INTRODUCTION

The term 3D Printing, also known as

Additive Manufacturing, covers a series of
processes and technologies that offer a
wide range of resources for the production
of parts and products in different
materials. Essentially, what these
processes and technologies have in
common is the way in which production is
carried out – layer by layer in an additive
process – different from traditional
production methods such as machining or
molding/casting. New applications for 3D
printing are emerging almost daily, and as
this technology continues to penetrate
more widely and deeply into the
industrial, manufacturing and consumer
sectors, this is only expected to increase.

3D printing is often confused with Rapid Prototyping. Let's clarify the difference: rapid prototyping
is a whole group of techniques for manufacturing parts or models of objects in an agile way from a
CAD (Computer Aided Design) file of the model. Rapid prototyping techniques allow us to obtain
assemblies or parts in quantities and conditions that are not possible on the normal production
line. Most of the time, rapid prototyping is used to build study, analysis and simulation models. 3D
printing is, therefore, one of the tools for rapid prototyping!

WHAT IS IT
3D printing is a process of manufacturing an object from a three-dimensional digital model (CAD),
where thin, successive layers of material are deposited one on top of the other. Each of these layers
can be viewed as a slice of the horizontal cross-section of the object. 3D Printing is the opposite of
subtractive manufacturing, such as turning, milling, grinding or drilling, for example, a block of
wood or metal. Additive manufacturing allows the creation of complex and functional shapes, using
less material and fewer tools than traditional methods. There are several technologies for printing
an object, and they will be discussed later.

For many applications, traditional design and production processes impose a number of
unacceptable constraints, including expensive tooling, fixtures and the need for assembly for
complex parts. Additionally, subtractive manufacturing processes such as machining can result in
up to 90% of the original material being wasted. In contrast, 3D printing is a nearly waste-free
process. Simplifying the idea behind 3D printing, it can be compared to the process of automatically
building something out of Lego blocks.
Additive Manufacturing is a technology that stimulates and drives innovation with unprecedented
design freedom, being a process that does not require tools, reducing costs and delivery times.
Components can be specifically designed to avoid assembly requirements, with complex geometry
and features created at no additional cost. 3D printing also provides environmental advantages in
terms of the manufacturing process, using almost 100% of the raw material and generating
products with a longer useful life, through a lighter and stronger design.

In recent years, 3D Printing has moved beyond being an industrial prototyping and manufacturing
process as the technology has become more accessible to small businesses and even individuals.
Once the domain of giant multi-national corporations due to their large dimensions and costs,
today smaller (and less powerful) printers can be purchased for less than R$1,500.00.

HISTORY
The first 3D printing technologies emerged in the late 1980s, when they were called Rapid
Prototyping (RP) technologies. As an interesting fact, the first patent application for PR was filed by
Dr. Kodama in Japan in May 1980.
Unfortunately for Dr. Kodama, the full patent specification was not submitted within a year of filing,
meaning he lost the patent, which is particularly disastrous considering he was a patent attorney!

The first 3D printer was created by an American named Chuck Hall in 1986. Chuck came up with
the idea of ​3D printing while using an ultraviolet light to harden the ink he was placing on a coffee
table. Using this experience as inspiration, Chuck invented a process for making 3D printed objects
using a concentrated beam of ultraviolet light to harden thin layers of
a resin successively. He
called this
“Stereolithography”
process, and is still an
important 3D printing
technology today.
Chuck also invented a number
of other important aspects of
the 3D printing process,
including the STL file, which is
the dominant file format for
almost all 3D printed projects.

He also founded one of the world's leading 3D printing companies called 3D Systems. And since the
mid-1980s, several other 3D printing technologies have been developed and a variety of new
companies have entered the market. The basic technology is not new.

However, these technologies were not perfect; there was some deformation in the material as it
hardened. Furthermore, 3D printers were very large and very expensive. These printers were
typically the size of a refrigerator and cost $100,000 or more. Thus, these machines were mainly
used by large companies to create prototypes. Then something happened a few years ago.
Between 2002 and 2014, more than 220 patents for
additive manufacturing technologies expired. It was
during this period when 3D printing met the Open-Source
movement. In 2005, Dr. Adrian Bowyer's RepRap Project
launched an open-source initiative to create a 3D printer
that could essentially build itself - or at least print most of
your own parts. Launched in 2008, Darwin is a
self-replicating printer that is capable of doing just that.
Suddenly, people everywhere had the power to create
anything they could dream up on their own.

Additionally, several new companies, mostly small startups, have begun to enter the 3D printing
market. The most notable new addition was a company called MakerBot, which was founded in
Brooklyn in 2009 and was the first company to sell an affordable desktop printer. MakerBot's first
machine, called Cupcake, formed the basis for the democratization of 3D printing. Other companies
that entered the market at this time are Formlabs, Printrbot and Ultimaker. As a result of this new
entry, the size of a 3D printer has shrunk from refrigerator to microwave. And the price dropped
from $100,000 to $1,000 or even less. As a result, the number of 3D printers is expanding rapidly
and this tool is quickly becoming democratized.

APPLICATIONS
● RAPID PROTOTYPING
For example, Nike uses 3D printers to create running shoes prototypes. They used to spend
thousands of dollars (and wait weeks) on a prototype before they could hold it in their hands. Now
the cost is just tens or hundreds of dollars, and changes can be made instantly on the computer and
the prototype reprinted the same day.

● AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
Automakers, restorers and repairers have been using 3D printing for a long time. Companies are
using it to produce not just parts, but tools and interior elements. It also enabled on-site
development, leading to a decrease in reliance on foreign manufacturing.
Koenigseg uses carbon fiber parts in its One:1 car. Thanks to a Dimension SST 1200es 3D printer,
the company saved 40% of the cost and parts were developed 20% faster than traditional methods.
Similarly, Audi is using 3D metal printing to produce replacement parts. They are essentially
disrupting their own supply chain by printing replacement parts on demand with a metal printer.
In 2014, the company Local Motors created a vehicle built entirely using an additive process! The
project took 44 hours, and needed to be finished after completion.
● AVIATION
The aviation industry currently uses 3D printing in
many different ways. Boeing has been exploring the
potential of printed parts and airplanes for a long
time. In 2015, it was estimated that Boeing had more
than 20,000 3D printed parts implemented in its
planes. The 787 uses tons of printed titanium parts,
saving the company 2 to 3 million per plane.

3D printing is also freeing up designers who want to

rethink the fundamentals of airplanes. THE
Airbus and its engineers have worked to develop aircraft structures and shapes that mimic those
found in nature. This is allowing companies to produce light aircraft with better aerodynamics.

● ARCHITECTURE
Architects were among the first to adopt 3D printing technology. When architects need to present
their work as a physical scale model, 3D printing will always be a quick and efficient way to do so.
3D printers help reduce labor and time when it comes to visualizing designs for clients.

● MEDICINE
The prospects for medical use of 3D printing are evolving
at an extremely rapid pace as experts begin to utilize 3D
printing in more advanced ways. Patients around the
world are experiencing improved quality of care through
3D printed implants and prosthetics never seen before.
Even 3D printing pens are helping in orthopedic surgery.

Biotechnology companies and academics are studying the

possible use of 3D printing in tissue engineering
applications, where organs and body parts are constructed
using inkjet techniques. Layers of living cells are deposited in a gel medium and slowly built up to
form three-dimensional structures. We refer to this field of research with the term: bioprinting.

● AEROSPACE
Sending parts and tools into space is extremely expensive, and a mission can take months. Thanks
to a 3D printer manufactured especially for the International Space Station, capable of printing in
zero gravity, engineers on Earth can develop and send the design of parts to be printed by
astronauts inside the station. Furthermore, the development of a printer capable of using lunar soil
as raw material for the construction of lunar bases is underway.
HOW IT WORKS
Now that we've discussed the history of desktop 3D printing, let's examine how these printers
work. The additive process is driven by a microcontroller, which guides a set of motors that move a
three-dimensional printing device. The movement of this printing device is guided by a digital
drawing file that is read by the printer's motherboard. As the device moves, it additively hardens
the material from top to bottom or bottom to top. Although all 3D printers involve an additive
process, there are actually several different types of 3D printing technologies. These various
technologies will be detailed in more detail in the next topic.

PROCESSES
● STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (ST)
Stereolithography (SL) is widely recognized as
the first 3D printing process. SL is a laser-based
process that works with photopolymer resins,
which react with the laser and cure to form a
solid in a very precise manner. It's a complex
process, but to put it simply, the photopolymer
resin is held in a container with a moving
platform inside. A laser beam is directed in the
X-Y axes across the surface of the resin
according to the 3D data provided to the
machine (the .stl file), and the resin hardens
precisely where the laser hits the
surface. Once the layer is completed, the platform inside the tank moves down a fraction (in the Z
axis) and the subsequent layer is traced by the laser. This continues until the entire object is
completed and the platform can be lifted out of the container for removal.

Because of the nature of the SL process, it requires support structures for some parts, specifically
those with protrusions or notches. These structures need to be removed manually.

In terms of other post-processing steps, many objects 3D printed using SL need to be cleaned and
cured. Curing involves subjecting the piece to intense light in an oven-type machine to completely
harden the resin.

Stereolithography is generally accepted as being one of the most accurate 3D printing processes
with excellent surface finish. However, limiting factors include the necessary post-processing steps
and the stability of the materials over time, which can become more brittle.
● DIGITAL LIGHT
PROCESSING (DLP)

It is a similar process to stereolithography

in that it is a 3D printing process that
works with photopolymers. The main
difference is the light source. DLP uses a
more conventional light source, such as an
arc lamp, with a liquid crystal panel or a
deformable mirror device (DMD), which is
applied to the entire surface of the
container of photopolymer resin in a single pass, generally making it faster than SL.
In short, in DLP the layer image is projected onto the resin at once, and its resolution is determined
by the size of the projected pixels.

Also like SL, DLP produces highly accurate parts with excellent resolution, but its similarities also
include the same requirements for support structures and post-cure. However, an advantage of
DLP over SL is that only a shallow container of resin is required, which generally results in less
waste and lower operating costs.

● SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)

Laser sintering and laser melting
are interchangeable terms that
refer to a laser-based 3D printing
process that works with powdered
materials. The laser is traced on a
surface of suitably compacted
powder material, according to the
3D data provided to the machine,
in the X-axis.
Y. As the laser interacts with the
surface of the powder material,
it sinters or fuses the
particles together to form a solid. As each layer is completed, the powder bed gradually falls and a
roller smoothes the powder onto the surface of the bed before the next laser passes so that the
subsequent layer is formed and fused with the previous layer.

The build chamber is sealed as it is necessary to maintain a precise temperature during the process
specific to the melting point of the chosen powder material. Once finished, the entire powder bed is
removed from the machine and excess powder can be removed to leave the "printed" parts. One of
the main advantages of this process is that the unsintered powder serves as support structure for
bosses and cutouts and therefore complex shapes that could not be manufactured in any other way
are possible with this process.
However, on the downside, due to the high temperatures required for laser sintering, cooling
times can be considerable. Furthermore, porosity has been a historical problem with this process,
and although there have been significant improvements in 100% density parts, some applications
still require infiltration with another material to improve mechanical characteristics.

Laser sintering can process plastic and metal materials, although metal sintering requires a more
powerful laser and higher temperatures during the process. Parts produced with this process are
much stronger than with SL or DLP, although generally the surface finish and precision are not as
good.

● FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM)

3D printing using extrusion of thermoplastic material is the most common 3D process. The name
FDM is a trade name registered by Stratasys, the company that originally developed this process.
Stratasys FDM technology has been around since the early 1990s and is now an industrial-grade 3D
printing process. However, the proliferation of entry-level 3D printers that have emerged since
2009 largely utilize a similar process, often called Freeform Fabrication (FFF), but in a more basic
form due to patents still held by Stratasys. The first RepRap machines and all subsequent
evolutions – open-source and commercial – employ extrusion methodology. However, after
Afiniathere was sued for infringing Stratasys' patents, it is unknown how entry-level models will
now develop, with all machines potentially in Stratasys' crosshairs for patent infringement.

The process works by melting the plastic filament that is deposited, through a heated extruder, one
layer at a time, on a build platform according to the 3D data provided to the printer. Each layer
hardens as it is deposited and bonds with the previous layer.

Stratasys has developed a range of industrial grade materials suitable for its FDM process that are
suitable for some production applications. In entry-level models, materials are more limited, but
the range is growing. The most common materials for entry-level FFF 3D printers are ABS and PLA.

FDM/FFF processes require support structures for any applications with protruding geometries.
For FDM, this involves a second water-soluble material, which allows the support structures to be
washed relatively easily once printing is complete. Alternatively, detachable support materials are
also possible, which can be removed manually by pulling them out of the part. Support structures,
or lack thereof, have often been a limitation of entry-level FFF 3D printers. However, as systems
have evolved and improved to incorporate dual extrusion nozzles, this has become less of an issue.

In terms of models produced, the Stratasys FDM process is an accurate and reliable process that is
relatively office/studio friendly, although extensive post-processing may be required. At the entry
level, as you would expect, the FFF process produces much less accurate models, but things are
constantly improving.

The process can be slow for some part geometries and layer-to-layer adhesion can be a problem,
resulting in parts that are not watertight. In this case, post-processing using Acetone can resolve
these issues
● INKJET – BINDER JETTING
A binder is selectively sprayed into a powder bed of the part material to fuse one layer at a time,
creating the desired part. As is the case with other powder bed systems, once a layer is completed,
the powder bed is deposited incrementally and a roller or blade aligns the surface of the bed before
the next pass of the jet nozzles with the binder, to the subsequent layer will be formed and fused
with the previous layer.

The advantages of this process, as

with SLS, are the absence of the need
for support material, as the powder
bed itself provides this functionality.
Additionally, a variety of different
materials can be used, including
ceramics and food. Another
distinctive advantage of the process
is the ability to easily add a full color
palette that can be added to the
cartridge.

The resulting parts directly from the machine, however, are not as strong as the sintering process
and require post-processing to ensure durability.

● INKJET – MATERIAL JETTING

It is a 3D printing process by which actual
building materials (in liquid or molten state)
are selectively blasted through multiple jet
nozzles (with the support materials being
blasted simultaneously). However, the
materials tend to be liquid photopolymers,
which are cured with a pass of UV light as
each layer is deposited. The nature of this
process allows for the simultaneous
deposition of a variety of materials, meaning
that a single part can be produced from
multiple materials with different
characteristics and properties. Material
blasting is a very precise 3D printing method,
producing parts with a very smooth finish.

THE PRINTER
Here the main components of a 3D printer for the FDM method will be described. They are the basis
for any Reprap model.

● FRAME

Usually made of aluminum, but can be made of alternative

materials like wood. It is the basic structure of the 3D
printer, responsible for supporting every other component.
It has to be sturdy and stable, as any slack or flexibility will
show in the form of defects on the parts.
● HEAT BED

The surface where the first layer is printed is called

bed. In other for the print to stick to the bed, it needs
to be heated (usually around 60° C for PLA and up to
110°C for ABS). Usually, the heat bed consists on a
glass or magnetic surface on top (in direct contact with
the print), a steel or aluminum sheet for stability and
support, and the heating element under it.
A heat bed under the ideal temperature will cause the
corners of the print to lose adherence, eventually
warping and detaching prematurely from the printer.

● EXTRUDER & HOT END

For the polymer to be molten and then deposited

where it is supposed to, it must go through the
extruder and hot end. The material comes in spools
of usually 1.75mm diameter, and is fed into the
extruder. Two gears will push the material into the
heater, where it will start melting. It must be
completely molten when pressed into the nozzle,
where it will exit on a much smaller diameter (the
most common is 0.4mm). From there, it is gently
dropped over the part, where it will cool down and
solidify.

● PRINTER ANATOMY

This is the general anatomy of a rep rap 3D Printer.

The frame has motors used to move either the bed or gantry
on X, Y and Z axis. Another motor on the extruder feeds the
material to the hotend, and when everything is correctly set
up and fine-tuned, 3D printed parts are produced!
DESIGN GUIDES
Now that we know the main technologies of 3D printing, we can discuss the
parameters used to achieve the highest quality and avoid defects and material
waste. From this point on, the information refers only to the FDM process,
which is the most common and most accessible method at the moment.
Although 3D Printing allows for great complexity in shapes and geometries, it
is necessary to take some factors into consideration.

One of them is shrinkage: The plastic shrinks when it solidifies in the part,
which can cause dimensional differences, problems with fitting and
movement of moving parts. Most software already considers the shrinkage
factor for approved materials, but adjustments may be necessary.

Another important factor is warpage. It is caused due to temperature

differences in the part, which is heated to the melting point and then cooled,
and generally occurs on large, smooth surfaces. This effect can be minimized
with a controlled environment, by enclosing the printer, a good heating table
and good equipment calibration. Avoiding large surfaces and adding rounded
corners are good practices to prevent warping.

● WALL THICKNESS

For a model to be printed, it is not enough for it to have 3 dimensions. It

needs to be solid with thickness, and all its profiles need to be closed (This
topic will be covered in the 3D Design class). Too thin a wall can cause the
model to warp or break, even during printing. Therefore, as a rule of thumb,
the minimum wall thickness should be at least 4x the layer height.

● Orientation
The diagram alongside shows when a
model requires support. Any part that
falls into the blue region of the
diagram is self-supporting. Angles
greater than 45º fall into the orange
region of the graph, where it is
necessary to design a support. That's
why it's interesting to study the
positioning of the model when
printing.
In the following example, printing the doll standing would imply the need for support under the
entire left arm, as it is positioned at 90º to the Z axis. The removal of support material will leave a
rough, poorly finished surface. This can be avoided by rotating the model by 45º, as shown in the
following figure. Support was added below the base so that the model would not fall during
printing, and this part can be sanded without compromising the final quality of the model.
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that a round base was used, not a square one, in order to
minimize the effect of warping.

The printing orientation also directly influences the

finish of the product. How the process is done
layer by layer, it is possible to see “steps” in the piece.
The thinner the layers, the better the quality of the
piece, and the smaller the steps. Printers are able to
print better quality in the XY plane due to the
continuity of the process and the absence of steps in
that plane, and in addition to this the fact that circular
shapes such as holes and cylinders do not require
support when printed along the Z axis, this makes this
the recommended orientation. Holes and cylinders
printed on other planes will require support material
and will never have a perfect circular section.

● ANISOTROPY

Anisotropy is a characteristic of some materials that present different properties depending

on the orientation analyzed. For example, wood is an anisotropic material, as it offers greater
resistance in the direction of fiber growth than perpendicular to them!
Parts made by additive manufacturing have the same property. They are more resistant in the
direction of the fibers than in the region of union between them. Therefore, the construction
of parts that require mechanical resistance parallel to the base should be avoided.
● FILLETS
Fillet is the name given to a Design feature where a rounding radius is created in sharp corners.
Due to the orientation of the print, sharp corners become stress concentration points, and when
subjected to stress, they can cause cracks or even rupture of the part. Fillets help distribute these
stresses, making the piece more resistant.

● SOURCES
https://i.materialise.com/
https://ultimaker.com/
https://www.3dhubs.com/
https://www.matterhackers.com/
https://www.stratasysdirect.com/