014 322.38461 390.76923 0.986
-
100+pan 84 0.084 - 254 0.916
1000 1 29924.31676 42751.31718

CUMULATIVE FRACTIONAL PLOT

Stated particle size (μm) 25400 6350 3175
2540 2116.6667 1270 725.71428 529.16667
390.76923 254
1.2

0.8
Stated particle size
Axis Title

(μm) 25400 6350 3175

0.6
2540 2116.6667 1270
0.4 725.71428 529.16667
390.76923 254
0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTINAL PLOT

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Note: try also to present the fraction distribution plot on a semi-log graph paper and cumulative
fractional plot on log-log paper

Inferences: 1. Inferences from fractional distribution plot

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2. Inferences from cumulative distribution plot
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...............................................................................................
Diameters:

1. Bond‟s diameter=𝑑80

From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size

𝑑80=_____ µm=_____ in Table for the Measurement of Average

Diameters
US WEIGHT AVERAGE
ASTM FRACTION PARTICLE 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
xd
MESH “X” SIZE “d” 𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑
μm
-1 +4 0.314 15875 4984.75
-4 +8 0.364 4762.5 1733.55
-8 +10 0.060 2857.5 17the 1.45
-10+12 0.028 2328.3333 65.1933
-12+20 0.054 1693.3333 91.4399
-20+35 0.028 997.85714 27.9399
-35+48 0.036 627.44047 22.5878
-48+65 0.018 459.96794 8.27942
-
65+100 0.014 322.38461 4.51338
-
100pan
0.084 - -
𝒏 𝑛 𝑛 𝒏
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝒙𝒊
∑ ∑ 2
∑ 𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ∑
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝒅𝒊𝟑
𝒊=𝟏 = = 𝒊=𝟏
=
Weight (volume) mean diameter = , and = _____µm= _____in

′
Mean Volume Diameter= = _____ µm = _____ in
Surface mean diameter or Sauter mean diameter = , and

= _____ µm = _____ in
Length mean diameter = , and =

𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫
BULK DENSITY = 𝑩𝑼𝑳𝑲 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫=0.4g/dcm-3

Results:
1. Total energy required for crushing red bricks and running the machine is _____
kWh/ton.
2. Energy required for crushing the red bricks only is _____ kWh/ton.
Average particle diameters of product.

Applications:
Jaw Crusher can be used in mining, metallurgical industry, construction,
road and railway building, chemistry, etc.
Pros and Cons of Jaw Crushers:
Pros:
• simple structure
• low cost,
• inspect, repair, maintenance is convenient,
• reliable work, small machine body
• easy device, for the ores with water and high viscosity also are not easy to jam.

Cons:
• lower productivity
• lower power consumption, bigger vibration,
• small crushing ratio, uneven particle size,
• can’t crowd feed ore
• product granularity is not uniform
Safety Precautions:
• Average size lumps should be used for crushing.
• The machine should be run at the proper voltage.

• Don’t fondle with apparatus

• Don’t operate an apparatus until you are permitted by the instructor
• Don’t put your bags and other stuff on the apparatus table
• Don’t let the power cords drape across the floor
• Don’t get too close to the moving parts
• Don’t get close to running equipment with loose clothes
• No smoking or drinking allowed in the lab

• Wear safety goggles, lab coats, closed shoes, and masks.

EXPERIMENT 1(b)
to crush 1kg red bricks feed to reduce its size and calculate crushing
total energy and bond’s diameter, volume mean diameter, mean
volume diameter, Sauter mean diameter, length mean diameter and
plot Fractional distributional, Cumulative distributional plot.
Objectives:
• To crush large chunks of rocks into smaller pieces like gravel.
• To get the quantity of area required for the use of ore or substance.
• Permitting simplicity of transportation and capacity.
• Parting of several mineral deposits contained by the ore and
discharging them from one another.
• Gaining the required quantity or fraction for the concentration level.
• To report the energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks (-3”, +2”)
using a local (Pakistani) laboratory jaw crusher.
• To report the total energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks
(-3”, +2”) for the same equipment.
• To report the results of screen analysis, for the product, obtained in the
form of fractional and cumulative distributional plots, and give
inferences.
• To report different diameters for the product obtained, such as Bond’s
diameter, volume mean diameter, mean volume diameter, surface/Sauter
mean diameter, and mean length diameter.
Hypothesis:

Theory:
To make use of the rocks or ores obtained through quarrying/explosion in the Mining and
Construction sectors, the materials need to be crushed to reduce them to a smaller size. We
call this process SIZE REDUCTION or CRUSHING/ COMMINUTION. In general,
crushing is carried out in three stages, depending on the desired size of the material.

Primary Crushing
This is the first stage of the crushing process. In general, the size of the feed material, which
is between 800 and 1500 mm, is reduced to between 150 and 300 mm.

Secondary Crushing
This is the second stage of crushing. Feed size, which is around 150 to 300 mm of the rock or
ore from the primary crushing process is reduced to between 50 and 80 mm.
Tertiary Crushing
This is the third stage of crushing. The size, which is around 50–80 mm, of the ore or rock
from the secondary crushing process is reduced to between 5 and 12 mm.
We call the machine that performs the CRUSHING process a CRUSHING
MACHINE or CRUSHER.

• Crushers:
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel,
sand, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they
can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw
materials (as in rock ore) so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated.
Crushing is the process of transferring a force amplified by mechanical
advantage through a material made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and
resist deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices
hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces and apply sufficient force
to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy within the material being
crushed so that its molecules separate from (fracturing), or change alignment about
(deformation), each other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the
weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil.

• Crusher Types:
➢ Jaw crusher
➢ Gyratory crusher
➢ Cone Crusher
➢ Impact crusher
➢ Mineral sizers
➢ Crusher bucket

➢ Gyratory Crusher:
A gyratory crusher includes a solid cone set on a revolving shaft and placed
within a hollow body with conical or vertical sloping sides. Material is
crushed when the crushing surfaces approach each other and the crushed
products fall through the discharging opening.

Figure 6 A Gyratory crusher

 Cone Crusher :
Cone crusher is a modified gyratory crusher. A Cone Crusher is a compression
type of machine that reduces material by squeezing or compressing the feed
material between a moving piece of steel and a stationary piece of steel. The
closed side setting or the gap between the two crushing members at the lowest
point determines final sizing and reduction. As the wedge or eccentric rotates to
cause the compression within the chamber, the material gets smaller as it moves
down through the wear liner as the opening in the cavity gets tighter. The
crushed material is discharged at the bottom of the machine after they pass
through the cavity.
➢ Impact crusher :
Impact crushers (e.g., hammer mills and impact mills) employ sharp blows
applied at high speed to free-falling rocks where comminution is by impact
rather than compression. The moving parts are “beaters,” which transfer some of
their kinetic energy to the ore particles upon contact. Internal stresses created in
the particles are often large enough to cause them to shatter. These forces are
increased by causing the particles to impact upon an anvil or breaker plate.

➢ Mineral Sizers:

Mineral DDC-Sizers are used to process high volumes of hard rock

minerals such as iron ore, copper, gold, and nickel, as well as soft, non-
coal minerals, lower capacity battery minerals, and rare earth minerals
such as spodumene, antimony, and cobalt. These sizes are designed to
provide a more effective means for crushing clay-ridden, sticky material
that can cause problems in other types of primary crushers, such as Jaws,
Gyrators, and Impactors. With a lower height and smaller footprint than
other primary crushers, Mineral DDC-Sizers is ideal for underground
mining operations with lower headroom and other spacing restrictions.

➢ Crusher Bucket:
A bucket crusher or crusher bucket is a type of jaw crusher. It's an
attached tool for excavators for built-in crushing construction
waste and demolition materials. It has the design of a shovel, which is
open at the rear for releasing the shredded material. Compared to
normal jaw crushers, The jaw crusher bucket has a lower production,
but can be transported more easily and only needs an excavator to
operate.

➢ Jaw Crusher:
A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking ore pieces. The compressive
force is applied by two jaws (dies), one of the crusher jaws is stationary (fixed
jaw) whilst the other is moving (swing jaw). Material is fed into the top feed
opening (gape) and gradually moves downwards towards the lower discharge
outlet. As the materials pass towards the outlet, it is crushed between the
stationary and moving jaws. The V-shaped area between the two jaws is
referred to as the ‘crushing chamber’. Because the space between the two jaws
becomes narrower towards the discharge outlet, the material size is
progressively reduced.

 Jaw Crusher:
Types of Jaw Crushers:
o Blake Jaw Crusher
o Dodge Jaw Crusher
o PE Universal Jaw Crusher
o Mobile Jaw Crusher
 Blake Jaw Crusher:
Blake Crushers are Jaw Crushers with a movable jaw pivoted at the top, giving the
greatest movement to the smallest lumps. The throw of Blake’s jaw crushers is
determined by the hardness of the ore as well as the size of the machine. It may vary
from d in for hard but friable ores to 3 in for resilient material.

 Types of Blake Jaw Crusher:

Single Toggle Jaw Crusher
Double Toggle Jaw Crusher
Single Toggle Jaw Crusher: An eccentric shaft is positioned
on the top of the crusher. The swing jaw plate hangs on the
eccentric drive shaft and moves up and down in elliptical
motion, which compresses rock material as it moves down from
the feeding part.

Double Toggle Jaw Crusher: A jaw crusher in which the

motion of the eccentric shaft is transmitted through the pitman
to a toggle joint, formed by two toggle plates hinged together,
at its lower end. The opposite end of one plate is hinged on the
backplate and the opposite end of the other at the load point,
i.e., the jaw stock. The effort applied at the common hinge point
causes the obtuse angle between the plates to increase and
considerable force is produced at the jaw stock.
 Dodge Jaw Crusher: In the Dodge type jaw
crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at
the bottom which forms a tapered chute so that the
material is crushed progressively smaller and
smaller as it travels downward until it is small
enough to escape from the bottom opening. And
moveable jaw is pivoted at the bottom and the top
end executes the reciprocating motion. it has a fixed
discharging area and a changeable feeding area.

 PE Universal Jaw Crusher: Universal Jaw Crushers are overhead eccentric

jaw crushers that continuously reduce material as it passes through the crushing
chamber with its aggressive force feed action as the movable jaw compresses
inward and downward. The sharp primary blow at the top of the chamber reduces
material instantly, while a secondary crushing action at the bottom further reduces
the material to the predetermined output size. Universal Jaw Crushers offer a
compressive stroke that is nearly equal at both the top and bottom of the chamber,
producing more spec material at a lower cost per ton.

 Mobile Jaw Crusher: The mobile crusher is also called the mobile crushing
station, including tire mobile crushing station and crawler mobile crushing station,
which is a kind of rock crushing equipment newly developed. Unlike the
traditional jaw crusher, this new type of mobile crusher can be easily and flexibly
moved to the crushing site, which eliminates the obstacles caused by the crushing
sites and the conditions. And they are specialised mining and excavation equipment
used in open pit mines, designed for three main purposes, for crushing material,
screening/sorting material and conveying material to its destination at the mining
site. Therefore, it is widely applied in coal mining plants, infrastructure, road
construction, and urban construction waste recycling which have more
requirements on the mobility of the crushing sites.

LABORATORY JAW CRUSHER:

Sieving and sieves:

A sieve, fine mesh strainer, or sift, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted
material or for controlling the particle size distribution of a sample, using a screen such as
a woven mesh or net or perforated sheet material and the process of particle size distribution
using sieves is called sieving or sieve analysis .

Components of a Sieve/screen:
 Aperture
 Mesh
 Mesh #
Aperture:
Aperture or Aperture width is the distance between two adjacent warp or weft
wires, measured in the projected plane at the mid positions.

Figure 7 aperture and pitch Figure 2 aperture

Figure 8 square aperture Figure 9 rectangular aperture Figure 10 no aperture

 Mesh:
The opening or perforated surface created by woven
wires is called a Mesh.

 Mesh #:
U.S. Mesh Size (or U.S. Sieve Size) is defined as the number of openings in one
square inch of a screen. For example, a 36-mesh screen will have 36 openings
while a 150-mesh screen will have 150 openings. Since the size of screen (one
square inch) is constant, the higher the mesh number the smaller the screen opening
and the smaller the particle that will pass through. Generally, US Mesh is measured
using screens down to a 325 mesh (325 openings in one square inch). Sometimes
the mesh size of a product in noted with either a minus (-) or plus (+) sign. These
signs indicate that the particles are either all smaller than (-) or all larger than (+)
the mesh size. For example, a product identified as -100 mesh would contain only
particles that passed through a 100-mesh screen. A +100 grade would contain
particles that did not pass through a 100-mesh screen. When a grade of product is
noted with a dash, or a slash is indicating that the product has particle contained
within the two mesh sizes. For example, a 30/70 or 30-70 grade would only have
particles that are smaller than 30 mesh and larger than 70 mesh.
Why 15 to 20 mins horizontal action sieving?
Grain size is a fundamental property of sediments and is commonly used to describe
sedimentary facies and classify sedimentary environments. Among the various
conventional techniques utilized to determine grain-size frequency distributions,
sieving is the most widely applied procedure. The accuracy of such analyses is,
among other factors, strongly dependent on the sieving time. However, despite a
substantial amount of research in this field, optimal sieving times for different types
of sediments have, to date, not been established. In this article, the influence of
sieving time on grain-size analyses of medium-grained microtidal and mesotidal
beach and dune sands has been determined. To assess the precision of important
textural parameters, such as median grain size, sorting, skewness and kurtosis, an
error analysis was carried out for different sieving times (2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes).
After calibrating the analytical and sampling methodologies, significant deviations
were registered when sieving time was less than 10 minutes. However, such
deviations were very small and grain-size distributions remained almost identical for
sieving times of 10 minutes and longer, relative errors being as low as 0% in some
cases.

Open Circuit Crushing:

An open circuit operation is where feed material is only run through the crusher
once. This usually occurs in a primary and sometimes secondary operation where
uniformity of product size is not as critical.
Closed Circuit Crushing:
A closed-circuit operation is where material is continuously returned to the crusher until it’s
of a size that will pass through the product screen.

 Types of Diameters :
Bond’s Diameter
Mass Mean Diameter
Volume Mean Diameter
Surface Mean Diameter
Mean Surface Diameter
Length Mean Diameter
Mean Length Diameter

• Bond’s Diameter:
The length on the graph, From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size where
80% of the particles have passed through +80 mesh.

• Mass Mean Diameter :

Diameter of a spherical particle with a mass equal to the mean mass of all the
particles in a population. Which is illustrated by equation
𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 ) 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 )
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑘1 𝜌𝑠
𝑘1 𝛴 (𝑛1𝑑1 3 ) = 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑13 )
ρs is the density of the particles, and ki is a constant whose value depends on the shape of the
particle.

• Volume Mean Diameter:

It is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as
a particle of interest or if all the particles are of diameter d΄v, then the total volume of
particles is the same as in the mixture. It is given by equation
3 ∑ 𝑥1 1
d΄ v = √ 3 = 3√( )
Σ(x1 /d1 ) Σ(x1 /d13 )

• Surface Mean Diameter:

Sauter/ Surface mean diameter (SMD, d32 or D[3, 2]) is an average of particle size. It
is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as a
particle of interest.

𝑑𝑠 = 𝛴𝑥𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 ) = 1/𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 )

• Mean Surface Diameter:
The mean surface diameter is defined as the size of particle d΄ s which is such that if
all the particles are of this size, the total surface will be the same as in the mixture.

d΄ s = √(Σ(xi /di )/Σ(xi /di 3 ) )

• Length Mean Diameter:
𝑑𝑙 = 𝛴[(𝑛𝑖𝑑)𝑑𝑖 ]/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )
• Mean length diameter:
Mean length diameter or arithmetic mean diameter is defined as what would be the
particle size you would give to unequal particles which will form the equal length,
which will be equal to the assumed particles of equal length and equal size.

𝑑𝑙 ΄ = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 )/𝛴𝑛𝑖 = 𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 3 )

• Voidage:
Voidage is the proportion of unoccupied volume (that is, gaps or empty spaces) in a
volume of some material. The term voidage is normally used to refer to the tiny spaces
between particles in a powder or granulated material like sand. The actual calculation of
voidage is simple: it is the amount of empty space divided by the total volume.
• Bulk Density:
Bulk density, also called apparent density or volumetric density, is a property
of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference
to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances, (pharmaceutical) ingredients,
foodstuff, or any other masses of corpuscular or particulate matter (particles).
Bulk density is defined as the mass of the many particles of the material divided by the
total volume they occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void
volume, and internal pore volume.
• APPARATUS:
Pakistani jaw crusher
US ASTM Sieves
Energy meter
Stopwatch
Sieve shaker
• Procedure:
• Prepare 5 kg of feed (red bricks) of the size that can pass through a 3 in holethe and retain on
a 2 in the hole.
• Note down the time (t1) required for 2 revolutions (n1) of the energy meter disc under
unloaded conditions. Also, note down the energy meter factor (N).
• Note down the initial meter reading (R1) and turn on the crusher. Start introducing the feed
pieces one by one and start the stopwatch simultaneously to measure the total time (T)
required for the crushing.
• While crushing, note down the time (t2) required for 2 revolutions (n2) under loaded
conditions.
• When crushing is completed, stop the stopwatch and turn off the crusher. Note down the total
time required for crushing and the final meter reading (R2).
• Again, turn on the crusher and note down the time required for 2 revolutions under unloaded
conditions. Take the average value of two t1 s.
• Analyse the material by sieving (using preferably 2, 4, 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 US
ASTM mesh sieves) and weigh out the mass retained on each sieve and in the pan.

• Observations & Calculations:

Energy:
Total weight of the feed taken = W = 1 kg

No. of revolutions of energy meter for un-loaded conditions = n1 = 2 rev

Time elapsed for “n1” revolutions = t1 = 5.28 s

No. of revolutions of energy meter for loaded conditions = n2 = 2 revs

Time elapsed for “n2” revolutions = t2= 8.55 s

Energy meter factor =N= 600 rev/kWh

Total time of crushing = T = 46.71 s

Energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-tonn material
(E),
E= , Kwh/ton

Putting values, we have

E = 11.2781 Kw/ton
Total energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-ton material
=ET

ET , Kwh/ton

Putting value, we have

ET = ..... Kw/ton

An alternate method for the measurement of the energy required for crushing:

Initial meter reading = R1 =............ Kwh

Final meter reading = R2= .............Kwh

Total energy required = R2 - R1 = ............ Kwh

The total energy required for one ton of material

ET Kwh/ton
Distribution of particle size

US FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT CUMALATIVE DISTRIBUTIONAL

ASTM PLOT
MESH
Weight Weight Average Stated A cumulative
retained fraction particle size particle size fraction less than
(g) (X) “d” μm (μm) the stated size
650 0.67 15875 25400 0.33
+4 150 0.156 4762.5 6350 0.844
-4 +8 28 0.029 2857.5 3175 0.971
-8 +10 14 0.014 2328.3333 2540 0.986
-10 +12 22 0.022 1693.3333 2116.6667 0.978
-12 +20 28 0.029 997.85714 1270 0.971
-20 +35 4 4.1× 10−3 627.44047 725.71428 0.9959
-35 +48 14 0.0146 459.96794 529.16667 0.9854
-48 +65 3 3.13× 10−3 322.38461 390.76923 0.99687
-65+100
- 0.0459
100+pan 44 - 254 0.9541
957 0.98773 29924.31676 42751.31688

FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT

weight fraction
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
CUMALATIVE DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT

STATED PARTICLE SIZE

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Note: try also to present the fraction distribution plot on a semi-log graph paper and cumulative
fractional plot on log-log paper

Inferences: 1. Inferences from fractional distribution plot

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2. Inferences from cumulative distribution plot
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................
Diameters:

1. Bond‟s diameter=𝑑80

From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size

𝑑80=_____ µm=_____ in Table for the Measurement of Average

Diameters
US WEIGHT AVERAGE
ASTM FRACTION PARTICLE xd 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
MESH “X” SIZE “d” 𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑
μm
-1 +4 0.67 15875
-4 +8 0.156 4762.5
-8 +10 0.029 2857.5
-10+12 0.014 2328.3333
-12+20 0.022 1693.3333
-20+35 0.029 997.85714
-35+48 4.1× 10−3 627.44047
-48+65 459.96794
0.0146
-
3.13× 10−3
65+100 322.38461
-
100pan 0.0459
-
𝒏 𝑛 𝑛 𝒏
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝒙𝒊
∑ ∑ 2
∑ 𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ∑
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝒅𝒊𝟑
𝒊=𝟏 = = 𝒊=𝟏
=

Weight (volume) mean diameter = , and = _____µm= _____in

′
Mean Volume Diameter= = _____ µm = _____ in
Surface mean diameter or Sauter mean diameter = , and

= _____ µm = _____ in
Length mean diameter = , and =
𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫
BULK DENSITY = 𝑩𝑼𝑳𝑲 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫=0.4g/dcm-3

Results:
3. Total energy required for crushing red bricks and running the machine is _____
kWh/ton.
4. Energy required for crushing the red bricks only is _____ kWh/ton.
Average particle diameters of product.

Applications:
Jaw Crusher can be used in mining, metallurgical industry, construction,
road and railway building, chemistry, etc.
Pros and Cons of Jaw Crushers:
Pros:
• simple structure
• low cost,
• inspect, repair, maintenance is convenient,
• reliable work, small machine body
• easy device, for the ores with water and high viscosity also are not easy to jam.

Cons:
• lower productivity
• lower power consumption, bigger vibration,
• small crushing ratio, uneven particle size,
• can’t crowd feed ore
• product granularity is not uniform
EXPERIMENT 2
to crush 1kg red bricks feed to reduce its size and calculate crushing
total energy and bond’s diameter, volume mean diameter, mean volume
diameter, Sauter mean diameter, length mean diameter and plot
Fractional distributional, Cumulative distributional plot.
Objectives:
• To crush large chunks of rocks into smaller pieces like gravel.
• To get the quantity of area required for the use of ore or substance.
• Permitting simplicity of transportation and capacity.
• Parting of several mineral deposits contained by the ore and
discharging them from one another.
• Gaining the required quantity or fraction for the concentration level.
• To report the energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks (-3”, +2”)
using a laboratory Disc Mill.
• To report the total energy required for crushing one ton of red bricks
(-3”, +2”) for the same equipment.
• To report the results of screen analysis, for the product, obtained in the
form of fractional and cumulative distributional plots, and give
inferences.
• To report different diameters for the product obtained, such as Bond’s
diameter, volume mean diameter, mean volume diameter, surface/Sauter
mean diameter, and mean length diameter.
Hypothesis:

Theory:
To make use of the rocks or ores obtained through quarrying/explosion in the Mining and
Construction sectors, the materials need to be crushed to reduce them to a smaller size. We
call this process SIZE REDUCTION or CRUSHING/ COMMINUTION. In general,
crushing is carried out in three stages, depending on the desired size of the material.
Primary Crushing
This is the first stage of the crushing process. In general, the size of the feed material, which
is between 800 and 1500 mm, is reduced to between 150 and 300 mm.

Secondary Crushing
This is the second stage of crushing. Feed size, which is around 150 to 300 mm of the rock or
ore from the primary crushing process is reduced to between 50 and 80 mm.
Tertiary Crushing
This is the third stage of crushing. The size, which is around 50–80 mm, of the ore or rock
from the secondary crushing process is reduced to between 5 and 12 mm.
We call the machine that performs the CRUSHING process a CRUSHING
MACHINE or CRUSHER.

• Crushers:
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel,
sand, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste materials so they
can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw
materials (as in rock ore) so that pieces of different composition can be differentiated.
Crushing is the process of transferring a force amplified by mechanical
advantage through a material made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and
resist deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing devices
hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces and apply sufficient force
to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy within the material being
crushed so that its molecules separate from (fracturing), or change alignment about
(deformation), each other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the
weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone anvil.

• Crusher Types:
➢ Jaw crusher
➢ Gyratory crusher
➢ Cone Crusher
➢ Impact crusher
➢ Mineral sizers
➢ Crusher bucket

➢ Gyratory Crusher:
A gyratory crusher includes a solid cone set on a revolving shaft and placed
within a hollow body with conical or vertical sloping sides. Material is
crushed when the crushing surfaces approach each other and the crushed
products fall through the discharging opening.

Figure 11 A Gyratory crusher

 Cone Crusher :
Cone crusher is a modified gyratory crusher. A Cone Crusher is a compression
type of machine that reduces material by squeezing or compressing the feed
material between a moving piece of steel and a stationary piece of steel. The
closed side setting or the gap between the two crushing members at the lowest
point determines final sizing and reduction. As the wedge or eccentric rotates to
cause the compression within the chamber, the material gets smaller as it moves
down through the wear liner as the opening in the cavity gets tighter. The
crushed material is discharged at the bottom of the machine after they pass
through the cavity.

➢ Impact crusher :
Impact crushers (e.g., hammer mills and impact mills) employ sharp blows
applied at high speed to free-falling rocks where comminution is by impact
rather than compression. The moving parts are “beaters,” which transfer some of
their kinetic energy to the ore particles upon contact. Internal stresses created in
the particles are often large enough to cause them to shatter. These forces are
increased by causing the particles to impact upon an anvil or breaker plate.

➢ Mineral Sizers:
Mineral DDC-Sizers are used to process high volumes of hard rock
minerals such as iron ore, copper, gold, and nickel, as well as soft, non-
coal minerals, lower capacity battery minerals, and rare earth minerals
such as spodumene, antimony, and cobalt. These sizes are designed to
provide a more effective means for crushing clay-ridden, sticky material
that can cause problems in other types of primary crushers, such as Jaws,
Gyrators, and Impactors. With a lower height and smaller footprint than
other primary crushers, Mineral DDC-Sizers is ideal for underground
mining operations with lower headroom and other spacing restrictions.
➢ Crusher Bucket:
A bucket crusher or crusher bucket is a type of jaw crusher. It's an
attached tool for excavators for built-in crushing construction
waste and demolition materials. It has the design of a shovel, which is
open at the rear for releasing the shredded material. Compared to
normal jaw crushers, The jaw crusher bucket has a lower production,
but can be transported more easily and only needs an excavator to
operate.

➢ Jaw Crusher:

A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking ore pieces. The compressive
force is applied by two jaws (dies), one of the crusher jaws is stationary (fixed
jaw) whilst the other is moving (swing jaw). Material is fed into the top feed
opening (gape) and gradually moves downwards towards the lower discharge
outlet. As the materials pass towards the outlet, it is crushed between the
stationary and moving jaws. The V-shaped area between the two jaws is
referred to as the ‘crushing chamber’. Because the space between the two jaws
becomes narrower towards the discharge outlet, the material size is
progressively reduced.

 Jaw Crusher:
Types of Jaw Crushers:
o Blake Jaw Crusher
o Dodge Jaw Crusher
o PE Universal Jaw Crusher
o Mobile Jaw Crusher
 Blake Jaw Crusher:
Blake Crushers are Jaw Crushers with a movable jaw pivoted at the top, giving the
greatest movement to the smallest lumps. The throw of Blake’s jaw crushers is
determined by the hardness of the ore as well as the size of the machine. It may vary
from d in for hard but friable ores to 3 in for resilient material.

 Types of Blake Jaw Crusher:

Single Toggle Jaw Crusher
Double Toggle Jaw Crusher
Single Toggle Jaw Crusher: An eccentric shaft is positioned
on the top of the crusher. The swing jaw plate hangs on the
eccentric drive shaft and moves up and down in elliptical
motion, which compresses rock material as it moves down from
the feeding part.

Double Toggle Jaw Crusher: A jaw crusher in which the

motion of the eccentric shaft is transmitted through the pitman
to a toggle joint, formed by two toggle plates hinged together,
at its lower end. The opposite end of one plate is hinged on the
backplate and the opposite end of the other at the load point,
i.e., the jaw stock. The effort applied at the common hinge point
causes the obtuse angle between the plates to increase and
considerable force is produced at the jaw stock.

 Dodge Jaw Crusher: In the Dodge type jaw

crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at
the bottom which forms a tapered chute so that the
material is crushed progressively smaller and
smaller as it travels downward until it is small
enough to escape from the bottom opening. And
moveable jaw is pivoted at the bottom and the top
end executes the reciprocating motion. it has a fixed
discharging area and a changeable feeding area.
 PE Universal Jaw Crusher: Universal Jaw Crushers are overhead eccentric
jaw crushers that continuously reduce material as it passes through the crushing
chamber with its aggressive force feed action as the movable jaw compresses
inward and downward. The sharp primary blow at the top of the chamber reduces
material instantly, while a secondary crushing action at the bottom further reduces
the material to the predetermined output size. Universal Jaw Crushers offer a
compressive stroke that is nearly equal at both the top and bottom of the chamber,
producing more spec material at a lower cost per ton.

 Mobile Jaw Crusher: The mobile crusher is also called the mobile crushing
station, including tire mobile crushing station and crawler mobile crushing station,
which is a kind of rock crushing equipment newly developed. Unlike the
traditional jaw crusher, this new type of mobile crusher can be easily and flexibly
moved to the crushing site, which eliminates the obstacles caused by the crushing
sites and the conditions. And they are specialised mining and excavation equipment
used in open pit mines, designed for three main purposes, for crushing material,
screening/sorting material and conveying material to its destination at the mining
site. Therefore, it is widely applied in coal mining plants, infrastructure, road
construction, and urban construction waste recycling which have more
requirements on the mobility of the crushing sites.

LABORATORY DISC MILL:

5. Oblate gear
1. Hopper A 6. Gear wheel
2. Hopper B 7.Knuckle gear
3. Body 8.Rotator
4. Screen 9.Small triangle belt wheel
10.Outer end cover 13.Inner end cover
11.Roller bearing 14.Valve
12.Main shaft 15.Outlet
16.Base

DISC MILL:
A disc mill is a type of crusher that can be used to grind, cut, shear, shred, fiberize, pulverize,
granulate, crack, rub, curl, fluff, twist, hull, blend, or refine. It works in a similar manner to
the ancient Buhrstone mill in that the feedstock is fed between opposing discs or plates. The
discs may be grooved, serrated, or spiked.

APPLICATIONS:
Typical applications for a single-disc mill are all three stages of the wet milling of field corn,
manufacture of peanut butter, processing nut shells, ammonium nitrate, urea, producing
chemical slurries and recycled paper slurries, and grinding chromium metal.
Double-disc mills are typically used for alloy powders, aluminum chips, bark, barley, borax,
brake lining scrap, brass chips, sodium hydroxide, chemical
salts, coconut shells, copper powder, cork, cottonseed hulls,
pharmaceuticals, feathers, hops, leather, oilseed cakes, phosphates, rice, rosin, sawdust,
and seeds.
Disc mills are relatively expensive to run and maintain and they consume much more power
than other shredding machines, and are not used where ball mills or hammermills produce the
desired results at a lower cost.
TYPES OF DISC MILLS:
• Single disc mill

• Double disc mill

Working Principle:
Substances are crushed between the edge of a thick, spinning disk and something else. Some
mills cover the edge of the disk in blades to chop up incoming matter rather than crush it.

Sieving and sieves:

A sieve, fine mesh strainer, or sift, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted
material or for controlling the particle size distribution of a sample, using a screen such as
a woven mesh or net or perforated sheet material and the process of particle size distribution
using sieves is called sieving or sieve analysis .

Components of a Sieve/screen:
 Aperture
 Mesh
 Mesh #
Aperture:
Aperture or Aperture width is the distance between two adjacent warp or weft
wires, measured in the projected plane at the mid positions.

Figure 12 aperture and pitch Figure 2 aperture

Figure 13 square aperture Figure 14 rectangular aperture Figure 15 no aperture

 Mesh:
The opening or perforated surface created by woven
wires is called a Mesh.

 Mesh #:
U.S. Mesh Size (or U.S. Sieve Size) is defined as the number of openings in one
square inch of a screen. For example, a 36-mesh screen will have 36 openings
while a 150-mesh screen will have 150 openings. Since the size of screen (one
square inch) is constant, the higher the mesh number the smaller the screen opening
and the smaller the particle that will pass through. Generally, US Mesh is measured
using screens down to a 325 mesh (325 openings in one square inch). Sometimes
the mesh size of a product in noted with either a minus (-) or plus (+) sign. These
signs indicate that the particles are either all smaller than (-) or all larger than (+)
the mesh size. For example, a product identified as -100 mesh would contain only
particles that passed through a 100-mesh screen. A +100 grade would contain
particles that did not pass through a 100-mesh screen. When a grade of product is
noted with a dash, or a slash is indicating that the product has particle contained
within the two mesh sizes. For example, a 30/70 or 30-70 grade would only have
particles that are smaller than 30 mesh and larger than 70 mesh.

Why 15 to 20 mins horizontal action sieving?

Grain size is a fundamental property of sediments and is commonly used to describe
sedimentary facies and classify sedimentary environments. Among the various
conventional techniques utilized to determine grain-size frequency distributions,
sieving is the most widely applied procedure. The accuracy of such analyses is,
among other factors, strongly dependent on the sieving time. However, despite a
substantial amount of research in this field, optimal sieving times for different types
of sediments have, to date, not been established. In this article, the influence of
sieving time on grain-size analyses of medium-grained microtidal and mesotidal
beach and dune sands has been determined. To assess the precision of important
textural parameters, such as median grain size, sorting, skewness and kurtosis, an
error analysis was carried out for different sieving times (2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes).
After calibrating the analytical and sampling methodologies, significant deviations
were registered when sieving time was less than 10 minutes. However, such
deviations were very small and grain-size distributions remained almost identical for
sieving times of 10 minutes and longer, relative errors being as low as 0% in some
cases.

Open Circuit Crushing:

An open circuit operation is where feed material is only run through the crusher
once. This usually occurs in a primary and sometimes secondary operation where
uniformity of product size is not as critical.

Closed Circuit Crushing:

A closed-circuit operation is where material is continuously returned to the crusher until it’s
of a size that will pass through the product screen.

 Types of Diameters :
Bond’s Diameter
Mass Mean Diameter
Volume Mean Diameter
Surface Mean Diameter
Mean Surface Diameter
Length Mean Diameter
Mean Length Diameter

• Bond’s Diameter:
The length on the graph, From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size where
80% of the particles have passed through +80 mesh.

• Mass Mean Diameter :

Diameter of a spherical particle with a mass equal to the mean mass of all the
particles in a population. Which is illustrated by equation
𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 ) 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑1 4 )
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝛴 (𝑛1𝑑1 3 ) =
𝜌𝑠 𝛴(𝑛1𝑑13 )
ρs is the density of the particles, and ki is a constant whose value depends on the shape of the
particle.

• Volume Mean Diameter:

It is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as
a particle of interest or if all the particles are of diameter d΄v, then the total volume of
particles is the same as in the mixture. It is given by equation
3 ∑ 𝑥1 1
d΄ v = √ 3 = 3√( )
Σ(x1 /d1 ) Σ(x1 /d13 )

• Surface Mean Diameter:

Sauter/ Surface mean diameter (SMD, d32 or D[3, 2]) is an average of particle size. It
is defined as the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume/surface area ratio as a
particle of interest.

𝑑𝑠 = 𝛴𝑥𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 ) = 1/𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 )

• Mean Surface Diameter:
The mean surface diameter is defined as the size of particle d΄ s which is such that if
all the particles are of this size, the total surface will be the same as in the mixture.

d΄ s = √(Σ(xi /di )/Σ(xi /di 3 ) )

• Length Mean Diameter:
𝑑𝑙 = 𝛴[(𝑛𝑖𝑑)𝑑𝑖 ]/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝛴(𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑖 /𝛴(𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )
• Mean length diameter:
Mean length diameter or arithmetic mean diameter is defined as what would be the
particle size you would give to unequal particles which will form the equal length,
which will be equal to the assumed particles of equal length and equal size.

𝑑𝑙 ΄ = 𝛴(𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑖 )/𝛴𝑛𝑖 = 𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 2 )/𝛴 (𝑥𝑖 /𝑑𝑖 3 )

• Voidage:
Voidage is the proportion of unoccupied volume (that is, gaps or empty spaces) in a
volume of some material. The term voidage is normally used to refer to the tiny spaces
between particles in a powder or granulated material like sand. The actual calculation of
voidage is simple: it is the amount of empty space divided by the total volume.
• Bulk Density:
Bulk density, also called apparent density or volumetric density, is a property
of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference
to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances, (pharmaceutical) ingredients,
foodstuff, or any other masses of corpuscular or particulate matter (particles).
Bulk density is defined as the mass of the many particles of the material divided by the
total volume they occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void
volume, and internal pore volume.

APPARATUS:
• Disc Mill
• US ASTM Sieves
• Energy meter
• Stopwatch
• Sieve shaker

Procedure:
o Prepare 0.5 kg of feed (rock salt) of the size that can pass through the 2 mesh sieve and retains
on the 4 mesh sieve.
o Note down the time (t1) required for 2 revolution (n1) of the energy meter disc under unloaded
conditions. Also note down the energy meter factor (N).
o Note down the initial meter reading (R1) and turn on the crusher. Start feeding crusher and
start the stopwatch simultaneously in order to measure the total time (T) required for the
crushing. Feed the mill gradually and slowly otherwise there is chance of choking of the mill.
o During the course of crushing, note down the time (t2) required for 2 revolutions (n2) under
loaded conditions.
o When crushing is completed, stop the stopwatch and turn off the crusher. Note down the total
time required for crushing and the final meter reading (R2).
o Again turn on the crusher and note down the time required for 2 revolutions under unloaded
conditions. Take the average value of two t1 s.
o Analyze the material by screening (using preferably 2, 4, 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 US
ASTM mesh sieves) and weigh out the mass retained on each sieve and in the pan.
o Mix all the fractions that has retained on each sieve and in the pan. o Take 100 c𝑚3 of the
mixed material in a 500 ml measuring cylinder.
o Weigh out the mass of the 100 c𝑚3 material taken in cylinder and find out the bulk density of
the product.
o Take another 500 ml cylinder and fill it with carbon tetra chloride (CC𝑙4) upto 150 c𝑚3.
Pour the 100 c𝑚3 material into the carbon tetra chloride (contained in the cylinder).

CC𝑙4‟s level rises, note down the rise in the volume of the CC𝑙4 and find out the voidage of
the product.

• Observations & Calculations:

Energy:
Total weight of the feed taken = W = 1 kg

No. of revolutions of energy meter for un-loaded conditions = n1 = 2 rev

Time elapsed for “n1” revolutions = t1 = 5.28 s

No. of revolutions of energy meter for loaded conditions = n2 = 2 revs

Time elapsed for “n2” revolutions = t2= 8.55 s

Energy meter factor =N= 600 rev/kWh

Total time of crushing = T = 46.71 s

Energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-tonn material
(E),
E= , Kwh/ton

Putting values, we have

E = 11.2781 Kw/ton
Total energy (including the energy required to run the equipment) used for crushing one-ton material
=ET

ET , Kwh/ton

Putting value, we have

ET = ..... Kw/ton

An alternate method for the measurement of the energy required for crushing:

Initial meter reading = R1 =............ Kwh

Final meter reading = R2= .............Kwh

Total energy required = R2 - R1 = ............ Kwh

The total energy required for one ton of material

ET Kwh/ton
Distribution of particle size

US FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT CUMALATIVE DISTRIBUTIONAL

ASTM PLOT
MESH
Weight Weight Average Stated particle A cumulative
retained fraction particle size size (μm) fraction less than
(g) (X) “d” μm the stated size

+4 0 0 15875 25400 1
-4 +8 4 0.00873 4762.5 6350 0.99127
-8 +10 22 0.048 2857.5 3175 0.952
-10 +12 18 0.039 2328.3333 2540 0.961
-12 +20 98 0.213 1693.3333 2116.6667 0.787
-20 +35 146 0.3187 997.85714 1270 0.6813
-35 +48 12 0.0262 627.44047 725.71428 0.9738
-48 +65 28 0.0611 459.96794 529.16667 0.9389
-65+100 52 0.1135 322.38461 390.76923 0.8865
-
100+pan 78 0.1703 - 254 0.8297
458 0.99853 29924.31676 42751.31688

FRACTIONAL DISTRIBUTIONAL PLOT

weight fraction
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
CUMMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION GRAPH

CUMALATIVE FRACTION
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Note: try also to present the fraction distribution plot on a semi-log graph paper and cumulative
fractional plot on log-log paper

Inferences: 1. Inferences from fractional distribution plot

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
2. Inferences from cumulative distribution plot
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................
Diameters:

1. Bond‟s diameter=𝑑80

From the plot of cumulative fractional less than stated size

𝑑80=_____ µm=_____ in Table for the Measurement of Average

Diameters
US WEIGHT AVERAGE
ASTM FRACTION PARTICLE xd 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
MESH “X” SIZE “d” 𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑
μm
-1 +4 0 15875
-4 +8 0.00873 4762.5
-8 +10 0.048 2857.5
-10+12 0.039 2328.3333
-12+20 0.213 1693.3333
-20+35 0.3187 997.85714
-35+48 0.0262 627.44047
-48+65 0.0611 459.96794
- 0.1135 322.38461
65+100
- 0.1703 -
100pan

𝒏 𝑛 𝑛 𝒏
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝒙𝒊
∑ ∑ 2
∑ 𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ∑
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝒅𝒊𝟑
𝒊=𝟏 = = 𝒊=𝟏
=

Weight (volume) mean diameter = , and = _____µm= _____in

′
Mean Volume Diameter= = _____ µm = _____ in
Surface mean diameter or Sauter mean diameter = , and

= _____ µm = _____ in
Length mean diameter = , and =
𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫
BULK DENSITY = 𝑩𝑼𝑳𝑲 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬 𝑶𝑭 𝑩𝑬𝑫=0.4g/dcm-3

Results:
5. Total energy required for crushing red bricks and running the machine is _____
kWh/ton.
6. Energy required for crushing the red bricks only is _____ kWh/ton.
Average particle diameters of product.

Applications:
Jaw Crusher can be used in mining, metallurgical industry, construction,
road and railway building, chemistry, etc.
Pros and Cons of Disc Mill:
Pros:
Disc mills are suitable for grinding of many different types of raw materials. One of the
advantages of the disc mill is that it is possible to vary the grinding degree during
operation, and thereby optimize the feed structure. Other advantages are its low noise
level in operation, the compact construction (fits easily in both new and existing plants), a
long durability of wearing parts and a high capacity with low power consumption. It
achieves smaller particle size than hammer mill at relatively reasonable energy
consumption. Recent advances have improved heat removal from the mill using
cryogenic conditions. Pin mill occupies little floor space. It has a wide range of
applications; can be used in milling dry, moist or slurry materials.

Cons:
High wear due to friction. The machine is difficult to clean after use. Tendency of
forming wide particle size distribution due to narrow range of size reduction. Low
capacity due to its size. Mill fouling. Heat generation due to friction.