THE LEADING GLOBAL EVENT SERIES

SCALING SAF PRODUCTION & DECARBONISING AVIATION

Amsterdam

Houston Dubai

Singapore

EU NORTH AMERICA APAC MENA

EDITION EDITION EDITION EDITION
21 - 23 May 2024 2 - 4 October 2024 4 - 6 November 2024 10 - 12 February 2025
Amsterdam Houston Singapore Dubai

SAVE 20% WHEN BOOKING YOUR PASS TO ATTEND ANY SUSTAINABLE AVIATION
FUTURES EVENT BY USING OUR UNIQUE DISCOUNT CODE: SIMPLIFLYING_SAF20

FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT

WWW.SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUTURES.COM
Sustainable Aviation Futures
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

WELCOME
For over 15 years, SimpliFlying has been a trusted partner to airlines, airports,
and technology firms worldwide. We have been on a mission to help build trust in
aviation. To empower the industry to soar to new heights through digitalisation,
innovation, and a steadfast commitment to sustainability.
We're not just sought after strategy consultants, we are passionate advocates
for meaningful change. Headquartered in Singapore, our global team based out of
Canada, India, Spain and the UK is dedicated to equipping aviation and technology
executives with the tools, insights, and strategies needed to navigate the
complexities of sustainable aviation.
From major airlines and airports to aircraft manufacturers and travel technology
companies, our extensive client base underscores our reputation as a trusted
partner in the aviation industry since 2008.
Simpliflying are proud to partner with Sustainable Aviation Futures to bring you
this special European focused report ahead of their congress taking place in
Amsterdam from 21-23 May 2024.

4
HOW CAN WE HELP?

HOW CAN WE HELP?

At SimpliFlying, we're committed to helping you navigate the complexities of
sustainable aviation and thrive in an ever-changing landscape.
Here are some ways we can help you in your sustainability journey:

Share your vision with a global audience

Like 80+ other CxOs in the industry, enlist your CEO or Head of Sustainability to
be interviewed by Shashank Nigam. Share your vision for the future of travel on the
world’s best-known sustainable aviation podcast "Sustainability in the Air". Find out
more on becoming a partner.

Build thought leadership through bespoke reports

Harness the power of our research and analysis with custom reports tailored to your
unique objectives. We can help you build thought leadership on a particular topic
that you would like to "own".

Grow your brand in aviation

SimpliFlying has helped a multitude of technology firms scale up in aviation – from
launching an airplane to marketing an Airbus A380 engine. We can help you amplify
your brand and help build awareness with key decision-makers.

Stay informed, stay ahead

We deliver in-depth monthly or quarterly briefings to the senior leadership teams
on a topic/issue of your choosing. You can also sign up for a series of briefings that
cover key aspects of the present and future of sustainable aviation.

Connect with investors and customers

Our in-person workshops and virtual events can help you discover innovative ideas
as you network with like-minded innovators, and unlock new opportunities.

Get in touch!

5
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

CONT
INTRODUCTION
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
8
10
THE RISE OF SAF IN EUROPE AND THE UK 12
CURRENT PATHWAYS 15
HEFA-SPK 15
ALCOHOL-TO-JET (AtJ) 15
SYNTHESISED ISO-PARAFFINS (SIP) 16
METHANOL-TO-JET (MtJ) 16
FISCHER-TROPSCH (FT) 16
POWER-TO-LIQUID (PtL) 17
LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS-TO-JET FUEL 17
CATALYTIC HYDROTHERMOLYSIS (CHJ) 18
PYROLYSIS 18
FUTURE PATHWAYS: HTL AND SOLAR FUELS 20
HTL: TURNING WASTE INTO VALUABLE RESOURCES 20
SOLAR FUELS: HARNESSING THE SUN'S POWER 21

This report was prepared by Simpliflying for Sustainable Aviation Futures. All content and
any reference to organisations included in the report is undertaken by Simpliflying and is
independent of Sustainable Aviation Futures.

6
CONTENTS

TENTS
ADDRESSING THE CONTROVERSIES
IS SAF TRULY SUSTAINABLE?
22
22
CAN SAF FEEDSTOCKS BE SUSTAINABLY SOURCED? 23
DOES SAF HINDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRUE ZERO-EMISSION SOLUTIONS? 24
EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF PINK HYDROGEN 25
FINANCING THE FUTURE OF SAF: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 27
DIRECTORY OF SAF PRODUCERS OPERATING IN EUROPE & THE UK 30
APPENDIX 36

7
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

INTRODUCTION
Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) has evolved from a mere option to a regulatory necessity
for airlines, with mandates set to come into effect in the near future.
The ReFuel EU initiative is on the brink of implementation in the European Union. As soon
as 2025, airlines will be obligated to blend a minimum of 2% SAF into their fuel mix, with
this mandate expected to increase significantly to 6% by 2030.
Simultaneously, the UK is in the midst of a consultation phase that could require airlines
to incorporate 10% SAF into their fuel mix by 2030.
These regulations pose substantial challenges, necessitating meticulous planning from
2024 to 2030 to ensure a smooth and gradual transition from fossil fuel-based jet fuel.
This is especially critical, considering SAF currently comprises less than 1% of the total
aviation fuel mix.
In conjunction with the upcoming Sustainable Aviation Futures EU Congress in
Amsterdam, scheduled from 21 to 23 May 2024, we have prepared this comprehensive
report to explore various SAF pathways and strategies for addressing the current
significant gaps in the industry.
Specifically, this report will focus on:
• Analysing the mandates: The current status and the requirements for achieving
compliance, providing a clear understanding of the regulatory landscape.
• Providing an overview of existing SAF production pathways: The various methods
currently used to produce SAF, highlighting their advantages and limitations.
• Exploring innovative pathways: Cutting-edge approaches such as Hydrothermal
Liquefaction (HTL) and solar fuels, assessing their potential to revolutionise the SAF
industry.
• Examining the perspective of environmental groups: We investigate the
controversies surrounding SAF and why some question its sustainability, providing a
balanced view of the ongoing debate.

Source: WSP

8
INTRODUCTION

• Discussing the intricacies involved in developing e-fuels: The challenges and

opportunities associated with these advanced fuel types and the potential necessity
of using nuclear energy as a power source.
• Addressing the funding challenge: The investment required to produce the necessary
quantities of SAF in Europe and potential financing mechanisms, including the viability
of SAF surcharges or frequent flyer levies.
• Providing a comprehensive directory of European SAF enterprises: A detailed list
of companies operating in the European SAF sector, serving as a valuable resource for
industry stakeholders.
This report aims to offer valuable insights and actionable strategies for airlines,
policymakers, and industry stakeholders as they navigate the complex landscape of SAF
implementation.
By providing a thorough analysis of the regulatory environment, exploring innovative
production pathways, examining the perspectives of environmental groups, and
addressing the funding challenges, this report will equip decision-makers with the
knowledge and tools needed to meet the impending regulatory requirements while
contributing to a more sustainable future for aviation.
As the industry stands at the precipice of a transformative era, this report serves as a
vital resource for those seeking to understand the current state of SAF and the steps
necessary to ensure its successful integration into the aviation sector. By embracing the
challenges and opportunities SAF presents, the industry can pave the way for a greener,
more sustainable future for air travel.

Dirk Singer
Head of Sustainability, SimpliFlying
[email protected]

Note on terminology: The terms e-fuels, electrofuels and Power-to-Liquid (PtL) are often used
interchangeably to describe synthetic fuels produced using electricity from renewable sources. In
section 3, we have used Power-to-Liquid (PtL) to describe the pathway but throughout the report,
we have used “e-fuels” as a more user-friendly description of the fuel source.

9
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The European Union and the UK are driving the adoption of Sustainable Aviation Fuel
(SAF) through ambitious mandates. However, the industry faces significant adoption
challenges, with SAF currently accounting for less than 1% of total aviation fuel.

The EU's ReFuelEU Aviation initiative mandates a minimum SAF blend of 2% by

2025 and 6% by 2030, while the UK is considering a 10% SAF requirement by 2030.
Challenges include ensuring sustainable feedstock availability, scaling up production
capacity, closing the cost gap, and financing SAF production.

Various pathways produce SAF, each with advantages and disadvantages. HEFA-
SPK dominates due to wider feedstock availability and established technology but
is controversial due to imported Used Cooking Oil (UCO). Other pathways include
Alcohol-to-Jet (AtJ), Synthesised Iso-Paraffins (SIP), Methanol-to-Jet (MtJ), Fischer-
Tropsch (FT), Power-to-Liquid (PtL), Solar Fuels, and Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL),
at varying maturity stages.

Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) and Solar Fuels are promising pathways that could
revolutionise the sector. HTL converts wet biomass, including waste, into SAF,
offering 90% CO2 lifecycle reductions. Solar Fuels harness solar energy directly for
fuel production, potentially improving efficiency and reducing costs.

EXECUTIVE
10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Environmental and climate groups criticise SAF for not addressing non-CO2 emissions
and potentially delaying the transition to zero-emission solutions. Concerns exist
around the sustainability of certain feedstocks and the potential for fraud. Critics
argue that over-reliance on SAF may hinder investments in hydrogen or electric-based
propulsion systems.

E-fuels, produced from green hydrogen and captured CO2, are a long-term SAF
solution but face renewable energy challenges. Pink hydrogen, produced using
nuclear energy for electrolysis, may offer a more cost-effective and efficient
alternative.

Significant investments are required to build SAF refineries and bridge the cost gap
with traditional jet fuel. Funding sources include government incentives, venture
capital, private investors, bank debt, and contributions from corporate and individual
passengers. Book-and-claim systems allow corporates to offset Scope 3 emissions by
purchasing SAF. Frequent flyer taxes are also a potential financing mechanism.

SUMMARY 11
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

THE RISE OF SAF IN EUROPE AND

THE UK: A MANDATE-DRIVEN APPROACH
The European Union and the UK are pushing forward with ambitious mandates to drive
the adoption of SAF over the next two decades.
The Current Landscape
Global SAF production may have doubled to 600 million litres in 2023, but it still
accounts for only 0.2% of global jet fuel use, with the majority produced in the United
States, thanks to a combination of Federal and US State level incentives for SAF
production.
To correct this imbalance and meet their wider climate goals, the EU and the United
Kingdom intend to mandate the use of SAF, with the percentages used steadily increasing
in the lead-up to 2050.

Source: Dan Fador

The EU's Approach

The EU's progressive ‘ReFuel’ mandate requires a minimum percentage of SAF blended
with conventional jet fuel for all flights departing from EU airports, starting with 2% in
2025, increasing to 6% by 2030, and targeting 70% by 2050.
Notably, the mandate stipulates that a minimum of 1.2% of the SAF used in 2030 should
come from e-fuels or power-to-liquid fuels, which are produced using renewable electricity
and carbon captured from the atmosphere or industrial processes.
The ReFuel mandate's origins can be traced back to the European Commission's 2020
communication on a Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy, which aims to reduce
transport-related greenhouse gas emissions by 90% by 2050.
It is, in turn, a key component of the EU's comprehensive "Fit for 55" package, a set of
proposals aimed at reducing the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030

12
THE RISE OF SAF IN EUROPE AND THE UK

compared to 1990 levels. The package,

unveiled in July 2021, seeks to align the
EU's climate, energy, land use, transport,
and taxation policies with its climate goals.
Not only does the ReFuel mandate
contribute to the EU's broader efforts to
combat climate change, but the aim is also
to promote sustainable development.
As the demand for SAF increases, so
will the need for sustainable feedstocks,
production facilities, and infrastructure,
opening up opportunities for innovation,
investment, and regional development.
In fact, according to the European
Commission, the development of SAF in the
EU has the potential to create 200,000
new jobs.
By setting clear targets and a timeline for
SAF adoption, the mandate creates a stable
and predictable market for SAF producers,
encouraging investment and innovation
in the field. The gradual increase in SAF
blending percentages ensures a smooth
transition for the industry, allowing time
to develop more efficient and sustainable
production methods.
Moreover, the ReFuel mandate can inspire
other countries and regions to adopt
similar measures, creating a ripple effect
that accelerates the shift towards cleaner
aviation worldwide. Source: Kurt Bouda

The UK's Strategy

The UK is pursuing a SAF mandate, with consultations discussing a minimum of 10% SAF
blend by 2030, which aligns with the government's intention to make the mandate as
ambitious as possible.
The belief is that the ambitious mandate will stimulate rapid growth in the UK's SAF
industry, creating green jobs, attracting investments, and bolstering the country's
competitiveness in the global market.
Furthermore, the UK's SAF mandate can contribute to developing a thriving domestic SAF
supply chain, reducing the country's dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhancing
its energy security.

13
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Shared Goals and Challenges

While the EU and UK mandates share the common objective of decarbonising the aviation
sector, significant hurdles remain:
1 Ensuring sufficient and sustainable feedstock availability is critical, as current
methods rely on limited and controversial feedstocks like used cooking oil.
2 Scaling up SAF production capacity is necessary, as the current capacity in Europe is
significantly lower than required to meet the mandates' targets. Europe risks falling
behind, with the current maximum potential SAF production capacity in the EU
estimated at only 10% of the amount needed to meet the 2030 mandate.
3 Closing the cost gap between SAF and conventional jet fuel is crucial for wider
adoption by airlines.
4 Financing SAF production requires finding the right formula between government
grants, venture capital funding, and bank loans underwritten by airline offtake
agreements.
Despite these challenges, the EU and UK mandates provide a clear framework for
addressing them head-on.
By creating a stable demand for SAF, the mandates incentivise the development of
new, sustainable feedstocks and production methods. Governments can support this
process by funding research and development, providing tax incentives, and facilitating
stakeholder partnerships.
Moreover, as SAF production scales up to meet the mandates' targets, economies of scale
can drive down costs, making SAF more competitive with conventional jet fuel. This, in
turn, will encourage more airlines to adopt SAF, further accelerating its deployment and
reducing the aviation sector's carbon footprint.
This next section explores the different pathways to achieve these targets.

Source: Frank Peters

14
CURRENT PATHWAYS

CURRENT PATHWAYS
SAF is currently being produced through various pathways, each with its own advantages,
disadvantages, and level of maturity. Let's take a closer look at these SAF production
methods:

HEFA-SPK
• Feedstock: Used cooking oils, animal fats, plant oils
• Currently, the HEFA-SPK pathway is the predominant method for
producing SAF due to the broad availability of feedstocks and the maturity
of the technology. However, this approach has sparked controversy
because of the importation of UCO from countries such as China,
Indonesia, and Malaysia. Nonetheless, Airlines for Europe (A4E) states
that, in the short term, "HEFA is the only viable solution".

Alcohol-to-Jet (AtJ)
• Feedstocks: Ethanol derived from sugars (sugarcane, sugar beets),
starches (corn, grains), cellulosic biomass (wood waste, agricultural
residues), or Butanol (ethyl alcohol) produced through fermentation or
advanced chemical processes from biomass.
• The cost-effectiveness of AtJ compared to HEFA is debatable. In 2022,
a rise in the cost of vegetable oil feedstocks made AtJ the cheaper
pathway. However, currently, the cost of producing SAF via AtJ is
believed to be higher than HEFA. AtJ has potential advantages, such as
diverse feedstocks and room for efficiency improvements through ongoing
technology development.
• Currently, only one AtJ facility is operational worldwide, the LanzaJet
Freedom Pines Fuels facility in Soperton, Georgia. However, more AtJ
plants are in development, including in Europe. For example, a Swedish
company plans to bring 400,000 metric tons (approximately 130 million
gallons) of SAF annually to the Swedish market by building three new
AtJ plants, equating to around 40% of the annual jet fuel consumption at
Stockholm's Arlanda Airport.

15
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Synthesised Iso-Paraffins (SIP)

• SIP uses a similar array of feedstocks to AtJ but represents a newer
pathway for producing SAF.
• SIP fuels are created through a process that typically involves the
fermentation of sugars to produce an intermediate chemical (such as
farnesene), which is then hydrogenated to form iso-paraffins. These iso-
paraffins are similar to conventional jet fuel, making SIP a promising option
for SAF production.

Methanol-to-Jet (MtJ)
• Feedstocks: Methanol is produced by gasifying biomass such as
agricultural residues or municipal waste, or from captured CO2 and H2,
similar to the PtL pathway.
• Although MtJ is still a relatively early-stage SAF pathway, advocates
claim it is more efficient and less energy-intensive than other production
methods.

Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
• In the FT method, biomass (wood waste, agricultural residues, waste) is
gasified, and the resulting syngas is used in the Fischer-Tropsch process to
create SAF.
• FT is a well-established method for producing synthetic fuels, having been
created in 1925.
• Companies turning municipal waste into SAF typically use FT. However, it
is considered relatively inefficient, with 42% or more energy losses.

16
CURRENT PATHWAYS

Power-to-Liquid (PtL)
• Commonly known as e-fuels or electrofuels, the core idea is to use renewable
electricity to produce liquid fuels.
• The basic ingredients are green hydrogen, made using renewable energy to
split water (H2O) into hydrogen and air through electrolysis and captured
CO2.
• The green hydrogen is combined with the captured CO2 to produce syngas,
which is then put through a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reactor to make jet fuel.
• Some e-fuel companies claim to have disrupted the FT process to create their
own more efficient way of making e-fuels.
• PtL has several advantages, such as a CO2 lifecycle reduction of 90% or more
(compared to 50-80% for other forms of SAF), less feedstock intensity, and
the ability to be deployed in locations with abundant renewable energy and
access to CO2 sources (industrial or direct-air capture).
• However, PtL also has disadvantages, including high costs due to capital and
operating expenses and the need for vast amounts of renewable energy to be
produced at scale. A report by the World Fund on 'Electrofuels for Aviation'
projected that replacing just 8% of European aviation fuel with e-fuel by 2040
would necessitate the total electricity consumption of a country like Sweden
or the Netherlands.
• Despite these challenges, policymakers are promoting and mandating the use
of e-fuels. The European Union's ReFuelEU Aviation program requires jet fuel
suppliers to include 1.2% of e-fuels in the overall fuel mix by 2030, increasing
to 35% by 2050.

Lignocellulosic biomass-to-jet fuel

• This is a process that converts non-food biomass, such as agricultural residues
(e.g. straw, corn stover), woody biomass (e.g., forest residues, sawdust), and
energy crops (e.g., switchgrass, miscanthus), into synthetic jet fuel.
• This conversion process involves several key steps and can be achieved
through various biochemical and thermochemical methods.
• Lignocellulosic biomass is tough to break down due to its tightly bound
components. Pre-treatment helps to make the components more accessible.
• After pre-treatment, the cellulose and hemicellulose are broken down into
simple sugars, often using enzymes.
• Microorganisms can then ferment the sugars to produce alcohols like ethanol
or the entire biomass can be turned into syngas, which is then processed
further.

17
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Catalytic Hydrothermolysis (CHJ)

• CHJ can process a wide range of feedstocks, including waste oils, fats,
greases, and non-food biomass such as algae and wood waste.
• CHJ was developed by Applied Research Associates (ARA) and Chevron
Lummus Global (CLG).
• It converts waste oils or other biomass into a high-quality bio-crude that
can be co-processed with petroleum in existing refineries to produce SAF.
The process is said to have a lower carbon intensity than HEFA.
• While CHJ shows promise as a SAF production pathway, it is still in the
early stages of commercialisation and will require further investment and
development.

Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that involves heating biomass in the
absence of oxygen to produce a liquid bio-oil, which can then be upgraded
to SAF.
• Pyrolysis can utilise a wide range of biomass feedstocks, including
agricultural residues, forestry residues (e.g., wood chips, sawdust, bark),
energy crops (e.g., miscanthus, switchgrass), municipal solid waste (e.g.,
paper, cardboard, organic waste)
• By utilising various waste streams, such as agricultural residues and
municipal solid waste, pyrolysis can contribute to waste reduction.
• The solid residue (biochar) produced during pyrolysis provides additional
value, as it can be used as a soil amendment or for other applications.
• Pyrolysis represents a promising pathway for SAF production, but
further research and development are needed to address the challenges
associated with bio-oil upgrading and improve the process's overall
efficiency and economic viability.

18
CURRENT PATHWAYS

HEFA still dominates

According to Bloomberg NEF, global SAF production capacity is set to surge 10-fold by
2030. However, currently HEFA is the dominant production pathway. By 2030, AtJ will
only account for a small proportion of SAF supplies, with e-fuels accounting for even less.

Source: Bloomberg NEF

This raises concerns about long-term scalability and diversification. Bloomberg NEF's 2024
SAF Outlook revealed that, given current feedstock limitations, HEFA can only satisfy
about 4% of total jet fuel demand.
Not only are there concerns about where these feedstocks come from – with European
countries now importing UCO from China, Malaysia and Indonesia – the industry risks
hitting a growth ceiling unless it can tap into new feedstock sources and develop
alternative production methods.
As a result, to truly take flight, the SAF sector must look beyond HEFA and prioritise
research and development into next-generation pathways.
Commercialising these emerging technologies will be critical to diversifying the industry's
feedstock base and achieving the scale required to make a meaningful dent in aviation
emissions. While HEFA has provided a solid launchpad, sustained innovation and
investment will be the engines that give the industry the volume of SAF it needs to meet
its net-zero targets.

19
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

FUTURE PATHWAYS:
HTL AND SOLAR FUELS
While much attention has been focused on HEFA, AtJ, and e-fuels, two other promising
pathways are worth exploring: Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) and Solar Fuels.

HTL: Turning Waste into Valuable Resources

HTL is a process that converts biomass into a liquid biocrude under high-pressure and
high-temperature aqueous conditions. The beauty of HTL lies in its ability to utilise a
wide array of feedstocks, including municipal waste, agricultural waste, algae, and even
sewage.
UK start-up Firefly Green Fuels, backed by Wizz Air, is focusing on sewage as a
feedstock. CEO James Hygate sees it as a "ubiquitous, abundant, and incredibly cost-
effective" resource.
HTL-derived SAF offers impressive CO2 lifecycle reductions of 90%, surpassing
HEFA-based SAF, it also transforms a waste and public health hazard into a valuable
commodity.
Firefly's solution is highly scalable, as sewage is readily available worldwide, and SAF
facilities can be strategically located beside sewage treatment plants.
Denmark's Steeper Energy is another European company making significant strides in
commercialising HTL technology.
Their proprietary Hydrofaction process efficiently converts various biomass feedstocks
into renewable oil, recovering 85% of the input energy in the resulting biocrude, which can
then be refined into SAF, marine fuels, and biochemicals.
Steeper Energy has partnered with Silva Green Fuel in Norway to build a demonstration
plant showcasing the Hydrofaction technology's ability to produce renewable crude oil
from wood residues. They have also signed an MOU with the city of Calgary, Canada, to
process a portion of the city's sewage sludge into advanced biofuels.

Source: Firefly Green Fuels

20
FUTURE PATHWAYS

Source: Jody Davis

Solar Fuels: Harnessing the Sun's Power

Solar Fuels represent another exciting pathway, directly converting solar energy into
chemical energy. While often considered a type of e-fuel, Solar Fuels differ in several key
aspects:
1 Energy source: Solar fuels harness solar energy directly, while e-fuels fuels use
sustainable electricity as an intermediate step.
2 Production process: Solar Fuels are produced through photobiological or artificial
photosynthesis processes, whereas e-fuels require electricity to produce hydrogen
which is then used to synthesise liquid fuels.
3 Efficiency: Solar fuels have the potential for higher overall efficiency due to the direct
conversion of solar energy into fuels, compared to e-fuels, which involve multiple
conversion steps.

Switzerland's Synhelion is at the forefront of Solar Fuel development, using a process

they call "reverse combustion." By recombining water vapour and CO2 using solar heat,
Synhelion's technology mirrors the reverse of conventional fuel combustion.
The company aims to achieve cost competitiveness with traditional jet fuel by 2030,
targeting a production cost below €1 per litre. With current jet fuel prices around €0.66
per litre, Synhelion is poised to narrow the gap between solar and conventional jet fuel
significantly.
Synhelion partnered with the Lufthansa Group in 2020 and is developing its 'DAWN'
commercial plant in Germany.
As the aviation industry strives to embrace sustainability, exploring innovative SAF
pathways like HTL and Solar Fuels is crucial. These technologies offer the potential for
significant CO2 reductions, transform waste into valuable resources, and harness the sun's
power. With continued investment and development, HTL and Solar Fuels could play a
vital role in shaping the future of sustainable aviation.

21
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

ADDRESSING THE CONTROVERSIES

The historic Virgin Atlantic flight on November 28, 2023, which used 100% SAF to cross
the Atlantic, was a watershed moment for the industry. However, it also sparked
criticism from environmental and climate groups, who claimed that the flight offered a
false sense of sustainability.
Cait Hewitt of the Aviation Environment Federation called the idea of guilt-free flying
"a joke," while pressure group Safe Landing dismissed the flight as a publicity stunt to
lobby for more public money and subsidies for SAF.
Why do these groups object to SAF? There are three main areas of criticism:
1 The sustainability of SAF
2 Issues surrounding SAF feedstocks
3 Claims that SAF delays the transition to true zero-emission solutions

Is SAF truly sustainable?

The Aviation Environment Federation (AEF)
casts doubt on the sustainability of SAF.
In their paper, "Sustainable Aviation Fuels
- Hope or Hype?" they argue that the
term 'SAF' has rebranded all biofuels and
synthetic fuels as 'sustainable.'
AEF's Cait Hewitt has even compared SAF
to carbon offsets, as the fuel emits the
same amount of CO2 as kerosene when
burned in an aircraft.
Hewitt emphasised the need for careful
carbon accounting and pointed out that
SAF does not address non-CO2 emissions,
such as contrails and nitrogen oxides
(NOx).
While the AEF acknowledges the value
of keeping fossil fuels in the ground, they
conclude that more research is needed
and not all types of SAF should be treated
equally.
That said, SAF can reduce life cycle GHG
emissions dramatically compared to
conventional jet fuel, and it is seen as a key
pillar which will drive the industry towards
achieving its net zero objectives. Source: Virgin Atlantic

22
ADDRESSING THE CONTROVERSIES

Can SAF feedstocks be sustainably sourced?

The AEF and Brussels-based environmental think-tank Transport & Environment (T&E)
are two groups that have expressed concern about HEFA-based feedstocks.
T&E has revealed that
the demand for UCO for
biofuels has led to massive
imports from countries
like China, as Europe's
domestic production is
insufficient. This raises
issues of transportation
emissions and the risk of
palm oil being added to
the mix.
Another point of
contention is the potential
use of land for fuel crops
instead of food crops.
Environmental group
Stay Grounded asserts
that biofuels can cause
serious environmental and
social impacts, such as
biodiversity loss, rising
food prices, and water
scarcity.
Source: Transport & Environment, based on data from Comtrade (2023)

Even Ryanair CEO Michael O'Leary agrees, stating, "The idea that you grow food at great
cost and turn it into fuel is just nuts."
T&E advocates for using e-fuels, but these come with their own controversies, as
producing e-fuels requires vast amounts of renewable energy that could arguably be
deployed more effectively elsewhere.
In our book ‘Sustainability in the Air’, Dr Susanne Becken, Professor of Sustainable
Tourism at Griffith University, warned that if aviation "grabs all the clean energy so that
aviation is net-zero by 2050, there will be nothing left for anyone else, delivering an
overall worse outcome than had it just given it to the electricity sector."
Meanwhile, in an episode of the Land & Climate Podcast, Finlay Asher from Safe Landing
called e-fuel-powered flights “probably the most inefficient thing you could do bar putting
it into a rocket and sending Jeff Bezos into outer space.” 1

1
McEwan, Alasdair, “Is there any hope for a green aviation industry?”, September 23, 2022, Land & Climate Review,
interview with Finlay Asher, podcast, https://www.buzzsprout.com/1695859/11372779

23
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Does SAF hinder the development of true

zero-emission solutions?
Many environmental campaigners are concerned that an overreliance on SAF may delay
investments in entirely new technologies – such as hydrogen or electric-based propulsion
systems.
Interestingly, some argue that aviation should just drop the use of SAF and continue using
fossil fuels while the development of hydrogen and electric aircraft is ongoing.
Finlay Asher of Safe Landing said that in this scenario, the industry would "burn less and
less every year, and slowly your electric and your hydrogen and some alternative fuels in
limited quantities will start replacing those. That's kind of the conclusion that I end up at."
Dr. Susanne Becken concurs with Asher's assessment. "In some ways, It would make much
more sense to let aviation have the kerosene and decarbonise everything else to get the
biggest bang for the buck." Like Asher, Dr Becken believes this change would need to be
coupled with limits on aviation growth and a potential reduction in yearly flights.

Source: SimpliFlying

As the debate around SAF continues, it is essential to address these controversies and
ensure that the industry's sustainability efforts are genuine, effective, and transparent.

24
EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF PINK HYDROGEN

EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF PINK

HYDROGEN
As the aviation industry explores e-fuels as a long-term SAF solution, concerns have
been raised about the resources required to produce green hydrogen, a key ingredient in
e-fuels.
Lufthansa CEO Carsten Spohr noted that powering the airline via e-fuels would consume
half of Germany's entire electricity production, a reality that the government is unlikely to
support.
Moreover, airlines aren't the only ones interested in e-fuels; the automotive industry sees
them as an alternative to electric cars. With companies like Porsche setting up their own
e-fuel plants, finding sufficient renewable energy to produce e-fuels within Europe will be
a daunting challenge.
Two potential solutions have emerged:
1 Locate e-fuel plants in regions with abundant and cheap solar energy and land, or
2 Consider nuclear power as the energy source instead of wind and solar

Source: Our World in Data

25
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Pink hydrogen is produced using nuclear energy for electrolysis, offering several
advantages over green hydrogen:
1 Zero-carbon: Nuclear power is a zero-carbon energy source.
2 Constant power: Unlike wind and solar, which are weather-dependent, nuclear
provides a constant power source.
3 Land efficiency: Nuclear is the most land-efficient energy source, requiring 50 times
less land than coal and 18 to 27 times less than on-ground solar PV.
4 Cost-effectiveness: Pink hydrogen is cheaper than green hydrogen, with unsubsidised
pink hydrogen costing as little as €2.50/kg compared to €3.20-€7 for green
hydrogen.
5 Efficiency: Pink hydrogen plants have the potential to produce 63% more hydrogen
than green hydrogen plants.
Despite these advantages, nuclear power
has an image problem due to incidents like
Fukushima and Chernobyl. However, Alasdair
Lumsden, Co-Founder of UK-based Carbon
Neutral Fuels (CNF), points out that nuclear
technology has advanced considerably since
these incidents involved reactors built in the
1960s or earlier.
Lumsden believes that a new generation of
nuclear reactors, such as Molten Salt Reactors
(MSRs), which offer enhanced safety features,
could generate fossil-fuel-free hydrogen.
This pink hydrogen could then serve as a key
ingredient in producing e-fuels.
This idea has received support from notable
figures like Emirates CEO Sir Tim Clark, who
believes nuclear energy must be considered
the key to unlocking aviation decarbonisation.

Sir Tim will be a keynote speaker at

the Sustainable Aviation Futures EU
Congress and we look forward to him
elaborating on these points during the
event.

As the industry continues to explore e-fuels

as a long-term SAF solution, the potential of
pink hydrogen derived from nuclear energy
may need to be seriously considered to
address the challenges associated with green
hydrogen production. Source: AZoCleantech

26
FINANCING THE FUTURE OF SAF

FINANCING THE FUTURE OF SAF:

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Financing the development and production of SAF is one of the biggest obstacles to its
widespread adoption. According to SkyNRG, Europe alone will require an investment of
€250 billion to build 150 SAF refineries by 2050, with each facility costing an average of
€1.66 billion.
Other SAF companies have reported that a minimum of $500 million is needed to bring a
single plant to commercialisation, a process that can take anywhere from 3-10 years.
Airlines also face the challenge of higher costs associated with SAF, which can range from
2 to 5 times the price of traditional jet fuel. This raises the question: how can the industry
secure the necessary funding to make SAF a viable and widespread solution?

Source: Dealroom.co

Interestingly, data from Dealroom.co reveals that while there is money in the sustainable
aviation space, there are question marks about where it is going. In particular, electric
vertical takeoff and landing vehicles (eVTOLs) have raised twice as much money as the
rest of the combined sustainable aviation space, including SAF.
While these electric air taxi makers make various claims about their utility, they are
primarily designed for short urban routes. They are unlikely to impact the industry's overall
carbon emissions significantly.
In contrast, for long-haul flights, which generate 50% of the industry's emissions in
Europe despite representing only 6% of total flights, SAF is the only viable medium-term
solution.

27
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Bridging the Funding Gap

To bridge the funding gap, the industry must consider government incentives, venture and
private capital, bank debt, and contributions from corporate and individual passengers.
• Governments are stepping up to support
SAF production, with the UK committing
to a revenue certainty mechanism
and the EU using the Emissions
Trading System (ETS) to part-fund the
bloc's Innovation Fund. However, the
European Commission should consider
improving its SAF incentives to compete
with the US Inflation Reduction Act. Source: gov.uk
• Venture capital funds and private
investors also play a crucial role in • For example, the International Council
funding SAF projects, often working for Clean Transportation (ICCT) has
in tandem with bank debt to finance proposed a global frequent flyer levy
the construction of production to raise 81% of the $4 trillion needed
facilities. Airlines like United Airlines for aviation decarbonisation, according
have created their own Sustainable to ICAO. Under this proposal, those
Flight Funds to invest in and purchase who fly more often would pay more,
SAF, providing a potential model for with the first flight each year being free
European carriers. and subsequent flights incurring a levy
ranging from $9 to $177.
• Corporate customers are increasingly
using book-and-claim systems to • The idea behind the ICCT's proposal is
offset their Scope 3 emissions from to generate revenue rather than 'punish'
business travel by purchasing the people for flying, and the sliding scale
equivalent amount of SAF, which can accounts for the fact that the levy
help finance airline SAF purchases. would be paid primarily by affluent
Companies like Neste have unveiled individuals in developed countries,
programs allowing corporations to buy matching historical carbon emissions.
SAF through a book-and-claim system, The ICCT admits that the logistics
enabling organisations to set their own behind such a scheme are very difficult
sustainability targets and determine but could be possible through industry
how much SAF they need to buy to bodies like IATA in the future, despite
achieve these goals. potential opposition.
• Finally, there are calls for the aviation As public tolerance for polluting industries
industry to consider frequent flyer decreases, aviation may need to adopt
taxes, where those who fly the most more radical measures to maintain public
contribute under the 'polluter pays' trust and secure the necessary funding for
principle. the widespread adoption of SAF.

28
Sustainable Aviation Futures
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

DIRECTORY OF SAF PRODUCERS

OPERATING IN EUROPE AND THE UK
Accurate as of March 2024. Please note we seek to be as accurate as possible with
this list, but acknowledge that the industry is constantly changing. If you believe an
organisation is missing or an amendment is required, please contact us directly.

Agrisoma OMV Group

Founded: 1956 Founded: 1956
Country: Austria Country: Austria
agrisoma.com omv.com

Ørsted Steeper Energy

Founded: 2006 Founded: 2011
Country: Denmark Country: Denmark
orsted.com steeperenergy.com

Topsoe Kaidi
Founded: 1940 Founded: 2016
Country: Denmark Country: Finland
topsoe.com kaidi.fi

Neste UPM Biofuels

Founded: 1948 Founded: 1996
Country: Finland Country: Finland
neste.com upmbiofuels.com

Axens Elyse Energy

Founded: 2001 Founded: 2020
Country: France Country: France
axens.net elyse.energy

Engie (ReUze) H2V

Founded: 2008 Founded: 2016
Country: France Country: France
reuze.eu h2v.net

30
DIRECTORY OF SAF PRODUCERS OPERATING IN EUROPE AND THE UK

Haffner Energy Technip Energies

Founded: 1993 Founded: 2021
Country: France Country: France
haffner-energy.com investors.technipenergies.com

TotalEnergies Atmosfair
Founded: 1992 Founded: 2005
Country: France Country: Germany
aviation.totalenergies.com atmosfair.de

Propulsion
Caphenia Wright
COLIPI Electric
Founded: 2011 Founded: 2022
2016
Country: Germany HQ:
Country:
USA Germany
caphenia.tech weflywright.com
colipi.com

EDL (HyKero) ENERTRAG

Founded: 1991 Founded: 1998
Country: Germany Country: Germany
edl.poerner.de enertrag.com

HCS Group Hy2gen

Founded: 2011 Founded: 2017
Country: Germany Country: Germany
h-c-s-group.com hy2gen.com

INTERATEC P2X-Europe
Founded: 2016 Founded: 2021
Country: Germany Country: Germany
interatec.de p2x-europe.com

SARIA Group Siemens Energy

Founded: 1998 Founded: 2020
Country: Germany Country: Germany
saria.com siemens-energy.com

31
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Spark e-fuel Sunfire

Founded: 2021 Founded: 2010
Country: Germany Country: Germany
sparkefuels.com sunfire.de

Uniper (SkyfuelH2) IðunnH2

Founded: 2016 Founded: 2020
Country: Germany Country: Iceland
uniper.energy idunnnh2.com

Tessomo Technologies XFuel

Founded: 2018 Founded: 2010
Country: Ireland Country: Ireland
tessomotechnologies.com xfuel.com

Eni Nordic Electrofuel

Founded: 1953 Founded: 2015
Country: Italy Country: Norway
eni.com nordicelectrofuel.no

Norsk e-fuel Silva Green Fuel

Founded: 2019 Founded: 2015
HQ: Norway Country: Norway
norsk-e-fuel.com statkraft.com

The Navigator Company Abengoa

Founded: 1953 Founded: 1941
Country: Portugal Country: Spain
renewable-carbon.eu/news abengoa.com

Cepsa Greenalia
Founded: 1929 Founded: 2013
Country: Spain Country: Spain
aviation.cepsa.com greenalia.es

32
DIRECTORY OF SAF PRODUCERS OPERATING IN EUROPE AND THE UK

Repsol Colabit
Founded: 1986 Founded: 2013
Country: Spain Country: Sweden
repsol.com colabit.com

Preem SCA (Biorefinery Östrand)

Founded: 1994 Founded: 2017
Country: Sweden Country: Sweden
preem.se sca.com

St1 Swedish Biofuels

Founded: 1995 Founded: 2000
Country: Sweden Country: Sweden
st1.com swedishbiofuels.com

Vattenfall Metafuels
Founded: 1909 Founded: 2021
Country: Sweden Country: Switzerland
group.vattenfall.com metafuels.ch

Synhelion VARO Energy

Founded: 2016 Founded: 2012
Countyr: Switzerland Country: Switzerland
synhelion.com varoenergy.com

Sasol SHV Energy

Founded: 1950 Founded: 1896
Country: SA / GER / DEN / SWDN Country: The Netherlands
sasol.com shvenergy.com

SkyNRG Avioxx
Founded: 2009 Founded: 1923
Country: The Netherlands Country: United Kingdom
skynrg.com avioxx.co.uk

33
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

air BP Carbon Neutral Fuels

Founded: 1909 Founded: 2022
Country: United Kingdom Country: United Kingdom
bp.com cnf.energy

Circulairity Firefly Green Fuels

Founded: 2023 Founded: 2022
Country: United Kingdom Country: United Kingdom
- firefly.uk

Johnson Matthey Nova Pangea Technologies

Founded: 1817 Founded: 2008
Country: United Kingdom HQ: UK
matthey.com novapangea.com

OXCCU Shell Aviation

Founded: 2021 Founded: 1921
Country: United Kingdom Country: United Kingdom
oxccu.com shell.com

Sustineri Fuels Velocys

Founded: 2020 Founded: 2004
Country: United Kingdom Country: United Kingdom
sustinerifuels.com velocys.com

Willis Sustainable Fuels Zero

Founded: 2022 Founded: 2020
Country: United Kingdom Country: United Kingdom
willissustainablefuels.com zero.co

Alfanar Energy GEVO

Founded: 2021 Founded: 2005
Country: Saudi Arabia / UK Country: USA / France
safinvestor.com gevo.com

34
DIRECTORY OF SAF PRODUCERS OPERATING IN EUROPE AND THE UK

CLG (Chevron Lummus Global) Fulcrum BioEnergy

Founded: 2000 Founded: 2007
Country: USA / Poland Country: USA / UK
chevronlummus.com fulcrum-bioenergy.com

Infinium (ReUze) LanzaJet (Project Speedbird)

Founded: 2020 Founded: 2020
Country: USA / UK Country: USA / UK
reuze.eu lanzajet.com/news

LanzaTech (Project Dragon, FLITE) Phillips 66 (Humber Refinery)

Founded: 2005 Founded: 1927
Country: USA / UK Country: USA / UK
lanzadragon.wales phillips66.com

Zenith Energy Terminals Arcadia eFuels (NABOO, Endor)

Founded: 1927 Founded: 2021
Country: USA / UK HQ: Denmark
zenithterminals.com arcadiaefuels.com

35
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

APPENDIX

36
APPENDIX

37
PATHWAYS TO SAF · EUROPE EDITION

Listen to more insights on our podcast

Hosted by SimpliFlying CEO and Founder

Shashank Nigam, Sustainability in the Air
is the world’s leading sustainable aviation
podcast.
Over the past year, aviation guests have
included Scott Kirby (United Airlines), Marie
Owens Thomsen (IATA), Tim Clark (Emirates),
Amelia DeLuca (Delta Air Lines), Amy Burr
(JetBlue Ventures), Adam Goldstein (Archer),
Bonny Simi (Joby) and Nathan Millecam
(Electric Power Systems).

Listen and subscribe to the podcast here:

green.simpliflying.com/podcast

See other episodes

Meanwhile, our Sustainability in the Air website includes weekly articles on sustainable
aviation tech startups; reports on subjects as diverse as SAF and eVTOLs; and regular
newsletters read by thousands of industry professionals to understand the ever-evolving
space of sustainable aviation and the industry’s potential pathways to net zero by 2050.

SUBSCRIBE

38
SUSTAINABILITY IN THE AIR - THE BOOK

MEET THE PIONEERS

OF SUSTAINABLE AVIATION
Climate change concerns are making the aviation industry turn to
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), electric, and hydrogen-powered
aircraft to cut emissions. However, scaling these technologies requires
significant innovation.
Sustainability in the Air highlights the journeys of entrepreneurs,
executives, and investors who are navigating these challenges and
paving the way for the future of aviation.

Learn more at sustainabilityintheair.com

39