IMPORTANT QUESTION

1) Purpose of foundation?
Answer:
Purpose:-
There are numerous reasons a foundation is provided, some of which are:
The most crucial purpose of providing Foundation is Structural Stability. Strength of
the foundation determines the stability of the structure to be constructed.
A properly designed and the constructed foundation provide an even surface for the
development of superstructure at a proper level at over a firm bed.
A well-designed foundation prevents the lateral movement of the supporting material
(which is the soil in this case) and thus ensuring the safety of the superstructure from
the detrimental effects of the lateral movements of soil.
The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the loads from the
structure to a large base area, and then the soil underneath. This uniform transfer of
loads helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building, which is one of the
detrimental defects in building construction.

2) Types of foundation?
Answer:
1. Shallow foundation: If the depth of foundation is less than the width of foundation then
it is known as Shallow or stepped Foundation. It can be used where the bearing capacity
of soil on which the structure is to be constructed is maximum. Minimum depth of this
Foundation is 800mm and maximum depth not to be taken more than 4 meters.
2. Deep foundation: If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width of footing, it is
known as the deep Foundation. Deep Foundation is used where the bearing capacity of
the soil is very low. The load coming from the superstructure is further transmitted
vertically to the soil.

3) Types of bearing capacity of soil?

Answer:
1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate bearing
capacity.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)
By neglecting the overburden pressure from ultimate bearing capacity we will get net
ultimate bearing capacity.
3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)
By considering only shear failure, net ultimate bearing capacity is divided by certain
factor
of safety will give the net safe bearing capacity.
qns = qnu/ F
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (as)
When ultimate bearing capacity is divided by factor of safety it will give gross safe
bearing
capacity.
qs = qu/F
5. Net safe settlement pressure (anp)
The pressure with which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable settlement is
called
net safe settlement pressure.
6. Net allowable bearing pressure (qna)
This is the pressure we can used for the design of foundations. This is equal to net safe
bearing
pressure if gnp > qns. In the reverse case it is equal to net safe settlement pressure.

4) How to improve bearing capacity of soil?

Answer:
There are a number of ways to improve the bearing capacity of a soil, including:

1. Compaction: Compaction increases the density of the soil, which increases its bearing
capacity.
2. Drainage: Drainage lowers the water content of the soil, which increases its bearing
capacity.
3. Soil replacement: If the soil is of poor quality, it can be replaced with better quality soil.
4. Ground improvement techniques: There are a number of ground improvement
techniques that can be used to increase the bearing capacity of the soil, such as deep
soil mixing and jet grouting.

5) Factors affecting bearing capacity of soil?

Answer:
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity of Soil
1. Foundation width
Soil with little cohesiveness might have its bearing capacity reduced if the foundation is too
narrow. In cohesionless soil, where internal friction contributes significantly to soil shear
strength, a wider foundation will support a greater load. Soil with infinite depth, consistent
shear strength, and cohesive properties may support loads of any width foundation.
2. Foundation depth
A deeper foundation is necessary for increased bearing capacity. This is most noticeable in
cohesive-free soil when the texture is homogeneous. The opposite is true if the foundations
are pushed into a poor soil layer, which reduces their carrying ability.
Unless the building is anchored by under-consolidated soil or compressible soil that is
vulnerable to wetness, appropriate bearing capacity is typically assured by foundations set at
depths where the weight of the structure matches the weight of the displaced soil.
3. Surcharge and soil weight
One cannot exclude the bearing capacity contribution of water table-influenced surcharge and
subsurface soil. Construction, seepage, and elevation issues may be avoided if the water table
is kept below the foundation’s base. There will be no effect on the bearing capacity of soil
from water table levels below the failure surface.
4. Spacing between foundations
When designing a foundation, it is advised that a minimum separation between footings that
is 1.5 times the width of the foundation be taken into consideration. This will help prevent a
loss in the foundation’s carrying capacity.
5. Dynamic motion and earthquake
The bearing capacity of soil might diminish due to repeated movement, which would raise
pore pressure. Earthquakes, vibrating equipment, and several other factors such as
transportation, explosion, and pile driving all contribute to cyclic motions.
When pore pressures are higher than the soil confining tension, the foundation soil may
become liquefied. The effective stress drops to zero due to liquefaction, leading to significant
deformation and a decrease in bearing capacity.
6. Frost action
Changes in the bearing capacity of soil may occur gradually over time due to frost heave in
particular soils that are in proximity to water and are exposed to subzero weather. Materials
with a low cohesiveness, such as those made up of a lot of silt-sized particles, are more
vulnerable to the effects of frost.
7. Subsurface voids
The bearing capacity of soil is diminished when subsurface voids are present within a crucial
depth under the foundation. The critical depth is determined by the depth at which the
pressure exerted by the foundation on the soil is no longer significant.
8. Collapsible and expansive soils
When the soil is somewhat dry, its sturdiness and bearing capacity may increase significantly,
despite its tendency to collapse and expand. However, because of changes in moisture
content, the proportion of these soils might shift. As a result, there will be shifts in the
structure’s base on a global and regional scale. Soil movement brought on by rain and dry
spells may cause long-term, severe damage to buildings.
9. Potential heave
Consolidometer testing, carried out in line with ASTM D 4546, may reveal the presence of a
possible heave. The findings of this test are taken into account when deciding how to prepare
the foundation soils so that they are better able to resist or isolate the anticipated soil heave.
10. Soil reinforcement
The bearing capacity of weak or soft soil may be significantly boosted by the installation of
different types of reinforcement in the soil. These reinforcements can take the shape of metal
links, strips, arrays, geotextile fabrics, or coarse aggregates.
11. Seepage and soil erosion
Seepage and erosion of the soil surrounding and beneath foundations may both lower the
bearing capacity of the foundation soil and ultimately lead to its collapse

6) Introduction to building design?

Answer:
Building design is a broad discipline that encompasses the planning, design, and construction of
buildings. It is a complex process that involves a wide range of considerations, from the
functional and aesthetic needs of the occupants to the structural and environmental requirements
of the building itself.
The Importance of Building Design
Buildings play a vital role in our lives. They provide us with shelter from the elements,
protect us from harm, and give us spaces to live, work, and play. Well-designed buildings
can have a positive impact on our health, well-being, and productivity. They can also
contribute to a sense of community and identity.

7) The relationship between functional design & structural design?

Answer:
The Relationship Between Functional and Structural Design
Functional and structural design are closely interrelated. The functional design of a building can
have a significant impact on the structural design, and vice versa. For example, a building with a
large open floor plan will require a different structural system than a building with many small
rooms.
It is important for architects and structural engineers to work closely together from the early
stages of the design process. This ensures that the functional and structural design of the building
are compatible and that the building meets all of the necessary safety and performance
requirements.
Here are some examples of how functional and structural design work together:

A large office building with an open floor plan may require a structural system that uses steel
columns and beams to create large, column-free spaces.

A residential home with multiple stories may require a structural system that uses wood or
concrete framing to support the weight of the upper floors.

A hospital that needs to be able to withstand earthquakes may require a structural system that
uses special features such as base isolation or seismic dampers.

8) Selection of sites for building?

Answer:
The selection of a site for a building is a critical decision that can have a significant impact on the
cost, construction, and operation of the building. There are a number of factors that should be
considered when selecting a site, including:
i. The soil of site should have good bearing capacity. Hard strata should be available at
reasonable depth, around 1.2m to1.5m depth from ground level.
ii. The site should be on elevated ground. It should have slope towards front street to afford good
facility of drainage.
iii. Sites nearer to ponds ,pools of water, water logged areas must be avoided as they remain in
damp condition .
iv. Sites near to high voltage power transmission lines are avoided.
v. Sites very nearer to big shopping complexes , markets, railway station ,airport are avoided
vi. The surrounding of site should be pleasing and calm.
vii. The orientation of site should be such that it receives natural light and air in plenty.
viii. The location of site is such that the common facilities like school, transportation, medical
facilities etc are within reasonable range.
ix. Sites in developed colonies should be preferred.
x. The layout of the colony should be approved by local authorities. This will help in getting
essential facilities like water , drainage ,electricity, telephone connection etc easily.

9) Factors affecting planning of building?

Answer:
1. The function of the building e.g. residential, industrial, public, commercial, etc.
2. Shape and size of the plot
3. Topography
4. Climatic condition
5. Building by-Laws etc.

10) Principles of building planning?

Answer:
“The concept of positioning all the elements and units of a building in a systematic and practical
manner to have the maximum and best utilization of the available space, area and facilities is
termed as Principles of Building Planning.”
There are several principles that affect the planning of a building. This article will give
you a brief knowledge of all those principles.

01. What is an ASPECT in building planning?

02. What are the PROSPECT principles in building planning?
03. What does the GROUPING mean in building planning?
04. How ROOMINESS can be a principles of building planning?
05. How CIRCULATION act as a principle of building planning?
06. What is Flexibility in building planning?
07. How FURNITURE influence principles of building planning?
08. What does Privacy means in building planning?
09. What is SANITATION in building planning?

11) Basic requirement of a building?

Answer:
There are many basic requirements of a building, but some of the most important include:
Strength and Stability: A building should be able to withstand all of the loads that it is likely
to experience, including its own weight, the weight of its occupants and their belongings, and the
weight of snow, wind, and other natural forces. The building should also be able to resist collapse
in the event of an earthquake or other disaster.
Durability: A building should be able to withstand the effects of weathering and other
environmental factors for many years. This means that the building should be made of materials
that are resistant to rot, corrosion, and other forms of damage.
Fire Resistance: A building should be able to resist the spread of fire. This means that the
building should be made of materials that are non-combustible or that are slow to burn. The
building should also have firewalls and other fire protection systems in place.
Sound Insulation: A building should be able to block out noise from the outside and from
other parts of the building. This is important for both privacy and for the health and well-being of
the occupants.

Lighting and Ventilation: A building should have adequate lighting and ventilation. This is
important for both the health and well-being of the occupants and for the preservation of the
building's materials.
Accessibility: A building should be accessible to people with disabilities. This means that the
building should have ramps, elevators, and other features that make it easy for people with
disabilities to get around.
Security: A building should be secure from unauthorized access. This means that the building
should have locks, security systems, and other features that make it difficult for people to enter
without permission.

12) Basic components of a building?

Answer:
Building component means any subsystem, subassembly, or other system designed for use in, or
as part of, a structure, which may include structural, electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and fire
protection systems and other systems affecting health and safety.
The basic function of a building is to provide structurally sound and environmentally
controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents.A building is combination of
various components. A Civil Engineer should have good knowledge of execution of each and
every component with respect to design layouts given by Architect.
The following are the basic component parts of a residential building:-
1. Foundation 6. Floors 11. Parapet
2. Plinth 7. Roofs
3. Walls and columns 8. Steps, stairs and lifts
4. Sills, lintels and chejjas 9. Finishing work
5. Doors and windows 10. Building services.

13) Types of building as per NBC?

Answer:
Any structure made for whatsoever purpose with any material, used for human habitation or not
which included foundation, plinth, walls, floor, roofs, chimney, plumbing, and building services,
Verandah, Balcony, and cornice, etc. is called a building. Buildings are classified based on
occupance and type of construction:

A. RESIDENTIAL F. MERCANTILE (included retail and whole shale store)

B. EDUCATIONAL G. INDUSTRIAL (low, moderate and high fire hazards)
C. INSTITUTIONAL H. STORAGE
D. ASSEMBLY I .HAZARDOUS E. BUSINESS
14) Importance of civil engineering in future development of the
country?
Answer:
Civil Engineers play a major role in the infrastructure development of a country. All structures
constructed in the past exhibit the path of civilization and current infrastructures development
express the practices followed by civil engineers.
Infrastructure can be defined as activities that provide society with services necessary to conduct
daily life and to engage in productive activity and development in a country’s economy.
In a country like India, the major infrastructural. Factors that are most significant in accelerating
the pace of economic development are energy, transport, irrigation, finance, communications,
education, and health.
The knowledge of basic areas of civil engineering can be of great use in providing the
infrastructural facilities where constructional aspects are involved for development of regions.
Good surface communication links such as tar or concrete rods.

Provision of water supply distribution system i.e., construction of water storage reservation or
sumps, laying of underground pipes etc.
Provision of a drainage system which may include construction of surface drains as
subsurface drains for the disposal of wastewater.
Supply of electrical power for which construction of transmission line towers, construction of
electrical substations.
Providing inland communications lines, i.e., telephone lines etc.

Construction of recreational places e.g., gardens, parks etc.

15) Discipline of civil engineering?

Answer:
There are many different disciplines of civil engineering, each with its own focus and
specialties. The various disciplines of civil engineering are-
MODULE-2

1) Fundamental properties of construction materials?

Answer:
The choice of constructing material depends upon the nature and intended purpose of the
construction, design of the structure, location of the project, availability of the material, skilled
manpower and equipment, and cost of the material. A civil engineer must be conversant with the
properties and usages of these materials, as it will facilitate them to select the right materials for
different structures requiring different service conditions.

2) Classification & uses of building stone?

Answer:
Uses of stone
● Stone is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns, and arches in a building.

● Stones are used as flooring materials. Stones like marble and granite that have a good appearance are
used for flooring and face works in luxurious buildings.

● Stone slabs are used for the construction of damp-proof courses, lintels, and roofs.

● Stones are used for paving roads, footpaths and open spaces around the buildings.

● Crushed stones are used for the construction of roads. Smaller pieces of stones mixed with tar are
used for laying the surface course of the roads.

● Crushed stones are used:

● As a basic inert material or the coarse aggregate in concrete.

● As railway ballast.

● For making artificial stones and hollow building blocks.

● Stones are also used in the construction of bridges, retaining walls, or dams.

Classification of Rocks
Stones are obtained from rock. Hence, its property is largely dependent on the properties of the parent
rock material. A rock can be classified in three different ways, viz. based on the nature of its geological
origin, its physical structure, and chemical composition.

A. Classification based on geological origin: Based on their geological origin, the stones are
classified into three main categories: Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of the molten magma. These
rocks are very strong and durable. Granite, trap, and basalt are common igneous rocks used in
construction works.
Sedimentary rock: Due to the weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrate.
This disintegrated material is transported by wind, snow, or water and deposited at some other point
where the velocity of flow is diminished. These deposited layers under the action of pressure and heat
consolidated to form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are uniform, fine-grained, and compact and
show a layered structure. Sandstones, mudstones, and limestones are some of the commonly used
sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rock: Metamorphic rocks are formed due to the transformation of either igneous or
sedimentary rocks through the influence of heat or chemical action. Marble, gneiss, and slate belong to
this class.

B. Classification based on physical structure: Based on their physical structure, stones are classified
into the following categories:

Stratified rocks: These rocks have a layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage.
They can be easily split along these planes. Examples are sandstones, limestones, slate, etc.
Unstratified rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains, and
cannot be split into a thin slab. Examples are granite, trap, marble, etc.
Foliated Rocks: These rocks tend to split along a definite direction only. The directions need not be
parallel to each other as in the case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is prevalent in the case of
metamorphic rocks.
C. Classification based on chemical composition: Based on their chemical composition, stones are
classified into the following categories:

Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Common
examples are granite, trap, sandstones, etc.
Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil, i.e., clay. These stones are
hard and durable, but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterite
stones are included in this class

3) Describe bricks classification and how to prepare the bricks?

Answer:
The bricks are classified into four categories depending upon their quality as follows:
● First class bricks: These bricks have a uniform colour, thoroughly- burnt but not over-burnt, have a
plane and rectangular faces with parallel sides, and sharp straight edges. These bricks have a fine,
compact, and uniform texture and emit a clear ringing sound when struck.

● Second class bricks: These bricks have a uniform colour, maybe slightly over-burnt. The bricks may
be somewhat distorted and have round edges. These bricks have a fine, compact, and uniform texture
and emit a clear ringing sound when struck. Such bricks are commonly used for the construction of
walls that are going to be plastered.

● Third class brick: These bricks may be slightly under-burnt or over- burnt. They may be distorted
and have round edges. They may have defects in uniformity and shape. However, these defects may not
cause difficulty in obtaining uniform courses with their use. They produce dull sounds when struck
together. They are used for temporary and unimportant structures.

● Fourth class bricks: These are over-burnt or Jhama Bricks. They are dark in colour; the shape is
irregular. They are used as aggregates in the concrete foundation, floors, and roads.

However, bricks made of a mixture of sand and lime or Portland cement are nowadays gaining
acceptance. A brick is rectangular in shape and of a size that can be conveniently handled with one
hand. They are used for building up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings, and other
load- bearing structures.
4) Types of cement and application of cement?
Answer:
Type Properties Uses

Portland It is manufactured by Marine works, mass

Pozzolana blending OPC concreting ,
Cement cement with fly ash watertight structure
and grinding them
together. It has a high
resistance to
aggressive waters and
sulphates. It
continues to gain
compressive strength
with age.

Rapid Hardening It attains high Road pavement,

Cement strength in the early precast concrete
days. It is used in casting
concrete where
formworks need to be
removed at an early
stage

Quick Setting It sets into a stony Underwater

Cement mass in less than 30 constructions, in cold
minutes from laying and rainy weather
it. conditions

Low Heat Cement A Low amount of Mass concreting in

heat or hydration is mega structures like
liberated during gravity dams
setting and hardening
of this cement

Blast furnace slag It is manufactured by Useful for mass

cement blending OPC concreting and
cement with blast- marine structures.
furnace slag obtained
from the steel
industry and grinding
them together. It has
a slow rate of
hardening and lower
heat evolution.

Sulphate Resisting It can resist sulphate Pile foundation,

Cement attack on concrete coastal area works,
and thus is used in sewage and water
the construction of treatment plants
foundations where
the soil has high
sulphate content.
High Alumina Its initial setting time Used in the
Cement is 3.5 hours, while the construction of
final setting time is 5 refineries and kilns,
hrs. It can sustain a for binding fie bricks.
very high
temperature.

White Cement The properties of Plaster and other

this cement are very decorative works, for
similar to the OPC manufacturing
except for the colour, coloured cement by
which is white. It is adding colouring
manufactured by pigments
adding high- quality
raw materials with
very low iron oxide
compounds.

Coloured Cement It is manufactured by Artificial marble floor

adding different finishing
colouring pigments
to the white cement.

Air Entraining Entrain airs in the Used in frost-

Cement form of air bubbles of resistant concrete
diameter 0.075 mm construction
to
1.25 mm. This makes
the concrete more
plastic and workable.

Hydrophobic Cement It repels water and Construction of water

remains unaffected retaining structures
during monsoons or like a tank, reservoir,
rains retaining wall, or
swimming pool

5) Difference between cement , mortar &concrete?

Answer:
Cement
Cement is a commonly used building material, obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous
(calcium-rich) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high temperature and then grinding
the clinker so produced to a fine powder. When cement is mixed with fine aggregate, mortar
is produced for masonry; and when mixed with sand & gravel, concrete is produced.

Mortar
Mortar is defined as a paste prepared by adding water in a required quantity to a mixture of a
bonding material such as cement or lime and inert materials like sand, cinder or surkhi.
Mortar is used as a binding material in stone and brick masonry constructions or as a plastering
material to provide smooth, hard, and decorative walls and surfaces.
Concrete
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials throughout the world. It is
obtained by mixing together cement, aggregates, water and sometimes admixtures. The
mixture when placed in forms and allowed to cure, hardens into a rock-like mass. Concrete
has the ability to be placed in forms to create almost any shape. In building construction,
concrete is used for the construction of foundations, columns, beams, slabs and other load-
bearing elements.

6) Describe various type of paints and define uses of paints?

Answer:
Some of the most common types of paint include
A. Oil paint: Oil paints are made with an oil or solvent base and are known for their durability and
smooth finish. They dry slowly, have a strong odour, and are difficult to clean up, but they are well-
suited for use on woodwork, metal, and exterior surfaces.

B. Aluminium paint: Aluminium paint is made with finely ground aluminium suspended in a varnish.
It is highly visible in the dark, heat- resistant, electrical-resistant, corrosion-free, and impervious to
moisture. It is often used to paint metallic surfaces such as gas tanks, water pipes, oil storage tanks, and
electric poles.
C. Cement paint: Cement paint is made with white cement, colouring pigments, and an accelerator. It
has excellent waterproofing and durability properties and is often used to paint plastered brick and
stone masonry, concrete works, and iron sheets.

D. Asbestos paint: Asbestos paint is made with fibrous asbestos as the main ingredient. It has fire-
retarding and water-resistant properties and is often used to paint public buildings, gutters, and spouts.

E. Cellulose paint: Cellulose paint is made with pigments suspended in cellulose nitrate lacquers. It
provides a flexible, hard, and smooth surface, and can withstand extreme heat and cold. It is often used
to paint motor cars, aeroplanes, and other superior works.

F. Emulsion paint: Emulsion paint is made with vehicles such as polyvinyl acetate and synthetic resins.
It has excellent alkali resistance, quick drying, good workability, and durability. It is often used on
stucco, bricks, and masonry surfaces containing free alkali.

G. Plastic paint: Plastic paint contains a variety of plastics as the base. It is quick-drying, has high
covering power, and provides a decorative appearance. It has good adhesion to the surface and is often
used to paint showrooms, auditoriums, offices, and cinema halls.

H. Enamel paint: Enamel paint contains bases like metallic oxide (white lead or zinc white) ground
with a small quantity of oil, which is mixed with petroleum spirit vehicle. It is acid and alkaline-
resistant, waterproof, and can provide a durable and hard surface. It is used for painting both internal
and external surfaces and woodwork.

I.Anti-corrosive paint: Anti-corrosive paint uses linseed oil as a vehicle and dry red lead, sublimed
blue lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide and zinc chromate as pigments. It obstructs corrosion by reducing
direct access of air and water to the metals. It is often used for the preservation of steel against acid
fumes and adverse weather conditions.
The following are the uses of paint:
● To protect the surface from weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids, fumes
and gases.

● To check corrosion of metals, decay of wood or formation of bacteria and fungus.

● To check penetration of water through RCC.

● To provide a smooth surface with a good appearance.

7) What is concrete &classification of concrete?

Answer:
Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials throughout the world. It is obtained
by mixing together cement, aggregates, water and sometimes admixtures. The mixture when
placed in forms and allowed to cure, hardens into a rock-like mass. Concrete has the ability to be
placed in forms to create almost any shape. In building construction, concrete is used for the
construction of foundations, columns, beams, slabs and other load- bearing elements.

Types of Concrete
A. Plain cement concrete (PCC): Plain cement concrete (PCC) is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate
(sand), and coarse aggregate without steel reinforcement. It is a strong material in compression but
weak in tension. Hence PCC is used when the structural member is subjected only to the compressive
forces but not used if it is subjected to tensile and bending forces. PCC is commonly used in the
construction of foundations, pavements, and other structures where reinforcement is not required. It is
also used as a base for other types of concrete, such as reinforced concrete.

B. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC): Reinforced concrete is a composite material made of concrete
and steel. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension, while steel is strong in both
compression and tension. By combining concrete and steel, reinforced concrete is able to resist both
compressive and tensile forces. RCC is made by pouring concrete around a steel reinforcement cage.
The steel reinforcement cage is made up of steel bars or rods that are arranged in a specific pattern to
provide the necessary strength and durability. Once the concrete has been poured and cured, the steel
reinforcement cage becomes bonded to the concrete, forming a strong and durable composite material.
RCC is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. Reinforced cement concrete is
used for almost all structures, great or small such as buildings, bridges, pavements, dams, retaining
walls, tunnels, drainage and irrigation facilities, tanks, and so on. There are numerous advantages of
using RCC as follows:
C. Pre-stressed concrete: Prestressed concrete is a type of concrete that has been strengthened by the
application of compressive stresses before it is put into service. The purpose of prestressing is to
improve the performance of concrete structures by counterbalancing the tensile stresses (opposite of
compressive stress). Prestressed concrete can be achieved by two methods: pre-tensioning and post-
tensioning. In pre-tensioning, steel cables or tendons are stretched before the concrete is cast. After the
concrete hardens, the tendons are released to transfer the compressive force to the concrete. In post-
tensioning, steel tendons are placed inside ducts or sleeves within the concrete. After the concrete
hardens, the tendons are tensioned and anchored to the ends of the concrete member. The tendons
apply a compressive force to the concrete through friction or bonding. Prestressed concrete has many
advantages over conventional reinforced concrete, such as higher strength, lower deflection, better
crack control, thinner sections, longer spans, and reduced reinforcement. Prestressed concrete is widely
used in bridges, buildings, dams, tanks, pavements, and nuclear containment structures.
D. Precast concrete; Precast concrete or prefabricated concrete is a construction product produced by
casting concrete in a reusable mould or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment,
transported to the construction site and manoeuvred into place. This method of construction offers
many potential advantages over onsite casting. Precast concrete production can be performed on
ground level, which maximizes safety during its casting. There is greater control over material quality
and workmanship in a precast plant compared to a construction site. The forms used in a precast plant
can be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they have to be replaced, often making it cheaper
than onsite casting in terms of cost per unit of formwork. However, there are certain aspects that may
discourage the use of precast concrete units under certain conditions such as the need for special types
of equipment for handling, transportation, and erection, particularly for large-size units like beams,
slabs, columns, etc. Further, there is more chance of damage to the precast units while loading, transporting,
and erecting. Examples include precast beams, railway sleepers, telephone and electric poles, wall panels, etc.

8) Types of timber used in constructions?

Answer:
Sl. Purpose Requirement Important
No. Trees

1 Bridge The timber Babul, Bakul,

should have Red cedar,
good strength, Ironwood,
durability, and Jarul, Sal,
resistance to Sissoo.
water and salts

2 Houses It should be Sissoo, Teak,

lightweight, Babul, Bel,
tough, and Mango,
durable. The Redwood
grains must be
closely spaced
have pleasing
colour and
good texture
and must be
able to take a
good polish.

3 Joists, Beams, Should be Arjun, Mango,

Door frame etc. strong, hard, Sal
and durable.

4 Column, Rafter Should be Sal, Bamboo,

strong, heavy, Palm, Coconut.
and durable.
Must be able to
take a heavy
load in axial
directions.
5 Furniture Close grained, Teak, Deodar,
light, soft, and Walnut,
durable. Must Shisham, Oak,
be able to take Aini
a good polish

6 Piles Hard, Strong, Sal, Bijasal,

and Durable. Ironwood,
Must be able to Banyan,
resist the Nageswar
actions of soil
and water.

7 Railway Cheap, Hard, Sundari, Sal,

sleepers Tough, durable. Bel, Deodar
Must have a
high damping
capacity.

8 Railways/Bus Hard, durable, Ironwood,

carriage close- grained, Redwood, Teak
should be able
to take a good
polish

9 Scaffoldings Flexible, Bamboo,

strong, and Casuarinas
durable.

10 Shuttering Hardness, Mango,

Durability Nageswar,
against the Gambhir
attack of
cement and
water, Easy to
work. Smooth

9) Uses of tiles in constructions?

Answer:
Khud nikal answer mai chala sone