International Islamic University Chittagong

Faculty of Science & Engineering

Engineering Drawing

Lab Manual

Course Code Course Title Contact Hours

CE-1204 Engineering Drawing Sessional 2

Prepared By
Eng. Md. Nazmus Sakib
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, IIUC
[email protected]
01779584800
List Of Experiment
SL NO Exp.No. Name Of the Experiment

01 Exp.01 Introduction and Familiarization of Drawing Instrument.

02 Exp.02 Line, Dimensioning, Scale of drawing and Plane Geometry.
03 Exp.03 Orthographic Views (Free Hand Drawing).
04 Exp.04 Orthographic Views (With Dimension).
05 Exp.05 Auxiliary view and Sectional view.
06 Exp.06 Isometric views.
07 Exp.07 Introduction and Familiarization with Auto CAD and Software Installation.
08 Exp.08 Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (Different drawing for CAD 2D tools use.)
09 Exp.09 Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (2D Design of different Object).)
10 Exp.10 Project on Floor plan design using Contemporary packages in CAD 2D.
11 Exp.11 Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (Different drawing for CAD 3D tools use.)
12 Exp.12 Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (3D Design of different Objects.)
13 Exp.13 Project on Engineering Drawing and CAD using Contemporary packages in 3D.

Exp.01: Introduction and Familiarization of Drawing Instrument.

General Aims:

➢ To develop dexterity in the use of drawing equipment

➢ To produce neat & accurate Drawing
➢ To interpret drawing & diagram
➢ To develop analytical problem-solving skill
➢ To complete a range of geometrical construction
➢ To visualize & manipulate real objects in space
➢ To appreciate the role of design

Definition:

A drawing is a graphical representation of an idea, a concept or an entity which actually exist in

life.
✓ Drawing is the language of engineers. An engineer must be well conversant with drawings.
✓ Drawing represent the reduce shape of the structures and owner visualizes what is going to
be happen.
✓ Drawing provides instructions and guidance to architects, engineers and workmen at field
to construct the structure according to the dimension shown in the drawings.

Prime Requirements Of Good Drawings:

1. It should be simple, clear and clean.

2. It should give exact information so that work can be carried out at site without scaling for
missing measurement.
3. Notes on the drawing should be held in the minimum to support the drawings.
4. Ample space should be provided between views to permit placing of dimensions without
crowding.
5. All secondary lines should be light & all the primary line should be dark.

Types of drawings:

I. Artistic drawing
II. Technical drawing

Artistic Drawing: Artistic drawings range in scope from the most simple line drawings to the most
famous paintings. This type of drawings is used to express feelings, belief, philosophies and idea
of an artist.

Technical Drawing: A technical drawing is a means of clearly and consciously communicating all
of the information necessary to transform an idea or a concept into reality. Therefore, technical
drawing is just a graphical representation of its subject.
It has two types:
➢ Preliminary Drawing: preliminary drawing is neat and proportionately dimensioned
sketches, not to scale to serve as a basis for more definitive drawings showing the designers
general intentions.
➢ Working Drawing: this is a set of drawings required for execution of works. For building
constructions, it includes foundation plan, plan of different floors, roof plans and others.

Location Drawing:

• Layout plan
• Site plan

Drawing instruments:

1. Drawing Sheet (560mm x 355mm)

2. Scotch Tape
3. Drawing Board with parallel bar (Optional)
4. T-square (Tee Scale )
5. Set-square
6. Triangular scale or Flat scale
7. Drawing pencils(2H, HB, 2B)
8. Pencil sharpener
9. Pencil eraser (Tee Scale )
10. Pencil pointer or Sand paper
11. Instrument box
12. Lettering template
13. Dust cloth (Clean handkerchief)

➢ Steps:

1. Preparation of Sheet
2. Report Submission
3. Lecture
4. Class work
5. Assignment

➢ Page Setup:

Drawing paper sizes of the metric standard from A0 to A4 have been shown in
Table 1.1. These sizes are according to ISO 5457: 1999 (ISO stands for International
Standard Organization).
Table 1.1: Standard Metric Paper Sizes
Paper Border Size Overall Paper Size
Size (b mm  l mm) (b0 mm  l0 mm)
A0 821  1159 841  1189
A1 574  811 594  841
A2 335  540 355  560
A3 277  390 297  420
A4 190  267 210  297

Figure 1.1: Drawing Paper

➢ Drawing Board
Figure 1.2: Drawing Board

Drawing board is used for placing the drawing paper on it with the help of either cellophane
tape or board pin. One may use a drafting table in place of a drawing board. A drafting table is a
kind of worktable with the adjustable top used for drawing. The stand of the drafting table is made
in such a way that the top can be adjusted at any desired angle according to the convenience of the
user. But the students usually use drawing board of the type as shown in Figure 1.2, which is made
of wood. Sometimes a steel edge is attached with the board for better edge and wear resistant.
Another type of drawing board may be with a parallel straightedge shown in Figure 1.3; as such it
does not require a separate T-square.

Figure 1.3: Drawing Board with a Parallel Straightedge

➢ T-Square
T-square is used to draw horizontal line. A T-square is shown in Figure 1.4. Usually a student uses
a T-square on a drawing board. The T-square is commonly made of wood with its side made of
transparent plastic. The head of the T-square is placed on the left edge of the board for the right-handed
person and vice versa. To draw the parallel lines by the T-square the head of it has to be held firmly
against the edge of the board.

Figure 1.4: T-Square

➢ Set-Square

Figure 1.5: 450 and 300- 600 Triangles

In Figure 1.5, 450 and 300-600 triangles have been shown. They are usually
made of clear plastic. Sometimes they may be colored, but the uncolored ones are
usually preferable. They are used together with the straightedge of the T-square to
draw the vertical and the inclined lines.

➢ Scales

Figure 1.6: Metric Scale

Figure 1.7: Triangular scale (Engineers Scale)

➢ Uses of Common Instruments:

In regard to the uses of the most common drawing instruments, a brief description is provided
below.

➢ Use of Pencils:
When an ordinary pencil is used, it has to be sharpened by the help of a pencil sharpener.
The lead of the pencil has to be made pointed using a sand paper pad or a file. The lead of a
mechanical pencil may be sharpened similarly. While drawing a line uniform pressure has to be
put on the pencil and it has to be rotated while drawing the line. This will make the line uniform
and keep the pencil sharp. In case of using the thin lead pencils i.e. either 0.5 mm or 0.3 mm lead,
no sharpening is required.

➢ Drawing Lines With T-Square:

The T-square has straight edges. It is used to draw the horizontal lines. Holding the head
of the T-square against the left edge of the drawing board firmly, the desired horizontal line may
be drawn (Figure 1.8). Horizontal line should always be drawn from the left to the right. Care
should be taken so that the pencil remains close to the edge of the T-square and the angle must not
change during drawing the line.

Figure 1.8: Drawing a Horizontal Line

➢ Drawing Lines with Triangles:

A vertical line can be drawn with the triangle and T-square. Holding the T-square firmly
against the left edge of the board by the thumb and the triangle against the edge of the T-square, a
vertical line (Figure 1.9) may be drawn. Line has to be drawn from the bottom to the top. In order
to ensure accuracy in the line, the extreme corner of the triangle has to be avoided, which can be
done by placing the T-square below the lower end of the line.

Figure 1.9: Drawing a Vertical Line

Figure 1.10: Drawing Inclined Lines

➢ Drawing Circle/Arc with Compass:

Figure 1.11: Drawing Circles and Arcs

➢ Scale of Drawings
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element of a machine part as represented in the
original drawing to the real linear dimension of the same element of the machine part itself. The
scales of drawings are of three categories.
(a) Full Size: This consists of the ratio 1:1. When the part is drawn based on its actual size, the
full size i.e. scale 1:1 is attained.
(b) Enlargement Scale: This is a scale whose ratio is larger than 1:1. To draw a part of smaller
size this scale is necessary. The part is drawn in the bigger size than the actual one. When
the drawing is done making the size of the part double to its actual one, the scale becomes
2:1. If the drawing is done with 50 times the actual size of the part, the scale is 50:1.
(c) Reduction Scale: This is a scale whose ratio is smaller than 1:1. This scale becomes
necessary in order to draw the part of bigger size. The part is drawn in the smaller size than
the actual one. When the drawing is made with half the actual size of the part, the scale is
1:2. If the part is drawn with one-tenth of its actual size, the scale becomes 1:10.

Whatever may be the scale for the drawing of the part, the dimensions of the part in the drawing
always remain the same as those of the actual size of the part. According to ISO 5455:1979 (E),
the recommended scales for use in technical drawings are provided in Table 1.4. If it is necessary
for special application to enlarge or reduce the scale it may be done by multiplying with a factor
of 10. However, in the exceptional cases, intermediate scales may be used other than the
recommended scales.
Table 1.2: Recommended Scales of International Standard

Category Recommended Scales

Enlargement Scale 50:1 20:1 10:1
5:1 2:1
Full Size 1:1
Reduction Scale 1:2 1:5 1:10
1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1: 500 1: 1000
1:2000 1: 5000
1:10000

➢ Lettering
Lettering is an important part of drawing. For the description, figured dimension, notes on material,
finish, title etc. lettering is essential. Most of the lettering is done in single stroke either in vertical
or in inclined manner. However, only one style of lettering should be used throughout the drawing.
Lettering may be done either freehand or by templates. In Figure 1.32, vertical gothic alphabet
has been shown. It is commonly used for all types of mechanical drawings. This type of letter is
easier to make and read. Each letter has been shown in a square to show the relative proportion of
the height and width of the letter. It can be observed that the heights and widths of the letters A,
O, Q, T, V, X, Y and Z are same. On the other hand the widths of the letters M and W are more
than their heights. The heights of the rest letters are more than their widths. The heights of all the
numerals are more than their widths.

Figure 1.12: Vertical Gothic Alphabet

For application on technical drawings and associated documents, the characteristics of lettering
specified by ISO 3098.

Reference Book:

✓ K VENUGOPAL, Civil Engineering Drawing, 4th Edition .

✓ Dr. Amalesh Chandra Mandal , Dr. Md. Quamrul Islam : “MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DRAWING
✓ Engineering Graphics 3rd Edition : Freew Rick , E Giesecke, Alva Mitoitell, Henry C. Spencer.
Exp.02: Line, Dimensioning, Scale of drawing and Plane Geometry.

Line
➢ Types of Lines
Different types of lines are used in the drawing. In Table 2.1, types of lines with their uses have
been presented. Usually two types of widths are used for the lines; they are thick and thin. Thick
lines are between 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm wide while thin lines are between 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm wide.
According to ANSI Y14.2 - 1995 (ANSI stands for American National Standards Institute) the
thick line is about 0.7 mm wide while the thin line is about 0.35 mm wide. Visible, cutting plane
and short break lines are thick lines, on the other hand hidden, center, extension, leader, dimension,
section, phantom and long break lines are thin. However, the actual width of each line is governed
by the size and style of the drawing. If the size of the drawing is larger, the width of the line
becomes higher. According to ISO 128: 1982(E), the cutting plane line is also shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Types of Lines with Their Usage (contd.)

Sl No. Types of Line Usage

1 Visible line / object line
to indicate all visible outlines of an
object. It shows the shape of an object.

2 Hidden line / dashed line

to represent the hidden edge of an object.
It must begin and end with a dash
touching the visible lines. Dashes that
show hidden lines usually touch each
other at intersection.
3 Center line

to show the center line of holes, pitch

line.

4 Extension line, dimension line and

Leaders
to show dimension of an object extension
line, dimension line and leaders are
used.
Sl No. Types of Line Usage
5 Section line
to indicate the cut portion of an object.

6 Cutting plane line

to show the imaginary cutting of an

object

7 ISO Cutting Plane Line

8 Break line

to show a break on the object. It shortens

the view of a long part.

9 Phantom line/repeat line to show the alternate position of an

object or the position of an adjacent part.

When a pencil is used to perform the drawing manually, thin lines are often drawn with H or 2H
lead grades while thick lines are drawn with softer leads, such as F or H. Relatively softer lead is
used for the thick line and harder lead is used for the thin line. The line widths for the ink drawing
are virtually identical to the pencil drawing with some exception that the widths for visible and
hidden lines are slightly thicker. First very light construction lines should be drawn to give the
main shape of the object in the different views. As such, it becomes convenient to modify and
erase them easily. Then the final lines are drawn following the thickness as mentioned.
Line gage has been shown in Figure 2.1. It gives the idea about the various widths of lines. One
can practice drawing lines of various widths and determine the widths of them from the line gage.
Thus the control on drawing lines of different widths can be achieved. However, when a drawing
is done with the help of a computer using AutoCAD, the lines of different widths can be used
easily in accordance with the necessity.
Figure 2.1: Line Gage

In Figures 2.2 to 2.5, the applications of the various lines have been shown. The uses of the visible,
hidden, center, extension, dimension, and section lines have been shown in Figure 2.2 while the
uses of leader and cutting plane lines have been shown in Figure 1.26. The use of ISO cutting plane
line is also shown in Figure 2.3. The applications of phantom and break lines have been shown in
Figures 2.4 and 2.5 respectively.

Figure 2.2: Usage of Some Common Lines

Figure 2.3 : Usage of Leader and Cutting Plane Lines

Figure 2.4: Use of Phantom Line Figure 2.5: Usage of Long and Short Break Lines

DIMENSIONING
Introduction
To manufacture a part, dimensioning plays a significant role. Engineering drawing without
dimensioning is meaningless. If a drawing of a part is done and the scale is mentioned, it does not
become sufficient for manufacturing. By direct measurement from the drawing the part cannot be
produced accurately for many reasons. Whatever may be the scale of the part, the actual size
dimensions have to be always mentioned on the part. Dimensions are indicated on the drawings
by arrowheads, extension lines, dimension lines, leaders, figures, notes, symbols etc. in order to
define the geometric characteristics such as, lengths, diameters, angles, locations etc. The lines
used in the dimensions are thin compared to the visible lines. The dimensions must be clear,
concise and always allow the single interpretation. Standard rules of dimensioning have to be
followed unless it becomes essential.

Arrowheads
The important part of the dimensioning is the arrowhead. The arrowhead may be drawn in
accordance with Figure 2.6. Arrowheads are usually drawn freehand. However, all arrowheads
have to be identical in shape and size throughout the drawing unless it becomes essential.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to shorten them due to space limitation. The length of the
arrowhead may vary depending on the size of the drawing. The approximate length of the
arrowhead may be 3 mm. However, for the larger drawing it may be a little bit larger in size. The
approximate ratio of the length to width of the arrowhead is 3:1 as shown in the figure. The
arrowhead must touch the line. It must not be either away from the line or cross the line.

Figure 2.6: Arrowheads

Extension Line, Dimension Line and Leaders

Extension and dimension lines are used to show dimension of a part. Extension lines indicate the
point or line on the drawing to which the dimension is applied while dimension lines show the
dimensions. On the other hand, leaders are used to present note, dimension, symbol, item number
or part number on the drawings. They are thin lines. Extension and dimension lines are introduced
in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Extension and Dimension Lines

The following rules are to be remembered while inserting dimensions on a part.

Extension Line
(1) A gap of 1 mm has to be kept in between the extension line and the visible line.
(2) An extension line should extend about 3 mm from the outermost dimension line.
(3) Extension lines may cross each other without a break. They may also cross the visible lines
without a break. If the extension lines cross arrowheads or dimension lines close to
arrowheads, a break may be permissible.
(4) Centerlines may be used as extension lines. However, it should not be broken while passing
the circle.
(5) Extension lines are usually drawn perpendicular to dimension lines, where there is
overcrowding extension lines may be drawn at an oblique angle.

Dimension Line
(1) Dimension line should be approximately 10 mm away from the visible line. The spacing
between the consecutive parallel dimension lines may also be considered as 10 mm.
(2) Dimension lines are broken near the middle to allow space for dimension.
(3) Dimension lines should usually be placed outside the view unless it becomes necessary.
(4) When the space in between the extension lines is too small to insert dimension line completed
with arrowhead, it may be provided outside the extension line.
(5) To accomplish it the shortest dimension line should be placed nearest to the outline of the
part.
(6) Centerlines should never be used as dimension lines.
(7) In case of extra long dimension line or crowding of dimensions, dimension lines inside the
view may be permissible.
(8) When several dimension lines are required side by side along a line, it is recommended to
stagger them.
(9) The dimension line for a part, which cannot be presented completely on the drawings due to
its large distance, the free end is terminated in a double arrowhead pointing in the direction
in which it could be completed.

➢ Leaders
(1) A leader should always be inclined at an angle of 600 preferably and 450 occasionally (not
horizontal or vertical) with a 3 mm horizontal bar.
(2) A leader is either terminated by an arrowhead on a line or a small dot of about 1.5 mm
diameter within the outline of the part.
(3) Leaders should not be drawn bent except special circumstances.
(4) Leaders should not cross each other; however, they may be drawn parallel to each other.
(5) To direct a circle or an arc the leader should be so drawn, if it is imagined to extend it must
pass through the center of the circle or the arc.
(6) All notes and dimensions in a leader have to be provided in the horizontal direction.

➢ In Figures 2.8to 2.9, some uses of extension lines have been presented.
Figure 2.8: Crossing of Extension Lines Figure 2.9: Center Line as Extension Line

➢ Some uses of dimension lines have been shown in Figures 2.10 to 2.11

Figure 2.10: Staggered Dimensioning Figure 2.11: In-Line Dimensioning

➢ Some other rules of dimensioning are provided below, which have to be remembered
while dimensioning.
(1) Dimensioning should be given between the views in general.
(2) Dimensioning should not be duplicated in other views.
(3) Dimensioning should be made in such a way so that no subtraction or addition is required to
define or locate a feature.
(4) Dimensioning may be inserted on relatively larger view in order to make it clear.
(5) One system of dimensions either unidirectional or aligned has to be used throughout the
drawing.
(6) Dimensioning to hidden lines should be avoided in general. To accomplish that a sectional
view or broken-out section may be used to place dimensions.
(7) Dimensioning should be made on the view, which represents the shape of the part best.

Dimensioning of Angles and Circular Features

Dimensioning of angles has been presented in Figure 2.12. Here the dimension line is the arc
whose center is at the intersecting point of the two sides of the angle. The angle is read horizontally.
But in the aligned system for the large arc, it is made aligned with respect to the dimension arc.
Dimensioning of angle as represented in Figure 2.12e is preferable to that in Figure 2.12f.
Figure 2.12: Dimensioning of Angles

Figure 2.13: Dimensioning in Single Diameter

Figure 2.14: Dimensioning in Multiple Diameters

Example Problems

Note: For solutions see the following section of Solutions for Example Problems.
Prob. 2.1 –2.6 Show dimensions on the views given below in Fig. P2.1 – P2.6 (The scale of each view is
half size).
Fig. P2.1 Fig. P2.2

Fig. P2.3 Fig. P2.4

Fig. P2.5 Fig. P2.6

Plane Geometry
Prob. 2.1: Draw a tangent at a point on a circle.
Prob. 2.2: Draw an arc tangent of radius 7 mm between a straight line and a circle of diameter 40
mm, the minimum distance between the center of the circle and the straight line being 30 mm.
Prob. 2.3: Draw a reverse curve tangent having 15 mm radius of curvature to three lines, the angles
between the consecutive lines are (a) 900 (b) 600.
Prob. 2.4: Draw an arc tangent of radius 60 mm to the two circles each of 30 mm diameters; the
center distance between the circles is 50 mm.
Prob. 2.5: Draw a hexagon inscribing a circle of diameter 60 mm.
Prob.2.6: Draw a regular pentagon inscribing a circle of radius 30 mm.
Prob. 2.7: Draw an octagon outscribing a circle of radius 30 mm.
Prob. 2.8: Draw an ellipse with major and minor diameters of 60 mm and 40 mm respectively by
the Concentric Circle method.
Exp.03: Orthographic Views (Free Hand Drawing).
Exp.04: Orthographic Views (With Dimension).

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
3.1 Introduction
The purpose of mechanical engineering drawing is to indicate the shape and size of an object or a
machine part. All objects have three dimensions such as length, breadth and height. The exact
shape of an object may be produced with the help of projection. Projection is the process in which
the rays of sight taken in a particular direction from an object to form an image on a plane called
plane of projection or picture plane. The image on the plane is called the view of the object. There
are various types of projections, such as orthographic, oblique and perspective depending on the
direction of the rays of sight.

3.2 Orthographic Projection

When the rays of sight are made in a perpendicular direction to the plane of projection, it is called
orthographic projection. The word orthographic is obtained from the Greek words: orthos,
meaning straight, correct, at right angles to; and graphikus, meaning to write or describe by
drawing lines. In the orthographic projection the observer stands in the infinite distance so that the
rays of the sight appear to be parallel with each other theoretically (Figure 3.1). The perpendiculars,
which are used to draw the view in the orthographic projection, are called the projectors. When a
view is generated using perpendiculars from all the points of the object to the picture plane, it is
called orthographic view.

Figure 3.1: Orthographic Projection

In the oblique projection the rays of sight are parallel with each other but they are at an angle (not
perpendicular) to the plane of projection. While in the perspective projection the rays of sight occur
at an angle to the plane of projection but they are not parallel with each other, rather they converge
to a point (Figure 3.2); as if an observer sees the image of the object on the plane of projection
from his eye located at that point.

Figure 3.2: Perspective Projection

More than one plane may be required to represent the object completely. In that case the planes
are positioned horizontally and vertically at right angles to each other.

3.3 Types of Projections

Orthographic projection can be produced in four different angles (known as dihedral angles),
which are formed by horizontal, and vertical planes. The angles are shown in Figure 3.3. The first
and the third angles are used only for the projection. First angle is used for the First angle projection
while third angle is used for the Third angle projection. In Figure 3.4 the difference of first and
third angle projections has been illustrated showing the relative positions of the observer, object
and the picture plane. The object is positioned in the first quadrant for the first angle projection
and in the third quadrant for the third angle projection. In order to eliminate the clumsiness, only
one image for each projection has been taken into consideration in this figure.
The observer is located at infinity so that the rays of sight become parallel and fall in perpendicular
direction to the picture plane. In the Third angle projection the picture plane is placed in between
the object and the observer. On the other hand in the First angle projection the object is placed in
between the observer and the picture plane. In Bangladesh usually the Third angle projection is
used. They are used in U.S.A., Canada and many other countries. On the other hand First angle
projection is used in many European and other countries. However, only the Third angle projection
will be taken into consideration throughout this book.
Figure 3.3: Four Different Angles

Figure 3.4: Difference Between First and Third Angle Projections

3.4 Third Angle Projection

The development of the Third angle projection has been illustrated in Figures 3.5 to 3.7. In Figure
3.5, a six-sided transparent box in the third angle projection has been shown. This transparent box
with an object showing views on the various planes has been presented in Figure 3.6. There are
six sides but here only four sides are considered to represent the object. The two other sides rear
and bottom, have been omitted. The projection plane upon which the front view is projected is
called the frontal plane (a-b-c-d is the frontal plane) and that upon which the top view is projected
is called the horizontal plane (d-c-g-h is the horizontal plane) as shown in the figure. While the
projection plane upon which the side view is projected is called the profile plane (a-d-h-e is the
profile plane).
Figure 3.5 Views in Third Angle Projection Figure 3.6: Views on Sides of Unfolding Box in Third Angle Projection

Figure 3.7: Relative Positions of Views on Sides of Unfolding Box in Third Angle Projection

3.5 First Angle Projection

The development of the First angle projection has been illustrated in Figures 3.8 to 3.10. The six-
sided transparent box for the First angle projection has been shown in Figure 3.8. While an object
showing the four views on the sides of the transparent box has been presented in Figure 3.8. In this
figure front view is shown in the frontal plane (e-f-g-h is the frontal plane), top view in the
horizontal plane (a-b-f-e is the horizontal plane) and side view on the profile plane (a-d-h-e is the
profile plane). Views on the sides of the unfolding box in the First angle projection are given in
Figure 3.11. On the other hand the relative positions of the views on the sides of the unfolding box
have been shown in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.8: Views in First Angle Projection Figure 3.9: Views on Sides of Unfolding Box in First Angle

Figure 3.10: Relative Positions of Views on Sides of Unfolding Box in First Angle Projection

3.6 Method of Projecting Views

There are several methods of projecting views in the orthographic projection, which are shown in
Figures 3.11a to 3.11d. In the projection there is a relationship of the different views. It is usual
practice to draw the front view first, then the top and side views are drawn in reference to the front
view with the help of the vertical and horizontal projection lines. This can be done using T-square,
triangles and compasses when drawing is performed manually. In making projection lines as
shown in Figure 3.13b it requires to use the compass in addition to T-square and triangles. The
projection lines between the different views have been shown in Figure 3.11.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 3.11: Different Methods of Projecting Views
The spacing between the views has to be determined beforehand. It will depend on many factors
such as, space required for the dimensions, space required for writing views and space required
for writing essential notes. The space should be sufficient in order to give the dimensions avoiding
any crowding. However, the excessive space should be avoided. The beginners may choose the
space in between the views as 30 to 40 mm. In Figures 3.13a to 3.11c the interspacing between the
views has been made as equal. However, if it is necessary different spacing may be used as well;
an example of that is shown in Figure 3.11d. Any method of projecting views as described in Figure
3.11 may be used. However, the projection as described in Figure 3.11a is mostly used. In Figure
3.12, the orthographic projection of an object has been provided as a further example.

Figure 3.12: Orthographic Projection

Figure 3.18: Projection Symbol

Example Problems: (Free Hand)

Fig. P3.1 Fig. P3.2 Fig P3.3 Fig P3.4

Fig P3.5 Fig P3.6 Fig. P3.7 Fig. P3.8

Example Problems: (With Dimension)

Fig. P3.2.1 Fig. P3.2.2

Fig. P3.2.3 Fig. P3.2.4

Fig. P3.2.5 Fig. P3.2.6

Fig. P3.2.7 Fig.P.3.2.8

Exp.05: Missing line, Auxiliary view, Pictorial view and Sectional view.

5.1 AUXILIARY VIEW

5.1.1: Introduction
In orthographic projection sometimes it happens that some surfaces of the machine parts are not
parallel to the plane of projection i.e. they are at an angle. These surfaces are called inclined
surfaces. The regular orthographic view of the inclined surface does not give the exact shape; it
gives the distorted shape of the surface. Thus the clear feature of the inclined surface of the object
cannot be obtained from the regular view. As a result the main objective of the drawing is lost. In
order to overcome this problem an auxiliary view is necessary.
A picture plane is assumed parallel to the inclined surface called auxiliary projection plane and
orthographic projection on that plane is made. It gives the true shape of the inclined surface and
preserves the objective of the drawing. Sometimes an auxiliary view replaces one of the regular
views. For some machine part it may happen that some portion of the surface is inclined and the
rest portion is not. In that case to represent the total surface of the object partial views are drawn.
The partial view is drawn in order to avoid distortion and complication. In auxiliary view, hidden
lines are avoided unless they become necessary to represent the view clearly.

5.1.2: Generating Auxiliary View:

Figure 5.1: Auxiliary View on Inclined Plane

It is described in this section how to generate an auxiliary view. A simple object is placed inside a
transparent box (Figure 5.1) each side of which is called the picture plane. The inclined plane
which, is parallel to the inclined surface of the object, is called the auxiliary plane as shown in the
figure. Other planes are horizontal and frontal planes. In Figure 5.2 the views of the object with
the box in the unfolding condition have been shown while in Figure 5.3 the relative positions of
the views have been provided.

Figure 5.2: Views with Box in Unfolding Condition Figure 5.3: Relative Positions of Views

In order to give further example, another object with inclined surface having some complication
has been chosen which can be seen in Figure 5.4.The regular orthographic views of the object with
inclined surface (Figure 5.4) are given in Figure 5.5. While the necessary views of the same object
including an auxiliary view have been presented in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.4: Object with Inclined Surface Figure 5.5: Regular Orthographic Views
Figure 5.6: Auxiliary View

It is obvious from Figure 5.5 that the regular orthographic views cannot produce the
true shape of the object for the inclined surface. As such it becomes very difficult to
use them as the detail drawing to manufacture. Because they do not give the clear
picture about the inclined surface and in addition the size of the inclined surface is
shortened. In order to overcome this problem, auxiliary view becomes essential as
shown in Figure 5.6.
It can be observed from Figure 5.6 that, the top view has been dropped and it has been replaced by
auxiliary view. Top view is no more necessary for this particular case. It is also seen from this
figure that the right side view has been drawn partially. As such, it is called partial right side view.
The auxiliary view gives the true shape of the inclined surface of the object and it becomes clear
for understanding. If the auxiliary view includes the feature of the inclined portion of the object
only omitting the view of the non-inclined portion (if there is any), it is called the partial auxiliary
view. To eliminate distortion a partial auxiliary view is used. On the other hand, if the entire surface
is taken under consideration the view becomes a complete auxiliary view. Sometimes a complete
auxiliary view is drawn where no distortion appears. Usually a break line is used to indicate the
imaginary break in the partial views.

5.1.3 Example Problems

5.2 PICTORIAL DRAWING

5.2.1 Introduction
Pictorial view is a three dimensional one which is used to visualize an object in one view. On the
other hand, the orthographic views such as, top view, front view, side view etc. which are separated
from each other provide necessary information about dimensions, material, surface finish etc. to
manufacture the object. With the help of pictorial view complicated engineering drawings can
easily be communicated to the people who do not have sufficient training in understanding the
orthographic views. A pictorial view provides the main dimensions of the object only. It cannot be
used as a working drawing. It is used only to visualize the object. Pictorial drawing is classified
as:
(1) Axonometric
(2) Oblique
(3) Perspective

5.2.2 Axonometric Projection

In the axonometric projection the three faces of an object are seen on the plane of projection
(picture plane) and the projection lines from the object are perpendicular to the plane of projection.
To understand an axonometric projection, a cube is considered. If the cube is placed behind a
vertical transparent plane in such a way that one of the faces of the cube is parallel to the plane,
the view on the plane based on orthographic projection will be of square shape that is represented
by the shaded view as shown in Figure 6.2. Top and right side views have also been shown in the
figure.

Fig 5.2.1: Views with One Face Parallel Fig 5.2.2: Views after Rotation About Figure 5.2.3: Views after Rotation about Horizontal Axis
To the Projection Plane Vertical Axis

Accordingly axonometric projections are of three types:

(1) Isometric
(2) Dimetric
(3) Trimetric
5.2.3 Oblique:

In generating an isometric projection, one looks in a perpendicular direction through the projection
plane at an object, which is positioned in rotating condition with respect to the projection plane
(rotated about vertical axis and tilted). But in producing oblique projection opposite phenomenon
occurs. The object is positioned with its major face parallel to the projection plane. Now an
observer looks at the object through the projection plane at an oblique angle unlike in the case of
isometric projection. In Figure 6.32 an oblique projection has been presented.

Figure 5.2.4: Oblique Projection

5.2.4 Perspective View

The perspective drawing is relatively complicated to produce and is used mainly by the architects.
A perspective projection is not suitable for working drawing. An example of a perspective drawing
has been shown in Figure 6.1. Perspective drawing is the view drawn looking an object with normal
vision. When an object goes away from the observer, it appears smaller and ultimately vanishes at
a point. However, the engineers use only the oblique and axonometric drawing.

Figure 5.2.5: One Point Perspective View

5.3 SECTIONAL VIEWS
5.3.1 Introduction
The main objective of a drawing is to represent the size and shape of an object clearly. Sometimes
it so happens that lots of hidden lines are required to show the interior detail of an object. As such
it becomes very difficult to visualize the object thereby jeopardizing the primary objective of the
drawing. In order to overcome this problem, a sectional view is often necessary. A sectional view
is that view, which is seen beyond the imaginary cutting plane through an object at right angle to
the direction of sight. It represents the interior construction or details of hidden features clearly to
the users.
The exposed or cut surface is identified with the help of section lining or cross-hatching. Hidden
lines and details behind the cutting-plane line are usually omitted unless they are essential for
clarity or dimensioning. A sectional view frequently replaces one of the regular views. A regular
front view may be replaced by a front sectional view.

5.3.2 Generating Sectional View

It has been represented in Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 how to generate sectional view. Figure 5.3.1
shows a cutting-plane passing through the mid-section of the object while Figure 4.2 shows the
section of the object after removal of the front portion. The interior of the object has become very
clear after cutting. A cutting-plane line represents the plane, along which the object is cut. In Figure
4.3, the cutting plane line has been shown on the view of the object, along which section has been
made. The sectional view has also been given in Figure 5.3.3.

Figure 5.3.1: Object with Cutting Plane through Mid-Section Figure 5.3.2: Section after Cutting
Top View

Front Sectional View

Figure 5.3.3: Views Showing Cutting Plane and Section

5.3.3. Section Lining

Figure 5.3.4 : Symbols for Section Lining

5.3.4 Example Problems

Figure P5.3.1 Figure P5.3.2

Figure P5.3.3
Exp.06: Isometric views.

Isometric Projection

6.1 Isometric Projection

To obtain the isometric projection, the cube is rotated by 450 about the vertical axis (Figure 6.1)
from the position as shown in Figure , and then rotated about the horizontal axis, which is parallel
to the projection plane in such a way that the top face of it makes a slope of 35016/ approximately
(Figure 6.2). In this position the diagonal OE passing through O, is perpendicular to the projection
plane and the three mutually perpendicular edges OA, OB and OC make angles of 1200 with each
other. The projection of this particular position as represented by the front view in Figure 6.6 is
called the isometric projection. (iso means same and metric means measurement, thus isometric
means same measurement).
According to the geometrical principle when the top surface of the cube makes a slope of 35016/,
then the angles between the edges OA, OB and OC of the cube become 1200 on the projection
plane. The length OA as represented by the right side view of Figure 6.6, is the actual length
(100%) and its projected length OA as shown in the front view in the same figure is shortened to
81% approximately. The isometric axes OA, OB and OC are foreshortened equally because they
are at the same angle of 1200 to the projection plane.

Figure 6.1: Views after Rotation about Figure 6.2: Views after Rotation About
Vertical Axis by 450 Horizontal Axis by 35016

In Figures 6.3and 6.4 an isometric projection and isometric drawing are shown. An isometric
drawing differs from an isometric projection in that the isometric drawing is done in actual size
while the isometric projection is drawn foreshortened. If the actual size is 100%, the size in the
isometric projection is 100cos (35016/) i.e. 81% approximately. As a matter of fact it is usually
convenient to make the isometric drawing rather than the isometric projection.
Figure 6.3: Isometric Projection Figure 6.4: Isometric Drawing

Here the lines OA, OB and OC are called isometric axes. Any line parallel to the isometric axis is
called isometric line. The line which, is not parallel to the isometric axis, is called non-isometric
line. The planes of the faces of the isometric cube and all other planes, which are parallel to them,
are called isometric planes.
In the isometric projection, the isometric lines can be drawn using isometric scale (Figure 6.5).
The isometric line is shortened to 81% approximately, which is obtained from the isometric scale
directly.

Figure 6.5: Isometric Scale

In diametric projection, the two angles (1, 2) as shown in Figure 6.6 are kept equal and may be
any angle between 00 and 450 except 300. While in the trimetric projection the angles (1, 2) are
not equal; sum of them is less than 900 but neither angle is 00. The comparisons of the isometric,
diametric and trimetric projections have been shown in Figure 6.6
(a) Isometric Projection (b) Dimetric Projection (c) Trimetric Projection
Figure 6.6: Types of Axonometric Projection

6.2 Making Isometric View

A simplified procedure is provided below to draw an isometric view from the orthographic
projection. In Figure 6.11, the orthographic projection of an object is given from where an
isometric view will be drawn. The steps as mentioned below are to be followed in order to make
the isometric view.
(1) An isometric parallelepiped is drawn (Figure 6.12) in such a way that the length (l), breadth
(b) and height (h) of the parallelepiped are respectively equal to those of the orthographic
projection (Figure 6.11). The lines will be very thin so that they can be erased easily when
required.
(2) Now the views are drawn on the respective side of the isometric parallelepiped keeping
appropriate relationship with each other (Figure 6.13). In drawing views the unnecessary lines
may be avoided otherwise, the drawing will be clumsy. The horizontal lines of the view will
be parallel to the isometric axes OB and OC while the vertical lines will be parallel to the
isometric axis OA. Each line will be thin.
(3) Next shifting of the necessary surfaces is made keeping conformity with the views. Surface a-
b-c-d has been shifted to the new position a'-b'-c'-d' and surface p-q-r-s has been shifted to the
new position p'-q'-r'-s' (Figure 6.14).
(4) The unnecessary lines are now erased and the isometric view is completed making the lines
thick (Figure 6.15).
(5) Finally from the generated isometric view the orthographic projection may be verified to
confirm the drawing whether it has been done properly.
Figure 6.7: Orthogonal Projection

Figure 6.8: Isometric Parallelepiped Figure 6.9: Views on Each Side

Figure 6.10 : Shifting of Surfaces Figure 6.11: Isometric View

6.3 Making Isometric View with Circular Features
A circle in the orthographic projection is transformed into the shape of an ellipse. In Figure 6.12
the orthographic projection of an object with circular feature is provided. To make the isometric
view the steps as mentioned below are followed.
(1) A square touching the circle is drawn with sides equal to the diameter of the circle on the
orthographic projection (Figure 6.13).
(2) Now the isometric parallelepiped (Figure 6.14) is drawn as done earlier.
(3) Next the views on the surfaces of the parallelepiped (Figure 6.15) are drawn with the square
of the circle omitting the circle itself. The square is turned into the shape of a rhombus. The
unnecessary lines may be avoided.
(4) Now the lines on the rhombus are drawn as shown in Figure 6.16. Then the four centers c1, c2,
c3, and c4 are located.
(5) The two arcs are drawn with radii c1b and c2a with respect to the centers c1 and c2 respectively.
Next two other arcs are drawn with radii c3a and c4b with respect to the centers c3 and c4
respectively (Figure 6.17).
(6) Now the unnecessary lines are erased and the isometric view is completed making the lines
thick (Figure 6.18).

Figure 6.12: Orthographic Projection Figure 6.13: Square Touching Circle

Figure 6.14: Isometric Parallelepiped Figure 6.15: Views on Faces of
Parallelepiped

Figure 6.16: Location of Centers Figure 6.17: Drawing Arcs

Figure 6.18: Isometric Circle

6.4 Example Problems:

Fig. P6.1 Fig. P6.2

Fig. P6.3 Fig. P6.4

Fig. P6.5 Fig. P6.6

Fig. P6.7 Fig. P6.8

Fig. P6.9 Fig. P6.10

Engineering Drawing Auto CAD Sessional Experiments

1 Exp.07 Introduction and Familiarization of Auto CAD and Software Installation.

2 Exp.08 Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (Drawing for CAD 2D tools use.)
3 Exp.09 Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (2D Design of different Object).
4 Exp.10 Project on Floor plan design using Contemporary packages in CAD 2D.
5 Exp.11 Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (Drawing for CAD 3D tools use.)
6 Exp.12 Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (3D Design of different Object.)
7 Exp.13 Project on Engineering Drawing and CAD using Contemporary packages in 3D.

Experiment No. 07: Introduction and Familiarization of Auto CAD and Software Installation.
Introducing AutoCAD

AutoCAD, created by Autodesk Corporation, is the most widely used technical drawing program.
All over the world people are using this AutoCAD to generate different kinds of drawings. The
major disciplines that use AutoCAD are:
o Mechanical
o Architecture
o GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
o Facilities Management
o Electrical/Electronic
o Multimedia etc.
AutoCAD creates and saves file in ‘vector’ format. Vector files store an image by mathematically
defining an object that makes up the image. Opening AutoCAD and the different basic components
of AutoCAD will be introduced in short in this section.

Experiment No. 08: Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (Drawing for CAD 2D tools use.).
Source: 2D drawing using AutoCAD : Drawing 3 - YouTube

Assignment on Ex. No: 08

Experiment No: 09: Study On 2D CAD Drawing. (2D Design of different Object).

Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHSmyv3FIAc&ab_channel=EngrMuhammad
Akram

Assignment on Ex. No: 09

Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxtKebeYSok&ab_channel=SuperLearning

Experiment No: 10
Project on Floor plan design using Contemporary packages in CAD 2D.

Project Based on Exp 10 and Assignment 10

Make a simple 3-bed floor plan for (36 36-feet ×36Feet) area that has an 18-foot
road on the South side and an electrical wearing plan in AutoCAD.
Instructions For Plan …
Each Group has 4 members.
SL Work description Number of
Students
1 Site Selections and Applications For permission from the Municipals 2
Office
2 Floor Design 4
3 Floor Electrical Design 4
4 Budget: Floor Construction Cost including the materials (Bricks, 2
Silica, Rod, Cement, Electrical and other materials related to house
construction)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWGdwpUEPXo&ab_channel=EngineeringB
acklog
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1SOUNVnpuQ&ab_channel=EngineeringBa
cklog
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGze2FPoiWQ&ab_channel=EngineeringBac
klog

Experiment No: 11
Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (Drawing for CAD 3D tools use.)
Experiment No: 12 Study On 3D CAD Drawing. (3D Design of different
Objects.)
Experiment No: 13
Project on Engineering Drawing and CAD using Contemporary packages in 3D.