UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

BA POLITICAL SCIENCE

(II Semester)

CORE COURSE

CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE

(CBCSS 2019 ADMISSION ONWARDS)

19403

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CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

STUDY MATERIAL

II SEMESTER

CORE COURSE

BA POLITICAL SCIENCE

(CBCSS 2019 ADMISSION ONWARDS)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Calicut University- PO, Malappuram,
Kerala, India - 673 635

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UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL SECOND SEMESTER

BA POLITICAL SCIENCE
(2019 ADMISSION ONWARDS)

CORE COURSE - II

POL2 B02 - CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL

SCIENCE

Prepared by: Scrutinized by :

SRI.VINODKUMAR DR.SHAFEEQ V,
Associate Professor, Research Officer,
Department of Political Science, Kerala State Higher
Sree Narayana Guru College, Chelannur Education Council,
Kozhikode. Trivandrum.

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MODULES CONTENT PAGE No:

Module I Basic Concepts in Political Theory 7

Module II Modern Concepts in Political Science 39

Module III Democracy 59

Module IV Political Parties 71

Module V Major Themes in Contemparary Politics 80

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MODULE I
Basic Concepts in Political Theory

Law
Meaning
A study of the basic concept of political theory should
begin with discussion of the idea of law in the sense that the
state is a legal association. The state is distinguished from society,
nation and other association by virtue of its coercive power - a
power that issues in the form of law. The state operates through
the government and the government interprets the will of the state
through law. Law is the vehicle of sovereignty. The function of
the state is not only limited to the execution of law, it is also to
enforce law in just manner. Law regulates life and without law
there is chaos and confusion. Thus the central idea in law is that
of control. In a democratic society it is a technique with a purpose
- it is the sum of the social influences regularly recognized and
applied by the state in the administration of justice. In Political
Science, we use the term law to describe a body of rules to
guide human action. The word 'law' comes from the old Teutonic
root 'lag' which means to lay, to place, to set or to fix something
in an even manner. Law is for this reason, something positive or
'imposed'. In a deeper sense the word 'law' originates from the
Latin word 'jus' means a bend or tie. Thus law means a system
of rules hold to be binding or obligatory which aimed at realizing
justice. Woodrow Wilson defines "law is that portion of the
established thought and habit which has gained distinct and
formal recognition in the shape of uniform rules backed by the
authority and power of the government". To sum up, law has the
following features.
1. Law is an expression of the will of the state and expressed
by the only constituted authority;
2. Law is enforced by the state;

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3. Law is concerned only with the external aspect of human
actions;
4. Law is universal in its application;
5. The violation of law may lead to punishment;
6. The aim of law is individual and general welfare;
Source of Law
1. Customs
In every community the earliest form of law is traceable
to the well established practices of the people. These practices
once started, gradually but imperceptibly developed because of
the utility that inhered in them. In due course, a practice became
a usage, which after sufficient standing was became a custom
and then a law. Even now customs seem to play an important
part where the life of the people is quite simple. The law of today
is based on the customs of the people, a translation of an age-
old established practice into specific written terms by the state.
2. Religion
The customs finds its sanction in the religious books of the
people. Since time immemorial people have either faith in God
or some supernatural powers and they tried to lay down
rules for the regulations of their behavior. In course of time
most of the principles of religious law have been translated by
the state in terms of specific rules.
3. Adjudication
As the process of social organization became more and
more complex, the force of customs declined. Disputes among
the people based on their customs were referred to the judges -
the wisest men of the community - who delivered verdicts to
settle the points in question. Later their decisions came to have a
special sanctity and as these were given in writing, they came to
be known as case-law.
4. Equity
Another important source of law is contained in equity, an
informal method of making new law or altering an old one

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depending on equality of treatment. In simple words, it means
equity or natural justice in cases where the existing law does not
apply properly and judgment has to be given according to
commonsense or fairness. In the absence of positive law, judges
decide on the basis of general principles of fairness and natural
justice.
5. Legislation
The important source of law is legislation. It means placing
of a specific rule on the statute book of the land, which reflects
the will of the state. The noticeable point at this stage is that
with the pace of political development, legislation has become
the most important source that has outplaced the significance of
other traditional forces like customs and religion.
6. Standard Works
The source of law may also be traced in scientific
commentaries in which leading thinkers, jurists and statesmen
express their views on important points of law and which, when
recognized are treated as important. Their opinion were accepted
by the courts and also incorporated into the law of the land.
7. Roman Law
Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, and
the legal developments which occurred before the seventh century
AD. This Roman law ordered by Emperor Justinian I known
as the Justinian Code was effective in the Eastern Roman
(Byzantine) Empire (331-1453) and also served as a basis for
legal practice in continental Europe, as well as in most former
colonies of European nations, including Latin America. Today
the provisions of Roman law were fitted into a more coherent
system and expressed in the national language. They were
classified into Jus civile (citizen law) i.e. law for citizens, Jus
gentium (law of peoples) i.e. foreigner's law and Jus naturale
i.e. natural law.
Dimensions or Kinds of Law
Law has been classified into various forms according to the
basis taken by a juristic thinker on his subject. It may be on the
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basis of the relations, which it seeks to adjust between the people
and their communities.
1. Natural Law
Nature law or law of nature is being authorized by nature
and not the creation of man. The dictates of natural law are
understandable by the rationality of man and it is not written in
form.
2. Positive Law
The law of state or positive law is concrete in the sense that
it is created by man. It is written in form and has its place into the
statute book. While positive law has its sanction in respect for or
fear of some supernatural power, the sovereign authority enforces
the latter. For this reason too it is called determinate or positive.
It is called positive law, for its terms are quite specific and binding.
3. National Law
A law formulated by the sovereign authority and applicable
to the people living under its territorial jurisdiction is called national
law. It determines the private and public relation of the people
living in a state. National law has the force of sovereign authority
and thereby enforceable in nature.
4. International Law
This law regulates the conduct of states in their intercourse
with each other. These laws are not framed by any sovereign
law-making authority nor is there any sovereign authority to
enforce these laws. International law derives its sanction on the
good sense of the civilized nations of the world. They have the
force only to the extent to which they are recognized and accepted
by the different states of the world. For example, it is a universally
accepted international law that the plane of no foreign country
can fly over the territory of any country without seeking its
permission. This international law is universally accepted by all
thecountries of the world.
5. Constitutional Law
Constitutional laws are part of the constitution, which
are enforced by the courts. Constitutional laws are the basic
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laws according to which the government in a state conducts
itself. In short the laws that define, interpret and regulate the
functions of the government are known as constitutional laws.
Constitutional law has higher status than the ordinary law. The
constitutional law may be written or unwritten on account of being
in the form of well-established practices. Constituent assembly
drafts the written constitution. Election of the President, powers
and functions of Supreme Court, appointment of Governors, etc.
are examplesfor constitutional laws.
6. Ordinary Law
The laws that are not related to the forms and functions of
the government and to the fundamental rights but are related to
the social and economic affairs of all citizens are known as ordinary
laws. Ordinary laws are the creations of legislature or of some
authority having delegate powers. Abolition of child marriage,
property laws, etc. is examples of ordinary laws. These laws
are also known as statute laws.
7. Civil and Criminal Law
Civil law deals with the civil wrongs committed by a person
going to harm the interest of another like non-payment of dues
or the violation of the terms of a contract. The latter relates to
criminal act of a person like theft, robbery, and murder. In each
case the procedure is different.
8. Private Law
Private law determines the relation of citizens to one another.
They regulate the relations among individuals. In private law says
Holland, "The parties concerned are private individuals above
and between whom stands the state as an impartial arbiter."
9. Public Law
Public law is concerned with the organization of the state,
the limits on the functions of the government, and the relation
between the state and its citizen. Holland says, "in public law
also the state is present as an arbiter, although it is at the same
time one of the parties interested."

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10. Ordinances
Ordinances are the orders issued by the executive branch
of the government within the powers prescribed to them by the
law of the land. In simple words, President issues the orders, in
the absence of legislative session to face the emergency. As a
rule ordinances are not permanent.
They are issued for the special purpose of facing emergency.
The issued ordinances have to pass from the legislature within
six months. Theories of the Origin and Nature of Law There are
different theories about the origin and nature of law.
Natural theory:-
Natural theory considers law as eternal, universal, constant,
rational and immutable.
Nature is the author of this law as such it is based on right
reason. But natural law is very difficult to implement.
Imperative theory:-
It rejects the natural theory and says that natural law is valid
until it is recognized by the state authority. Thus it is also known
as legal positivism. It lays too much stress on state authority.
Advocates - Hobbes, Austin, Bentham, Bodin.
Historical theory:-
According to historical theory, law is neither authored
by nature nor created by state but it is the result of social
development. Sociological theory is also related to this.
Advocates - Hugo, Savingy, Lord Bryce, Sir Henry Main.
Marxian Theory:-
According to Marx, legal relationships are footed upon
the material conditions of life, laws merely express the will of the
dominant class. Marx says, "Law is an expression of society's
general interests and needs as they emerge from a given material
means of productivity".
Relationship between Law and Liberty
The relation between law and liberty is widely discussed
among philosophers. The relationship between law and liberty
is changing according to the nature of the state.
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The anarchists and syndicalists hold that law and liberty are
opposed to each other. They denounce the state as an instrument
of exploitation and oppression and desire a classless and stateless
society in which there is no law to limit the liberty of the
individual. The more is the law, the less is the liberty of individual.
William Godwin, Peter Kropotkin, Pierre Joseph-Proudhon are
some of the anarchists. Individualists also hold the same view
that every extension of state activity limits the freedom of the
individual. They want the state to restrict its activities to minimum.
Individualists like J.S. Mill and Herbert Spencer take sate as
a necessary evil and for that desires minimum possible
interference by the state. But the socialists treat law and liberty in
complementary terms. To them state is a welfare agency and it
can ensure a better social order and liberty through its legal
mechanism. Law imposes restraints that are essential for social
welfare. To leave each man to do what he pleases would lead to
anarchy and disorder. Thus liberty is law or at any rates a part of
law. The state is the only source of legal authority, which can
provide immunity from the unnecessary interference of others.
For the idealists state is a moralizing agency, it can do anything
by means of law to protect liberty. So every law of the state must
be observed by the people. They hold that a man is free only
when he obeys the law of the state. It can use the force to create
freedom. The fascists give a practical expression to the idealistic
view according to them, state can do no wrong. Man should fall
down and obey law so as to worship the state. In fact in fascist
society law destroyed the liberty. Thus the issue of relationship
between liberty and law is really of a delicate nature. State
can protect liberty and can certain liberty through law. Thus the
balance remains in the use of laws created on the basis of general
will in a legitimate way.
Rule of Law
The rule of law is a legal maxim that states no person is
immune to law. The phrase has been used since the 17th century,
but the concept can be traced to ancient Greece.

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Aristotle put it this way, "law should govern". Rule of law
stands in contrast to the idea that the sovereign is above the law,
a feature of Roman law. British jurist A.V. Dicey popularized the
phrase "Rule of Law" in his book An Introduction to the Study of
the Law of the Constitution published (1885). Dicey emphasized
three aspects of the rule of law:
(1) No one can be punished or made to suffer except for a
breach of law proved in an ordinary court;
(2) no one is above the law and everyone is equal
before the law regardless of social, economic, or political status;
and
(3) The rule of law includes the results of judicial decisions
determining the rights of private persons. The rule of law is one
of the cordial features of the British constitution. It is the outcome
of centuries of struggle of the Britishers for political freedom and
individual liberty.
Rule of law in based on the common law of the land in
Britain. There is no constitutional provision for fundamental rights
and the constitution does not confer any specific rights on the
citizens. Judiciary is the custodian of the liberties of the people.
In England there is no different between public law and private
law - the one applying to officials and the other ordinary citizens
- because they believe in the maxim that all are equal before law.
This has been characterized by Dicey as the rule of law. In
England every person is subject to the ordinary law courts. Every
action of the government must be authorized by law. As such,
there is nothing in England that may be characterized as arbitrary
power. It implies that no one in England can be punished
arbitrarily. All the accused are to be tried in the ordinary court of
law, in accordance with the ordinary legal procedures, the accused
having the right to defend himself through his advocate. Thus
rule of law means equality before law. Administrative law As
distinct from the rule of law, there exists in the continental countries
of Europe and particularly in France the administrative law or
more exactly special law for officials. It may be defined as that
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body of rules which regulate the relations of the administrative
authority towards private citizens in their dealings with these
officials.
In such cases they are called to account before special
administrative courts composed mainly of superior executive
officials. These administrative courts apply a special form of
law and procedure caused the administrative law. The officials
are not subject to ordinary laws nor can they be tried before
ordinary courts. Administrative law is the body of law that governs
the activities of administrative agencies of government.
Administrative law is considered a branch of public law.
Administrative law expanded greatly during the twentieth century,
as legislative bodies worldwide created more government
agencies to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic
and political spheres of human interaction. In fact Prof. A. V.
Dicey is responsible for interpreting the administrative law.
But his concept is not free from criticism. The critics argues
that it is based on custom and precedents than statutes.
Liberty
Meaning
The theme of liberty is integrally connected with the theme
of rights. It is the provision of rights with their due enforcement
by the state that ensures freedom to a citizen and thereby
enables him to seek the best possible development of his
personality. The term 'liberty' comes from the Latin word 'liber'
that means 'free'. The meaning of liberty generally taken a
wrong way as it is identified with the absence of restraints and
limitations.
No man can be absolutely free. In the sense of unrestrained
freedom, liberty is not possible in society. Thus viewed, liberty
means man's right to do what he wants for the sake of making
the best possible development of his personality. Social life is
regulated by a set of principles or norms that make man's life
civilized. These restraints lay down the line of distinction between
good and bad, right or wrong, moral and immoral, legal and
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illegal. In fine, the real meaning of liberty should be understood
with this point in view that the liberty of an individual is relative to
that of others. Liberty is defined by Mahatma Gandhi as follows,
"liberty does not mean the absence of restraint but it lies in
development of liberty." According to John Seeley, "liberty is
the opposite of over-government". The meaning of liberty has
two dimensions negative and positive. In a negative sense, it
implies the absence of restraints as far as possible. Negative
liberty meant that there should not be any hindrance in the path
of one's actions. Here the point of stress is that restraint is bad,
because it effects curtailment of individual freedom. J. S. Mill
and F. A. Hayek, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith,
Jeremy Bentham are exponents of negative liberty. Mill maintained
that there should not be any hindrance in the path of man. Hayek
says that every individual has some assured area of personal
freedom with which others cannot interfere. The negative view
of liberty is not appreciated in the present times. Now individual
liberty is sought to be reconciled with state authority. Restraints
are essential if the state desires to achieve the goal of public
welfare. The positive concept of liberty admits that there must
be compulsion if liberty is to have a practical meaning. It is a
contribution of T. H. Green. He defines it as a positive power
of doing something that is worth enjoying in common with others.
Since man is social creature, his life should be regulated by
certain social bonds. Hegel, Rousseau, Herder, Marx, H. J.
Laski, Barker are other advocates of positive liberty. Liberal
versus Marxist View, The Marxist interpretations regarding real
meaning and nature of liberty hinge mainly on the nature and
scope of economic liberty available in the pattern of social life.
The liberals define liberty as a bundle of rights that enable a
man to seek the best possible development of his personality.
They do not bother for the kind of social life of man. On the
other hand, the Marxist view of liberty covers the case of man's
life in the society he lives and the conditions he is subjected to. It
follows that in the Marxist view; there can be no real freedom
unless the capitalist system is replaced with the socialist system.
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The Marxist concept of liberty rejects the case of 'free will' as
the ingredient of liberty. Man is not only a social creature who
can understand the pattern of his social existence and then change
it by means of his conscious revolutionary social activity. It is
quite obvious that Marxist view of liberty cannot be appreciated
by the liberal thinkers who identify liberty with constitutional
government, political democracy and orderly administration
based on common law system. They are, Milton Freidman, Louis
Fischer and Arthur Koestler.
Dimensions or Kinds of Liberty
Simply stated, liberty implies a condition of freedom
especially opposed to political subjection, imprisonment or slavery.
In a wider sense, it is a multiple concept having these important
varieties.
1. Natural Liberty
It implies complete freedom for a man to do what he wills.
It means no restriction of any kind whatsoever on the doing of a
man. Just as all creatures live according to their will in the world
of nature, so should be the pattern of man's life. Let a man do
what he wills. But liberty in modern society is within restraints.
So the idea of natural liberty is therefore an errant nonsense. As
a social creature man should lead a life regulated by social
restraints.
2. Social Liberty
Social liberty relates to man's freedom in his life as a member
of social organization. As such it refers to a man's right to do
what he wills in compliance with the restraints imposed on him in
the general interest. This kind of liberty consists in the rights and
privileges in the society, which is protected by the state. Thus
social liberty liberates a man from the fear of arbitrary aggression.
3. Personal Liberty
Personal liberty means the availability of those conditions in
which the individual can act without being under any type of
arbitrary restraint.Every individual has the right not to permit
any other individual to interfere in his personal affairs. Every
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individual should have the liberty to dress, food, standard of
living, marriages, education of children, etc. Personal liberty
stands for the personal security, personal freedom in movement,
and enjoyment of personal property. The state should not
interfere in the personal matters of the individual. Such liberty is
essential for the free development of human society.
4. Political Liberty
Political liberty refers to the power of the people to be active
in political affairs of the state.
Thus it is integrally connected with the life of man as a citizen.
It requires two things - political education and free supply of
news. By political liberty Laski means the freedom of the individual
to participate in the affairs of the state. Political liberty includes
liberty to vote, to contest in elections, to hold public office, to
express political views and criticize government, to have free
and fair election, freedom for public opinion, etc.
5. Economic Liberty
Economic liberty allows individuals to be engaged in some
gainful occupation. It means liberty to earn one's own daily bread.
In simple words, every individual regardless of caste, color, creed,
place of birth, sex and religion should have liberty to earn money
through some occupation. The individual should be free from the
constant fear of unemployment and insufficiency that perhaps
more than any other inadequacies affect the whole strength of
the personality.
6. Domestic Liberty
It is by and large a sociological concept that takes the
discussion of liberty to the spheres of man's family life. It implies
that of all associations within the state, the miniature community
of family is the most universal and of the strongest independent
vitality. There was a time when the authoritarian state was
reflected in the authoritarian family. Thus with the advent of
democracy, liberty pervaded the sphere of family life as well. It
intends the freedom enjoys in a family to have respectable relations
with others.
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7. National Liberty
It is synonymous with national independence. As such it
implies that nonation should be under the subjection of another.
It stands for national independence, freedom from imperialism,
etc. Like individuals nations also think in terms of liberty. As a
matter of fact national liberty is another name for national
sovereignty. Every nation wishes to remain free. And without
independence the progress of the nation or the state is not
possible. In a slave country people cannot enjoy the comforts of
life. For this love for national liberty is identified with patriotism.
8. International Liberty
The ideal of liberty covers the world as a whole. Thus in the
international sphere, it means that renunciation of war, reduction
in arms production and abandonment of use of force and pacific
settlement of international disputes. It also desires adequate curbs
on the strength of military force so that it may not crush the liberties
of the local people or people of a different country.
9. Moral Liberty
It stands for the freedom of the individual to act as per his
rational self. Every individual should have the liberty to develop
his personality according to his will. This type of freedom is
contained in the idealistic interpretations of thinkers from Plato
and Aristotle in the ancient to Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Green
in modern times.
Conditions of Liberty
Every state guarantees liberty in its own way. Liberty can
be safeguarded in the following ways.
1. Enunciation of Fundamental Rights: The constitution
defines the powers of the government and sets a limit to its
action. The basic rights of the citizen are clearly enlisted in
the constitution and the violation of it leads to punishment.
2. Separation of judiciary from executive: Judiciary should
be separated from the executive and it should be impartial
also. Montesquieu regarded separation of powers as an

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essential safeguard of liberty. If the people cannot secure
speedy and impartial justice, liberty is in danger.
3. Decentralization of power: Decentralization of power also
safeguards liberty. Centralization of power may lead to
despotism.
4. Political Party System: A well-organized party system
always protects liberty by preventing despotism and misuse
of power.
5. Rule of Law: Rule of law implies equality before law and
ends up discrimination. It upholds the maxim that all are
equal before law including the ruling class.
6. Free Press: Laski considers the provision of an honest
and straight-forward supply of news is a necessary
condition of liberty. If the facts are not presented in their
true aspects and are deliberately perverted, the judgment
will be unrelated to truth.
7. Eternal vigilance: The most important safeguard of liberty
is popular vigilance. It has been said that 'eternal vigilance is
the price of liberty'.
Equality
Meaning
Equality, like liberty, is an important pillar of democracy. In
common parlance the term equality is used for identity of treatment
and identity of rewards. However, this is not a correct use of the
term because absolute equality is not possible. Like liberty,
equality has also been assigned both negative and positive
meaning. In the negative sense, equality means the absence of
special privileges. It implies the absence of special privileges. It
implies the absence of barriers like birth, wealth, caste, color,
creed, etc. In the positive sense, equality means provision of
adequate opportunities for all the members of the society. It
may be observed that adequate opportunities do not mean equal
opportunities, but nobody should be barred from any opportunity
on any grounds. Therefore, equality really means the provision

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of adequate opportunities to all citizens without any discrimination.
Nobody should be debarred from certain facilities simply because
of his status, caste, creed, etc. In short, equality implies the
following things. First, all persons should be provided with
adequate opportunities for the development of the personality.
Second, no class or caste or group enjoys special privileges that
are not available to other members of the society. Third, there
should not be any discrimination among members of society and
if there is any discrimination it should be based on reasonable
grounds, that means, positive descrimination Fourth, rights are
equally distributed among all and all have equal access to
opportunities leading to authority.
Dimensions of Equality
The concept of equality is dynamic one and has kept on
changing according to times. Accordingly different scholars have
suggested different dimensions or kinds of equality. Laski mentions
only two kinds of equality - political and economic. Lord Bryce
refers to four kinds of equality - civil, political, social and natural.
1. Civil Equality
Civil equality implies equality of all before law. All citizens
irrespective of their status and position should be treated at par
and no distinction should be made on the basis of caste, creed,
sex, political opinion, social status, place of birth, etc. The laws
of the state should be passed for the benefit of all and should not
be used as instrument for the promotion of interest of a particular
section of population. Equal rights should be available to all
the persons and nobody should be denied enjoyment of any
right.
2. Political Equality
Political equality means that all the citizens have the
right to participate in the affairs of the state without any
discrimination on grounds of caste, color, creed, sex, etc. All
the avenues of authority should be open equally to all the citizens
and they should enjoy right to vote, right to contest election,
right to criticize the government, right to hold public office, etc.
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The doctrine of political equality is based on twin principles of
universal adult franchise and human dignity.
3. Social Equality
It assumes that there should not be any discrimination
among various citizens on the basis of social status, color, caste,
creed, rank, etc. It is opposed to the grant of special privileges
to any person on the basis of his social status or caste, religion,
etc. It may be observed that social equality cannot be established
through law alone. It can be achieved only through regulation of
social habits and institutions. Education can also play a significant
role in bringing social equality.
4. Economic Equality
In modern times scholars have attached great importance
to economic equality and consider it as vital to the existence of
other types of equality. Economic equality does not imply that
there should be equal distribution of wealth. On the other hand it
means that there should not be concentration of wealth in few
hands only and certain minimum standards of income should be
assured to all.
5. Natural Equality
The concept of natural equality rests on the principle that
nature has created every one as equal. Nature has not bestowed
all human beings with the same qualities. Interpreted in this sense
the idea of natural equality is a myth.
6. Legal Equality
Here equality means that all people are alike in the eye of
the law and that they are entitled for its equal protection. Thus
the principle of equality implies equal protection of life and liberty
for everyone under the law, and equal penalties on everyone
violating them. In a strictly technical sense, the principle of
equality implies equal protection of law to all denying
discrimination on any artificial ground whatsoever. Viewed in a
wider perspective it also means justice at a low cost at the
earliest practicable time so that everyone irrespective of his social

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or economic status may get it according to the established
procedure of the land.
7. International Equality
It means the extension of the principle of equality to
the international sphere. All nations of the world should be
treated equally irrespective of their demographic, geographical,
economic or military compositions. That is the principle
of internationalism requires that all nations of the world should
be treated on identical terms whether they are big or small in
terms of their size, location, natural resources, wealth, military
potential and the like. It also implies that international disputes
should be settled through pacific means in which every nation
has right todiscuss matters in a free and frank manner and that
the use of force, or a threat of this type, is ruled out from
consideration.
Liberty and Equality
The relationship between liberty and equality has been a
matter of controversy that has two sides; the negative view is
that liberty and equality are incompatible terms. Lord Action
and F. A. Hayek argue that bringing about a condition of equality
has in practice led to inequality and tyranny. The positive view
takes liberty and equality as compatible terms.
In fact both are necessarily connected with the supreme
worth and dignity of human personality and the spontaneous
development of its capacities. Liberal versus Marxist
Interpretations The liberal doctrine of equality stands on the
premise of the 'equality of adequate opportunities' available to
every member of the society. That is all people have liberty to
compete in the midst of equal opportunities with the result that
those who can make best use of their chances may go ahead of
others. Inequalities in the midst of equal opportunities are thus a
valid affair. But the Marxist view of equality always associates
with class war. Equality cannot exist in a society ridden with class
contradictions. All kinds of class distinctions can be eliminated

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through the dictatorship of proletariat. A classless society is
necessary for the liberty and equality
Justice
Meaning
The concept of justice occupies a prominent position in
political theory. Different people attached different meanings to
the term justice at different times and places. The word justice is
derived from the Latin word 'justitia' that means joining of fitting.
In the words of Rafel "the idea of justice is plainly concerned
with the general ordering of the society." Plato interpreted justice
in terms of functions and Aristotle interpreted justice in the sense
of fairness and equality. The idea of justice is a dynamic affair.
As such, its implications change with the passage of time. What
was justice in the past may be injustice today or vice versa of
justice; First, the concept is related to dealings amongst human
beings. Second, it implies impartiality in the treatment of various
persons and requires that no discrimination should be ma e
amongst the various members of religion, caste, sex, place of
birth, family, etc.
Third, justice does not essentially mean doing away with all
types of discrimination. It permits some sort of discrimination on
reasonable grounds. For example, the special treatment promised
to the backward classes under the Indian Constitution does
not violate the concept of justice. Fourth, it emphasizes the
importance of personal dignity and all those actions, which restrict
the rights, and freedom of the individuals as derogatory or unjust.
However, this doesn't preclude imposition of restrictions on
the freedom of the individual in larger interest of the members
of society. Fifth, the concept of justice is intimately connected
with the concept of equality. Absence of equality is considered
as a violation of the principle of justice. For example, legal justice
implies the existence of a feeling of fraternity among the members
of society or a group. Finally, justice implies due consideration
of the natural limitations. In short, justice tries to reconcile the
individual rights with the social good.

24
Dimensions of Justice
The concept of justice has four-fold dimensions - legal,
political, social and economic. It shall be desirable to deal with
these dimensions of justice in some details.
Legal Dimensions of Justice.
The legal dimension of justice has been emphasized by the
writers of the analytical school, John Austin, Hobbes, etc. They
assert that law is thechief instrument of justice and in its absence
there can be no justice. Itimplies the existence of rational law,
customary law, statutory law, etc.Each individual is entitled to
the protection of law and the violation of the law is punished in
accordance with the law. In short, it implies 'equalitybefore law'
and 'equal protection of laws.' Secondly, for the enforcement of
the law there must be courts or other semi-judicial bodies that
can decide the disputes in accordance with the existing laws.
Sometimes the courts decide the cases on the basis of equity
and natural law to meet the requirements of justice. Thirdly,
justice is intimately connected with punishment. A consensus
exists that more serious crimes must be severely punished so
that it acts as a deterrent for others. Fourthly, legal justice
demands that equal rights should be made available to all the
members and no discrimination should be made on the basis of
caste, color, creed, sex, place of birth, etc.
Political Dimensions of Justice
Political dimensions of justice imply that the people should
be given a chance of fair and free participation in the political life
of the country. This generally finds outlet in the grant of universal
adult franchise so that all the people may be able to participate
in the election of their representatives. People are granted
equal rights and opportunities to influence the policies of the
government. Recruitment to public services is made without
discrimination. In short, people are given a fair chance to
determine the policies of the government in keeping with the
prevailing requirements. The political parties, the pressure groups,
etc. play a vital role in giving concrete shape to the political justice.
25
In short, political justice is concerned with the actual
implementation of the principles of legal justice.
Social Dimensions of Justice
The concept of social justice has very wide dimensions
and covers practically everything that promotes the general
welfare of the members of the community. It lays emphasis on
the elimination of all kinds of discrimination and privileges
based on caste, color, creed, sex, birth, etc. It also enjoys upon
the state the duty to make concerted effort to improve the lot of
the weaker sections of the community. It also implies the doing
away of social evils prevailing in the society. In case of conflict
between the social and individual interest the former prevails. It
is not worthy that social justice cannot be forced on the people
by the state through rigid rules alone. The social habits and social
institutions play a vital role in its accomplishment.
Economic Dimensions of Justice
In recent years the economic dimensions of justice has
assumed great importance. It is asserted that there cannot be
any social or political justice without economic justice. Economic
justice means that the basic needs of all the members of the
state must be met and the national economy should be so
shaped that the benefits are shared by the maximum number
of people. There should not be wide economic disparities
and the principle of equal pay for equal work should prevail.
Theories of Justice
Regarding the nature of justice different theories emerged
with different arguments.
The Natural Theory of justice stipulates that man should
follow the principles of a moral life as sanctioned by the law of
nature. With the advent of Christianity law of nature became law
of God. Critics say that theidea of natural or divine justice is a
matter of myth. It is too abstract and metaphysical in nature. The
Legal Theory of justice identifies the whole idea of justice with
that of courts. They believe that the legislature has the authority
to make laws and the judiciary has the power adjudicate. The
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advocates of imperative theory of jurisprudence like Hobbes,
Bentham, Austin and dicey fully supports this view. The
Marxian Theory of justice is identified with class domination.
According to Marxists justice prevails in a classless society. It
shows that the liberal interpretation of justice is quite flexible that
places judiciary in an impartial and independent position, the
Marxist notion desires its committed form.
Rights
Meaning
Rights, liberty and equality are three inter-related themes;
possession and enjoyment of rights without any distinction makes
liberty and equality meaningless. In order to live, man must have
some rights; in order to develop his personality to the best possible
extent, he must have some particular rights. If state is the first
condition of a civilized life, the civilized life requires a set of special
rights that a man must have. According to Laski, "rights are
those conditions of social life without which no man can seek to
be himself at his best." A proper definition of right has three
ingredients. First, it is a claim of the individuals.
However, not every claim can be a right; the claim should
be of a common interest or something which is capable of
universal application. Secondly, a claim of the individual must
receive social recognition. For instance, an individual's claim
that receives social recognition if every individual wills in the same
direction. Finally, we come to the point of political recognition.
Rights are, like moral declarations, until they are protected by
the state. The state translates socially recognized claims of moral
rights into terms of law and thereby accords them legal recognition.
It, therefore, acts like a coercive agency to prevent the operation
of selfish wills of the individuals.
Dimensions or Kinds of Rights
Rights are of different kinds. A watertight classification of
rights is not possible because of its interrelated nature. Laski
puts rights into two categories - general and particular. But Barker

27
divides them into three main heads relating to fraternity, equality
and liberty. For convenience we can classify them into,
1. Natural rights and Legal Rights
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights theoretically
distinct according to philosophers and political scientists. Natural
rights, also calledinalienable rights, are considered to be self-
evident and universal. They are not contingent upon the laws,
customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government. Legal
rights, also called statutory rights, are bestowed by a particular
government to the governed people and are relative to specific
cultures and governments. They are enumerated or codified into
legal statutes by a legislative body.
2. Moral Rights
These rights are the claims of the individuals based on the
conscience of the community. In other words, these are the
claims recognized by the good sense of the people. For example,
a teacher has the moral right to be respected by his students. But
the difficulty with such rights is that they cannot be enforced by
rules, their enforcement depends upon the good sense of the
community. When moral rights are converted into legal rights,
they become enforceable by the action of the state.
3. Civil Rights
These rights relate to the person and property of the
individuals. They are called civil or social as they relates to the
essential conditions of a civilized life. This broad category includes
a number of rights like those relating to life, personal liberty, thought
and expression, property, religion and the like. Of all the civil
rights, right to life is most important, since enjoyment of all other
rights depends on it. It implies that no person can take the life of
another. Allied to this is the right to personal liberty. It includes
right to live like a free citizen. Right to think and express also
comes under this category.
4. Political Rights
These rights relate to a man's participation in the affairs of
the state. This category includes right to vote, right to contest in
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elections, right to public employment, right to public opinion, etc.
In other words, these rights enable a person to send petitions
to the government for the redressal of certain wrongs, following
a particular policy, making or unmaking a particular law and
expressing views for the creation of a healthy public opinion.
Democracy is regarded as the best form of government for the
obvious reason that it ensures all these rights.
5. Economic Rights
These rights to relate to a man are vocation, his engagement
in a gainful employment for livelihood. It implies right to earn
money through proper means. Right to work falls within this
category. Allied to this is the right to rest and leisure so that a
person may take relief for the sake of maintaining and
increasing efficiency. So the workers must have a right to form
unions and associations for protecting and promoting their
interests. The socialists go to the extent of including right to
social insurance and self-government in industry in this category.
6. Human Rights
Human rights are commonly understood as inalienable
fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply
because she or he is a human being. Human rights are those
rights which are inherent in the mere fact of being human. The
concept of human rights is based on the belief that every human
being is entitled to enjoy her/his rights without discrimination.
The modified version of natural rights coupled with civil rights
has assumed a significance of its own since the formulation of
theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) by UN in
December 1948.
7. Fundamental Rights
By fundamental rights we mean those rights which form
the essential conditions of good life and which constitute the
essentials of human progress. In the absence of these rights the
growth and development of human personality is not possible. In
order to make them inviolable they are enshrined in the constitutions
of democratic countries. People are ensured fundamental rights
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through constitutions in India, Japan, USA, France, Switzerland,
etc. If any of the fundamental rights is violated, the person
concerned can go to the court for justice.
Theories of Rights
From time to time, various interpretations regarding the origin
and nature of rights were born which lead to the emergence
of different theories. The Natural Theory of rights argues that
nature is the author of certain rights that have a universal
character.
Ancient philosophers and Thomas Hobbes agree to this
view point. John Locke treats right life, liberty and property as
natural rights. The UDHR invokes the spirit of this theory when it
declares, "all human begins are born free and equal in dignity and
rights". When we come to the Legal Theory of rights, it holds
that right is a creation of law. If there is no law there is no right.
Hobbes, Bentham and Austin are the advocates of this theory.
But critics say that people have so many rights because of the
force of custom behind them. The Historical Theory of right
takes the factor of time in the creation of rights. Every right is
based on the force of long observance. The essential sanction
behind a right is for this reason, is a tradition or a custom.
Sociologists like MacIver and Edmund Burke are the advocates
of this theory. Thus legal theory and historical theory are opposing
each other. In Idealistic point of view rights are highly moral in
nature. Rights are rooted in the minds of man. Thus they believe
human consciousness postulates rights and liberty. The objective
of this theory is the 'best possible development of human
personality'. An ardent advocate of this theory is T. H. Green.
The Marxian Theory of rights links up the case of rights with that
of the prevailing economic system in a society. The dominant
class creates the rights for their sake. Thus rights will be
safeguarded only in a socialist system.
Protection of Rights
Following are the measures for protection of the rights.
1. Rights should be enlists in the constitution.
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2. Rule of Law should prevail
3. Free and honest press.
4. Decentralization of powers.
5. Independent and impartial judiciary
6. Associations and organizations
7. Eternal vigilance.
Duties
As a member of society or the state a man must behave in a
way which is good for all and which is helpful in promoting the
welfare of society. Society calls upon the individuals to follow
certain norms. These are obligations or duties. Thus a duty is an
obligation. As a member of society or state, the individual has to
observe these obligations of society. A mais said to have a duty
in any matter when he is under an obligation to do or not do
something. My right of living involves any duty to allow others
the same condition of life.
What is a right in regards to one's self is a duty in regard to
others. Rights and duties are the two sides of a same coin. If one
looks at them from one's own standpoint, they are rights; one
look at them from the standpoint of others, they are duties. They
are the same conditions seen from different angles. In the absence
of duties, rights become insignificant and duties are fruitless in
the absence of rights. A valid claim is both a duty and right. If we
have right to enjoy our rights, it is our cardinal duty to perform
our duties. If the state guarantees the enjoyment of certain rights
to us, the state at the same time wants us to perform certain
duties also. Important duties of a citizen are allegiance to the
state, to obey laws, payment of faxes, honest exercise of franchise
and, holding a public office, assistance in maintenance of law
and order, etc.
Besides we have certain moral duties to perform and certain
legal duties that we are bound to perform. The terms duty and
obligation are used in a situation in which a person has no choice
but to carry out or to abstain from carrying out an action. In
these cases we say that a person has the duty of paying the
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price stipulated in the contract or the duty to help a person injured.
There is a clear difference between people who carries out
an action in threat. Although the concept of duty can be
seen in relationship among individuals and diverse spheres
such as of families, church, etc. in this entry duty will only be
studied from a moral and political perspective.
1. Moral Duties
Moral duties are those obligations that we should observe
but we are not legally bound to observe them. It is our moral
duty that we should serve our parents, teachers, brothers and
sisters and the relatives. It is our moral duty of every one that
one should lend a helping hand to the poor and downtrodden. It
is our moral duty that we should serve our village, our province,
nation and the world to all possible extents. The reason why
we have moral duties has been one of the central discussions
of western philosophy for centuries. Two great political traditions
have arisen from this discussion. The first of them argues that
moral duty is an essential characteristic of human condition
because individuals are moral agents. In consequence, duties
should be fulfilled simply because of their existence, regardless
of whether or not they serve the attainment of a certain end.
The second of these traditions, by contrast, explains the
existence of duties insofar as they are part of the fulfillment of a
certain superior end.
2. Legal Duties
There is marked difference between legal duties and moral
duties. It depends entirely on the conscience of the individual to
perform moral duties or not to perform them. But an individual
is legally bound to perform legal duties. If he/she does not perform
them, he will be punished by the state. It is the legal duty of
every citizen to show obedience to the constitution, commands
of law and pay taxes regularly and honestly. It is our legal duty to
remain loyal to our country. Traitors are tried by the judiciary
and are punished by the state.

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3. Positive and Negative Duties
Duties are classified into positive and negative according to
their fulfilment. If a duty requires an action, then it is appositive
duty and if a duty requires an omission then it is a negative duty.
In addition, duties can be general or special. General duties are
those whose fulfillment can benefit anybody, as the duty not to
kill. Special duties are those duties that benefit people who have
a concrete relationship with the person who is obligated by the
duty. Positive duties are usually special duties, whereas negative
duties are usually general duties. While negative duties are easy
to fulfill because they are omissions, positive duties demand an
effort that can be more or less stringent, but they cannot have a
limitless character.
Fundamental Duties under Indian Constitution
Rights and duties were interpreted that they go together in
constitutions. In India the 42nd constitutional amendment act of
1976 introduced a list of fundamental duties of Indian citizen. All
duties of Indian citizen are enumerated in part IV-A, Article 51 -
A. It shall be the duty of every citizen of India,
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and
institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our
national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of
India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when
called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood
amongst all the people of India transcending religious,
linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce
practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture;

33
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion
for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit
of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher
levels of endeavour and achievement.
(k) Who is a parent of guardian to provide opportunities for
education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between
the age of six and fourteen years. (Introduced by 86th
Amendment Act 2002).
The Concept of Human Rights
This part discusses the concept of human rights from
its origins to the broad interpretation given to it today.
Human rights are commonly understood as inalienable
fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
simply because she or he is a human being. Human rights are
those rights which are inherent in the mere fact of being human.
The concept of human rights is based on the belief that every
human being is entitled to enjoy her/his rights without
discrimination. Human rights differ from other rights in two
respects. Firstly, they are characterized by being:
o Inherent in all human beings means they do not have to
be purchased or to be granted
o Inalienable, it cannot be taken away within qualified legal
boundaries and
o Equally applicable to all.
Secondly, the main duty to protect the human rights falls on
states and their authorities, not on individuals. One important
implication of these characteristics is that human rights must
themselves be protected by law. Furthermore, any disputes about
these rights should be submitted for adjudication through a

34
competent, impartial and independent tribunal. The specific
nature of human rights reveals that they are essential preconditions
for human development. Human rights are applicable on relations
both between individual and the state and between individuals
themselves. Regardless of its application the responsibility falls
down the government. A government not only has an obligation
to refrain from violating human rights, but also has a duty to protect
the individual from infringements by other individuals. For instance,
right to life thus means that the government must strive to protect
people against homicide by their fellow human beings. Human
Rights - Origin and Development. The origins of human rights
may be found both in Greek philosophy and the various world
religions. The principles of human rights established by
Achaemenid Persian Empire of ancient Iran during 6th Century,
the Magna Charta Libertatum of 1215, the Union of Utrecht of
1579 (The Netherlands)and the English Bill of Rights of 1689
were further developments in the history of human rights. In the
Age of Enlightenment (18th century) the concept of human rights
emerged as an explicit category. Man/woman came to be seen
as an autonomous individual, endowed by nature with certain
inalienable fundamental rights that should be safeguarded by a
government. During this period John Locke developed a
comprehensive concept of natural rights; his list of rights consisting
of life, liberty and property. The term human rights appeared for
the first time in the French Declaration (1789). The American
Declaration of Independence of July 1776 was based on the
assumption that all human beings are equal. Several constitutions
drafted in Europe around 1800 contained classic rights, but
also included articles which assigned responsibilities to the
government in the fields of employment, welfare, public health,
and education. The signing of the Charter of the United Nations
(UN) on 26 June 1945 brought human rights within the sphere
of international law. The UN Commission on Human Rights
(UNCHR), established early in 1946, submitted a draft Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to the UN General
Assembly. The Assembly adopted the Declaration in Paris on
35
10 December 1948. This day was later designated as Human
Rights Day. The declaration is quite comprehensive. It
incorporates a host of rights that have a necessary connection
with moral and civil rights pointed out above. Article 1 of it says
that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights;
they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act
towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 25 speaks
of the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness,
disability, old age, or other conditions of destitute beyond one's
control. An examination of the list of rights in this category
shows that these are obviously prescriptive statements that
command wide support among member nations. Since 1950s,
the UDHR has been backed up by a large number of international
conventions. The most significant of these conventions are the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR). These two Covenants together with the UDHR
form the International Bill of Human Rights.
Classification of Human Rights
Although human rights have been classified in a number
of different manners it is important to note that international
human rights law stresses that all human rights are universal,
indivisible and interrelated. The indivisibility of human rights implies
that no right is more important than any other.
1. Classic and Social Rights
One classification used is the division between 'classic' and
'social' rights. Classic rights are often seen to require the non-
intervention of the state (negative obligation), and social rights as
requiring active intervention on the part of the state (positive
obligations). In other words, classic rights entail an obligation
for the state to refrain from certain actions, while social rights
oblige it to provide certain guarantees. Classic rights such as civil
and political rights often require considerable investment by the
state. The state does not merely have the obligation to respect
these rights, but must also guarantee that people can effectively

36
enjoy them. On the other hand, most social rights contain elements
that require state intervention in exercising the rights. The right to
food, the right to housing, the right to work, the right to education
are examples.
2. Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The term 'civil rights' is often used with reference to the
rights set out in the first eighteen articles of the UDHR. This set
includes right to life, liberty and security of the person. These
rights offer protection from physical violence against the person,
torture and inhuman treatment, arbitrary arrest, detention, exile,
slavery and servitude, interference with one's privacy and right
of ownership, restriction of one's freedom of movement, and the
freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Besides the right to
equal treatment and protection in law certainly qualifies as a civil
right. Moreover, this right plays an essential role in the realization
of economic, social and cultural rights.
Political Rights
In general, political rights are those set out in Articles 19 to
21 in UDHR. They include freedom of expression, freedom of
association and assembly, the right to take part in the government
of one's country and the right to vote and stand for election, etc.
Economic and Social Rights
The economic and social rights are listed in Articles 22 to
26 in UDHR. These rights provide the conditions necessary for
prosperity and well being. Economic rights refer, for example,
to the right to property, the right to work, which one freely chooses
or accepts, the right to a fair wage, a reasonable limitation of
working hours, and trade union rights.
Social rights are those rights necessary for an adequate
standard of living, including rights to health, shelter, food, social
care, and the right to education. Cultural Rights the UDHR lists
cultural rights in Articles 27 and 28: the right to participate freely
in the cultural life of the community, the right to share in scientific
advancement and the right to protection of moral and material

37
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production
of which one is the author.
Fundamental and Basic Rights Fundamental rights are taken
to mean such rights as the right to life and the inviolability of the
person. These include all the rights which concern people's
primary material and non-material needs. If these are not
provided, no human being can lead a dignified existence. Basic
rights include the right to life, the right to a minimum level of
security, the inviolability of the person, freedom from slavery
and servitude, and, freedom from torture, unlawful deprivation
of liberty, discrimination and other acts which impinge on human
dignity. They also include freedom of thought, conscience and
religion, as well as the right to suitable nutrition, clothing, shelter
and medical care, and other essentials crucial to physical and
mental health. Mention should also be made of so-called
'participation rights'; for instance, the right to participate in public
life through elections (which is also a political right; see above)
or to take part in cultural life. These participation rights are
generally considered to belong to the category of fundamental
rights, being essential preconditions for the protection of all kinds
of basic human rights.

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Module II
Modern Concepts of Political Science

Power, Influence, Authority, Legitimacy, Political Culture,

Political Socialisation, Modernisation and Political Development-
Power
Meaning:
The concept of power is the most influential concept in the
whole of political science. Power is the central point around which
every activity revolves. It is power, which vests the state with
order and peace. Recently the idea of power has assumed an
importance of its own in the realm of political theory. The real
meaning of this term has been a matter of controversy on account
of its social, economic, political, psychological and metaphysical
dimensions. The problem of defining the term power arises from
the fact that different writers have taken different views about it.
It should be noted at the outset that there is no unanimity
among the political scientists regarding the definition of power.
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle have admitted the importance of power
in their own way. Hobbes identifies with power some 'future
apparent good'. Laswell likens it with 'influence'. Maoof China
says that 'power flows from the barrel of a gun'. According to
Laswell and Kaplan, "The concept of power is perhaps the
most fundamental in the whole of political science, the political
process in the shaping, distribution and exercise of power". Lord
Acton said, "Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts
absolutely". The word power is used in different senses. Power
is ascribed to different things on different grounds. Power become
interchangeable with several related themes like control, influence,
authority, force, might, persuasion, coercion, domination, etc. It
must be remembered that power is not something absolute. It is
only used in relation to something. Therefore the actual
manifestation of power is in force or we can say that force is
power in action or force is power exercised. The English word

39
power derives from certain Latin and French words which means
'to be able'.
Features of Power.
Power is not absolute but only relative. It is kind of human
relationship. Power can be only felt but not seen. It is not physical
or tangible. It cannot be possessed and measured like a property.
Power also depends on its use. Power is situational, depends on
the situation and status of person. kinds of Power, It is very
difficult to have any scientific classification power because
scholars belonging to different disciplines variedly view the very
concept of power. There are different types of power.
1. Legitimate Power:
When the power is used in accordance with the laws and
rules and by a person who has been authorized to use it and his
commands areobeyed by the people, it is called legitimate power.
Here a person who exercises power derives his authority from
some law of the land. Under this condition any violation is treated
as punishable offence. When power is based not on legitimacy
but has been on the basis of use force and the people obeyed
because of fear it is called illegitimate power.
2. Charismatic Power:
It is linked with personality. There are people who have
such a personality, an attractive way of talking and convincing,
etc. that the people are attracted. Such an attraction can be
because of past or present sacrifices, selfless devotion to a cause,
etc. Again it has no legal authority behind it. Example in India
Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Smt. Indira Gandhi
among others had a charismatic personality.
3. Economic Power
It is a type of power that has its basis or roots in
economic prosperity. It means that power comes to a person or
state because the individual or state has strong economic and
financial backing. In the past feudal system was based purely on
this basis. Likewise economically powerful states today exercise
their power over dependant states because the former can
40
economically help the later by providing foodstuffs, military
equipments, etc.
4. Political Power
It is type of power that has its roots in politics. A person or
a nation remains powerful because it has political strength and
power goes out when that strength disappears. A government in
a democracy remains in authority as long as it enjoys majority
political support. As soon as that political support is withdrawn,
power goes out its hand and the privileges which power brings
with it ceases to exist.
5. Psychological Power
It is a type of power the basis of which are neither economic
nor political strength but tackling the psychology of the
people. Both theindividuals and the states try to psychologically
deal with the people. In psychological power, propaganda has
an important role. In winning elections, candidates try to
psychologically tackle their constituents. Every powerful nation
tries to win the cooperation of other nations byapproaching them
psychologically.
6. Military Power
In our world of today strength and power of a nation is
measured in terms of its military strength and resources. More a
nation is equipped with the latest war equipment more it is feared
and more commanding position it enjoys in world community.
Today every nation is keen to possess nuclear weapons because
these give an edge to the nation over other nations. All military
alliances and pacts are signed by nations in a bid to remain militarily
superior over the opponents.
7. Hegemony
Hegemony is the political, economic, ideological or cultural
power exerted by a dominant group over other groups, regardless
of the explicit consent of the latter. While initially referring to the
political dominance of certain ancient Greek city-states over their
neighbors, the term has come to be used in a variety of other
contexts, in particular Marxist philosopher Antoni Gramsci's
41
theory of cultural hegemony. The term is often mistakenly used
to suggest brute power or dominance, when it is better defined
as emphasizing how control is achieved through consensus not
force. In the early 20th century, Italian political scientist Antonio
Gramsci developed the concept of cultural hegemony by
extending political hegemony beyond international relations to
the structure of social class, arguing that cultural hegemony showed
how a social class exerts cultural "leadership" or dominance
over other classes in maintaining the sociopolitical status quo.
Influence
The term influence is differently understood by the different
people. According to some it is non-coercive sanction behind
power, whereas others regard power just a form of influence
and still others think just otherwise. Influence is persuasive and
one voluntarily submits to it. It does not require any coercive
power and is also not attached to any idea or doctrine. Thus
influence is meant ability to get others act, think or feel, as one
intends. In democracies influence plays a very important role.
For today with its ever-increasing functions the state cannot always
use the physical force over the people. Man voluntarily submits
to influence and power requires submission. Laswell has said
that the study of politics is nothing else but that of influence and
influential. He said that influence is the value position and potential
of a person or group. As regards political influence it is power
sought by politically active persons like legislators, ministers,
political leaders, etc. It is unevenly shared because whereas
vast majority exercises little influence, small minority, which is
called elite, has influence over the whole political system and in
practice controls it. Thus political influence is the suitable outcome
of possession - wealth, health, education, charm and other things
and the skill with which they are made use of. Catlin has said that
influence contributes to building up of a control system and is
distinct from coercion, though it remains on the verge of power.
Authority, leadership, political party, legitimacy are its various
manifestations. There are many sources through which influence
emerges.
42
These being possession of wealth, health, education,
personal charm, etc. but its use need skills. Political sources of
influence are money, food, information, threat of use of force,
alliances, votes, laws, etc. Political influence is sought by politically
active and they use all sort of resources to achieve this. But as
said earlier there is uneven distribution of influence and there are
many reasons for uneven control of political influence.
Power and Influence
Power and influence are very much opposed to each other.
Power is force, based on physical sanctions whereas influence is
non-coercive power, mainly persuasive. Then another difference
between the two is that power is corrective whereas influence is
not.
When power is exercised on a person there is no other
alternative but to comply with it. On the other hand, influence is
psychological, persuasive and voluntary because a person or
group of persons under influence always have alternative while
accepting an alternative compliance. Then another difference is
that power makes a power holder undemocratic and autocratic,
because it is exercised on the person concerned against his
wishes. If power is illegitimate it invites revolt as well. On the
other hand, influence is dependant. Since it is voluntarily accepted
therefore, its legitimacy is implied. Thus, influence as against force
is totally undemocratic. Power is the ability of an individual to
influence other individuals. In this way influence is a relationship.
It is a relationship between individuals or groups that can make
another to act in a way that he/she may not do otherwise. We
can distinguish between power and influence by saying that those
who have got power, they can influence the conduct of others
more easily than those who do not posses any power. It is
admitted on all hands that power and influence are co-related
forms but influence changes as power when sanction is there.
For example: India has no power over the non-aligned countries
but India exercise considerable influence over these countries.

43
Categorization of Influence
Influence can be divided into two categories namely a)
manifest or explicit and b) potential or implicit. Manifest or Explicit
Influence, It is a general type of influence in human relationship
that is quite visible in some cases and can be measured as well.
Whether an influence has succeeded or not depends on the
extent to which the change has come in the attitude of the
party desired to be influenced and what methods were used
for influencing. Then what is to be found out is how reliable is
influence and also how strong and costly it is. The greater the
change, the greater is the influence. An actor who has access to
resources can be said to have potential resources even though
he may not manifest explicit influence. It is this type of influence
that makes many political and non-political events as
unpredictable. It is very controversial in political science because
it is not possible to correctly assess it.
Legitimacy
The term legitimacy is derived from the Latin word 'legitimus'
that means lawful. Though different political systems can acquire
legitimacy, democracies are more in need of it than others.
Legitimacy is concerned not only with the political system but
also with the group that exists in a society. Legitimacy means the
quality of being justified by subordinates that converts the exercise
of political power into rightful authority. It means the capacity to
produce and maintain a belief that the existing political system is
the most appropriate for the society and the people must regard
it as sacred and worthy of respect and obey it unhesitatingly. The
traditional basis of legitimacy rests on an established belief in
the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the status of those
exercising authority under them. The charismatic legitimacy rests
heroism or exemplary character of an individual.
Democracy is often perceived as the most popular form of
government. The most common source of legitimacy of modern
times is the perception that a government is operating under
democratic principles and is subject to the will of the

44
people. This is because democracy is based on the will of
the people. The American political sociologist Lipset says
legitimacy also "involves the capacity of a political system to
engender and maintain the belief that existing political institutions
are the most appropriate and proper ones for the society."
Something becomes legitimate when one approves of it. For
example, an institution is perceived as legitimate, if approval
for that institution is general among those people subject to its
authority. According to John Locke, the British social
contractualist, issues of legitimacy are linked to those of consent.
In the case of laws, legitimacy should be distinguished from legality.
Action can be legal without being legitimate. Action can also be
legitimate without being legal. When sources of legitimacy clash
with one another, constitutional crisis erupts. Democratic states
claim democratic legitimacy on the grounds that they have regular
free and fair contested elections in which political parties
participate without any fear or pressure. However, in most well-
functioning democracies the ruling party is regularly replaced
peacefully without any constitutional change or major upheavals.
A liberal democratic state gains legitimacy also on the following
grounds that a rigid written constitution or well-respected
constitutional conventions which are upheld by the judiciary within
the state is in existence. Popular participation of people in large
numbers takes place in democracy.
Types of Legitimacy
David Easton refers to three types of legitimacy. Ideological
legitimacy, structural legitimacy and personal legitimacy.
Ideological legitimacy is based on the moral convictions about
the validity of the incumbents of authority. Structural legitimacy is
based on an independent belief in the validity of the structure and
norms of the incumbents of the authority. Personal legitimacy is
based on personal quality of incumbents of the authority.
Other types of legitimacies are, charismatic legitimacy,
traditional legitimacy, and rational/legal legitimacy. Charismatic
legitimacy is based on the charisma of the leader,

45
often partly based on the perception that this leader has
certain extra qualities. Example: a religious leader. Traditional
legitimacy is based on traditions e.g., people accept the
government for the simple fact that it has been around for so long
and is based on popular customs and usages. Example: a
monarchy. Rational/legal legitimacy is based on the perception
that a government's powers are derived from a set procedures,
principles, and laws which are often complex and are written
down as part of the constitution. Example: representative
democracy. Another kind of legitimacy is political legitimacy.
Political legitimacy involves constitutionalism or the belief that an
action is legitimate because it follows regular procedures that are
part of the law of the land. This form of legitimacy is related to
democracy as the justification of these constitutional procedures
is agreed to by popular consent.
Authority
An important source of power is authority. Authority is
always legitimate and backed by the power of law and common
consent. Legitimate power or influence is generally called authority.
Authority being legitimate is based on consent and thus commands
more respect than the illegal force. Therefore authority is not
itself power, rather it is the embodiment of reason. The word
authority finds it origin in Latin word 'Anctoriatus', which stands
for reasonableness. It is a position that occurs to a person by
virtue of his role and position he enjoys in an organized social
structure. The term has differently been defined by scholars on
the subject. Mac Iver has defined authority by saying that,
"authority is often defined as being power, the power to command
obedience". Authority in political system however, refers to
power, which is legal, lawful and socially acceptable. It is backed
by law and common consent. It flows from the willingness of
people to accept the exercise of power without direct coercion.
The authority can be easily distinguished from the coercion,
power and force and influence on the basis of legitimacy.

46
Everybody knows that it is the right of the superiors to issue
orders and the obligation of the subordinates to offer willing
obedience. In the political field the authority has to be legitimate
in order to command willing obedience. This is so in a
democracy but not in a military dictatorship. In dictatorship the
military general seizes power by means of force and makes
others obey with the help of physical force. Such as authority is
not legitimate. So any power that is backed by law is authority.
Features of Authority
Authority is related to power. Authority is limited one and
cannot be exercised beyond laws of the land. It is based on
superior reasoning. It is considered as embodiment of reason.
Dominance is part of authority. It should be based on legitimate
power. Forms of Authority Authority is not of one but of several
forms. Max Weber is of the view that whereas earlier authority
was vested in traditional or charismatic personality, now it is
developing on the basis of functions performed by specialized
structures in a rational legal system. He classified authority in the
following way.
1. Traditional Authority
It is a type of authority, which is based on traditions. The
people accept this type of authority because it is believed that it
is being accepted since times past by our elders and ancestors.
2. Charismatic Authority
It is a type of authority, which is linked with personality of
authority holder. This type of authority is accepted because the
person concerned is believed to possess extra-ordinary
qualifications which can be his personal or because of his links
with families or institutions which are known for their devotion,
sincerity, sacrifice, etc.
3. Rational Legal Authority.
The basis of this authority is law. This type of authority is
obeyed because it has legal authority behind it. It must be obeyed
to the extent to which it is legitimate or otherwise the law of the
land will ensure its obedience.
47
4. Political Authority
Political authority is considered important because those
who posses and exercise it have political support at their back.
They are political leaders and have their say in political decision-
making process. But this authority is only temporary. As soon as
one gets weak in political arena his authority also gets weakened.
5. Constitutional Authority
It is an authority because the incumbent has been authorized
by a provision of the constitution to exercise that. In case that
is violated relevant provisions of the constitution can be cited
in support of authority.Example, President of India.
6. Religious Authority
This type of authority holder depends on religious practices
and scriptures, etc. in support of his authority. His followers
accept his authority because they accept the person concerned
is correct and that non-acceptance of authority will be a religious
offence.
7. Force Based Authority
This theory believes that force is the basis of authority and
that might is right. It means that as long as one has force one
enjoys authority and when force is not there, the authority
automatically comes to an end. Such an authority may be legitimate
or illegitimate by which we Mean authority is not based on any
constitution or law but has its basis in extra constitutional or extra
legal means. Political Socialization and Political Culture Political
Development and Political Modernization One of the
remarkable developments in the field of contemporary political
theory should be traced in the fact of its drawing closer to the
disciplinesof Sociology and Psychology. The motivating idea
behind such an endeavor is the realization that the central
concern of politics is the resolution of human conflict.
Each of these concepts is of great concern to the political
scientists though the essence of Political Science is a matter of
opinion.

48
Political Socialization
The term socialization literally means the process for rearing
values. The word is coined by H. H. Hyman and he lays stress
on the perpetuation of political values across generations.
The process of political Socialization operates in a smooth
manner without people being aware of it. The people take the
norms for granted without questioning their legitimacy.
Thus the subject matter of this concept refers to the
process by which people acquire political values not simply
during political participation but also in the period before they
engage in an explicitly political activity. Political Socialization is
the process by which political cultures are maintained and changed.
The aim of this concept is to train or develop theindividuals in a
way that they become well functioning members of a political
community. It refers to the learning process by which norms and
behavior acceptable to a well running political system are
transmitted from one generation to another. It enables the political
system to achieve political stability. It seeks to inculcate values,
norms and orientations in the individuals so that they develop
faith in their political system. Theprocess of political socialization
starts from the time when the child becomes aware of a wide
environment. Family and educational institutions plays their own
role in the process of political socialization. They are called the
agents of political socialization.
Agents of political socialization
1. Family
The family is the first institution that should be described as
child's first window on the world outside. In family child tends to
identify his outlook with that of his parents towards the political
system and its institutions. Most of the individual's political
personality, his tendency to think and act politically in particular
ways has been determined at home, several years before he takes
part in politics as a citizen.

49
2. Educational Institutions
The imparting of education at the schools has its own part
in the process of political socialization. The kind of education
that is given in the schools through their curriculum shapes the
views and behavior of student. The environment of a school
teaches students to behave in a particular way. The behavior of
the elders, teachers, and other extracurricular activities in the
schools leaves its own impression on the minds of the youngsters.
3. Peer Groups.
The process of political socialization faces a cementing effect
whenthe students enter colleges and universities for higher
learning. The organization of debates, symposiums discussions,
competitions and the like not only add to their stock of information
but also make them aware of the ways of life. The working of
student's unions, organizations like NSS, NCC, and other co-
curricular activities helps the students to thus come to engage
our attention. The way student's leaders fight elections and fight
for their rights gives others a sort of training in democracy. The
centers of advanced learning thus produce future leaders of the
nation.
4. Union and Political Party Activities
Every citizen joins some official and non-official groups when
he is an adult. He has some employment and became a member
of the trade unions and associations. These trade unions teach
them how to organize and agitate for the redressal of their
grievances or for meeting their demands. Besides he is also a
member of so many other religious, cultural, social and economic
bodies whose functioning determines his political behavior.
Later some people join political parties whose leaders give
them training in the direction of fighting elections, capturing power,
forming government, staging opposition and the like.
5. Media
Finally we may refer the agents of people's direct contact
with their political system through the means of mass
communication as well as 'symbols' People have their direct
50
contact with their political system through the means of mass
communication as well as symbols. The press, radio and the
television give programmes that add to the political information
of the people. The national flag, national anthem, coronations,
Independence Day and Republic Day parades, processions and
demonstrations, etc. leave certain strong impression on the minds
of the people. Hence it is known as 'fifth estate'
6. Social and Political Institutions
Social and political institutions also play their part in the
process of political socialization. For instance, the role of
religious institutions is a vital factor in determining the political
behavior of the people. Youth movements do play an important
part in the process of national integration particularly in developing
countries.
7. Government
Finally we come to the influence of direct contacts with
the government. Nothing can be as influential in shaping the
attitudes of the individuals as their direct contacts with the
institutions and processes of the government under which they
live and work. No matter how positive the view of government,
which has been created through family and educational
institutions, if a citizen, is ignored by his party or cheated by his
police or denied justice from governmental agencies his views
can be altered. These are the agents or instruments that play
their part in the irresistible, though imperceptible acquisition
of political values by the members of a political community. A
young child not only sees all such activities and events, he also
develops an affective and evaluative orientation towards the
regime.
Political Culture
Political Culture is composed of the set of the 'attitudes,
beliefs and values of society that relates to the political system
and to the political issues'. It means, those values and emotions
that gives meaning to politics. The members of a civil society
share a common human nature like emotional, intellectual
51
capacities and moral perspectives. That common human nature
expresses itself in the form of certain values, beliefs, and emotional
attitudes that can be transmitted from one generation to the other
and constitutes a general culture of a society. The term political
culture has been popularized by American political thinkers like
Ulam, Beer and Almond. This concept is often used to distinguish
one system from the other structurally and culturally. The success
of a political system depends on the people's attitudes, values
and orientations about a particular system. Thus political culture
is one aspect of the general culture that gives order and
meaning to a political process and that provides the underlying
assumptions and rules that govern behaviour in the political
system.
The components of political system are,
1. Cognitive Orientations
In this type of political culture people have knowledge about
their political system consists of political parties, political leaders,
government, interest groups and pressure groups, etc.
They know how the total system is working but doesn't
have any personal attachment.
2. Affective Orientations
Affective political culture implies the feelings of people
towards their political system. People know the functioning of
the system and they express their attachment, involvement,
rejection, etc. to the system.
3. Evaluative Orientations
In this type people are able to judge or evaluate the system
on the basis of their education. Moreover, they freely state their
opinions about the political events, parties, etc. A political culture
whether heterogeneous or homogeneous is a product of several
factors. Moreover, it is not static, it is dynamic and thus responds
to the needs generated within the political system or imported or
imposed from outside.
The determinants of political culture.

52
1. History
The traditions of a country have their own part in the making
of the political culture of a country. For instance, the British
people are conservative; they follow their traditions and believe
in slow and gradual change. As result, older values are
harmonized with modern life style. But different is the case of
France where people are radical. They have changed their
constitutions many times since the revolution of 1789. Besides
the behaviour of the masters has its own impact on the culture of
the slaves. For instance, the people in India learnt from their
British masters the ways of parliamentary democracy.
2. Geography
The geographical make-up of a country also plays a part in
the determination of the political culture. For instance, the insular
character of Britain protected the country from foreign invasions
and also from the massive influx of foreign races that could have
created the problem of ethnic differences. Different from this,
the vast frontiers of a country like India opened ways for the
foreigners to invade and even stay here with the result that we
developed the values of independent egalitarianism in the midst
of sharp ethnic and cultural differences.
3. Socio-economic Development
In socially and economically developed countries the
participation in decision-making process seems to be wider
because, their educational and economic status are high. It is on
account of the immense economic and technological
development of a country like US that the labor class
becomes so powerful to demand their needs. But rural societies
are more conservative because of illiteracy and low pace of
economic development. Their political culture may affective but
not cognitive and evaluative.
Political Development
The concept political development that in a quite large
measure, was offered firstby the statesman and policy-makers
and then scholars of Economics and Sociology. It has an important
53
place in the field of new political theory. Lucian W. Pye is regarded
as the leading light of the batch of writers who have analyzed
the concept in depth. He emphasized that the first step towards
political development was the evolution of the nation-state
system. Usually political development should be taken as a result
of economic development. In other words, changes occurring in
the political system is the result of industrialization, urbanization
and social changes like spread of literacy, expansion of mass
media, etc. In a general sense political development involves
within itself anything like consolidation of the democratic system,
political stability, nation-building and state-building, political
modernization, political change, administrative and legal
development, political mobilization and participation and above
all the multi-dimensional development of the country. Lucian W.
Pye put towards three characteristics of political development.
They are, Characteristics of political development.
1. Equality
It means mass participation or involvement of the people in
politics of the country without discrimination on grounds like,
religion, creed, caste, wealth, sex, etc. No section of people
should be deprived of the right to take active part in the politics
of the country. A popular rule should be established; the laws
should be of a universalistic nature applicable to all and more or
less be impersonal in their operation. It also means that recruitment
to all public offices should reflect standards of performance.
2. Capacity
It refers to the capacity of a political system to convert
'inputs' into 'outputs' or in other words the capacity of the system
in the formulation and execution of laws. It is associated with
governmental performance in assuring welfare of the people. It
is also related to rationality in administration and a secular
orientation towards governmental policies.
3. Differentiation
It implies diffusion and specialization of structures and its
functions. Diffusion and specialization means each organ of the
54
government is entirely separated from the other and is specialized
in its own functions. They perform their assigned functions without
duplication. For instance judiciary is entirely separated from
executive and legislative branches and it has the function of
adjudication of laws. But it does not mean that each one is
isolated in their sphere; integration and coordination are part
and parcel of differentiation. The concept of political development
may be understood easily if we associate it with the development
of Anglo-American democratic system. Therefore it suggests the
establishment and consolidation of the democratic system as
growing participation of the people in the political process of the
country, rule of law, independence of judiciary and press, free
and fair elections, political stability, peaceful change and the like.
Political Crises Faced by Political Development The idea
of political development desires solution of the great crises or
problems that a nation-state faces. If a state is caught in a situation
of crisis, it seeks to overcome it. In case it gets success, it
makes up its development, in case the political system fails to
solve the problems it breakdowns.
Almond and Powell categorize certain problems in this
regard. They are,
1. Problem of State Building
This problem arises when there is a serious threat
coming from the domestic or international surroundings so
that the very issue of the survival of the state comes onto
forefront. E.g. war or internal problemslike civil war. Thus the
whole idea of state-building territorial integration of the country
is important. It means the state should be able to maintain itself
and its institutions in the face of the challenges threatening its
very existence.
2. Problem of Nation Building
It refers to the process whereby people transfer their
commitments and loyalty from smaller tries, villages or petty
principalities to the central political system. In simple terms, it
signifies the realization of the ideal of national integration.
55
3. Problem of Participation
There is large number of political parties and pressure groups
that ensure the participation of people in the decision-making
process. They agitate for this purpose and use constitutional,
extra-constitutional and even unconstitutional or illegal means to
this end. Sometimes their methods evokes serious problems in
the society that may affect negatively affect the participation of
the people.
4. Problem of Distribution
A problem arises as how national wealth should be
distributed or opportunities be given to all without any
discrimination on some ground. Talent should be reorganized and
merit should be the deciding factor in the midst of equal
opportunities for all. It is therefore, necessary that ultimately any
useful theory of political development must come to grips with
the types of problems that may be included under the category
of crisis.
Political Modernization
Political modernization refers to the change in political culture
and political institutions as a result of the process of modernization.
This term stands for the transformation of the political culture in
response to the changes in social and physical environments.
Simply it implies the existence of a traditional order that is to be
changed for the better. That is, it is the effect of the new on the
old, not the total eradication of the old, and its substitution by the
new as is covered under the rubric of political development. In
other words, the concept of political modernization refers to the
case of political transformation as occurred in European countries
in particular in the early modern period and reappeared in other
courtiers of the world in recent times. Modernization is a multi-
faceted process and it involves economical changes like
industrialization, urbanization etc. and social changes like
education, improvement in health and sanitation, etc. Thus political
modernization is a concept having several dimensions as,

56
1. At the psychological level it involves a change in the norms,
values, attitudes and orientations of the people;
2. At the intellectual level, it involves an expansion of man's
knowledge about his environment and diffusion of knowledge
throughout society;
3. At the demographical level, it implies improvements in the
standard ofliving and progress towards the mobility of people
and urbanization;
4. At the social level, it has a tendency to replace the focus of
individual's loyalty from family to organization and then to
nation.
5. At the economic level, it involves the growth of market,
agriculture, improvement in commerce at the expense of
agriculture, development of industrialization and widening
of the economic activity. In this way, modernization is
defined as a in the direction of industrialization and material
advancement, changes in the content of the political systems
and also changes in the social and psychological
comprehensive phenomenon which "brings about radical
changes in the field of economic development, mainly
spheres of life". Thus political modernization viewed in
terms of social mobilization can be categorized into three.
They are,
1. Primitive and Backward Systems
It includes highly backward social and political systems of
the world like Bhutan and Nepal where traditional responses,
customs and rituals still carry the authority with them. Authority
remains where it has been for centuries and no serious effort is
made in the direction of political mobilization, socialization and
recruitment.
2. Developing Systems
The countries coming in this category are mainly colonial
countries like Indian and Pakistan that shows a dichotomy of
tradition and modernity in its culture. Their masters may impose
the modernity over their old social and political structures. The
57
result after independence is a complex mixture of the modern
institutions and traditional cultures.
3. Western or Developed Systems
This category in includes those countries like USA, Britain,
France, etc. where the people are affluent and highly educated,
the country is well urbanized and industrialized, and their decision-
makers are elected by the people and answerable to them. Yet
the concept of political modernization may be subjected to the
same line of criticism, that is, levels against the concept of
political development. In both of these concepts there is an
attempt to drawn political science into the ocean of some other
discipline like economics andsociology. Instead of keeping
political science as an independent discipline, it is reduced to the
status of a dependent subject.

58
Module III
Democracy

Meaning and definition-types of democracy-conditions

necessary for the working of democracy-Direct Democracy-
Devices-Indirect Democracy-Liberal, Gandhian and Marxian
views
Democracy
Democracy is a form of government in which all people
have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally,
this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in
the proposal, development andpassage of legislation into law.
It can also encompass social, economic and cultural conditions
that enable the free and equal practice of political
selfdetermination. The term comes from the Greek:(d?mokratía)
"rule of the people", which was coined from (dêmos) "people"
and (Kratos) "power", in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC
to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-
states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC.
Definitions of Democracy
According to the Greeks, Democracy is the Government in
which people rule over themselves. Aristotle considered it as a
perverted form of government. Herodotus says, it is a form of
government in which the ruling power of the state is largely vested
in the members of the community as a whole. According to
President Abraham Lincoln, it is a government of the people,
by the people and for the people. According to Bryce, Democracy
is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state
is legally vested, not in any particular class or classes but in the
members of the community as a whole. Prof.Seeley says,
Democracy is a form of government in which everybody has
a share. According to Dicey, Democracy is a form of government
in which the governing body is comparatively large fraction of
the entire nation All these definitions refer to a relationship
between the people and the government. This relationship keeps
59
people above the government and projects people as the real
source of power. In short, democracy implies that form of
government in which the sovereign power of the state isvested in
the people as a whole and the government derives its ultimate
authority from them. People are the ultimate source of the state
power and they take part in the government directly or through
their representatives so that public policy is made to conform to
the will of the people in order to achieve the common welfare of
the people.
Democracyis considered by the larger majority of the people
around the world as a superior form of government compared to
other forms in the modern times. It may be noted here that
democracy is based on freedom, equality and social justice. The
citizens in a democracy enjoy certain basic civil, political and
legal rights and freedoms. At the same time, a democratic
government must create equal opportunities for all in the socio-
economic spheres. In other words, there should prevail social
justice in a democracy whereby the vast inequalities of wealth
are eliminated and distribution of wealth takes place in an equitable
manner. In this context, democracy has been defined as a society
based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than
hierarchy and privilege. It has also been described as a system
of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequalities.
Kinds of Democracy
As a form of government, there are two types of democracy-
1. Pure or Direct Democracy
2. Indirect or Representative Democracy Pure or Direct
Democracy:
The type of government in which the common citizens
themselves directly exercise their control over the government
and take decisions on public affairs is called pure or direct
democracy. Garner defines direct democracy as "a form of
government in which the will of the state is directly or immediately
expressed through the people." All the people assemble together
in a mass meeting as often as required, wherein they directly
take decisions on issues of governance and formulate laws
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regarding the same. The type of democracy which prevailed in
the Greek city-states was pure or direct democracy. All the
freemen met together in general assemblies, passed laws and
executed them, received ambassadors and acted as jurymen.
This type of democracy was revived in the medieval times by
Italian city-states. In the modern world, the system of direct
democracy is noticed in Switzerland in the form of the
landsgemeinde or popular legislature that prevails in four
Cantons of the country, viz., Appenzell, Uri, Unterwalden and
Glarus. On a Sunday, in April or May, the adult male citizens in
the Canton assemble to consider in full open-air meetings the
governmental affairs of the Canton. At such meetings, new laws
are agreed upon and old laws changed, taxes levied, budgets
adopted and officials chosen.
The modern direct democracy is practiced through different
means. Referendum is one of those means. Referendum is a vote
through which the electorate can express a view on a particular
issue of public policy. Switzerland still exercises popular control
over the government through referendum.
DIRECT DEMOCRATIC DEVICES
In the modern world, the devices of Direct Democracy are
four in number:
i. Initiative: A specific number of voters may draft a bill and
send it to the government for its adoption by parliament.
Here the people initiate the legislation of a particular bill.
ii. Referendum: It is a direct vote in which an entire electorate
is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal.
This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a
constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected
official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form
of direct democracy. There are two types of referendum
result
Mandatory - meaning the government must do what the
result says

61
Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the
government make the final choice. It usually depends on
the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum
is used. In Switzerland, referenda are usually mandatory,
because the people are seen as the source of the
government's mandate (power) to govern. In the United
Kingdom, referenda have only been advisory, because the
government says that the people elected parliament to make
decisions.
iii. Recall: The voters may bring back or recall a representative
chosen by them in case they are dissatisfied with him.
Perhaps amongst the most controversial form of popular
democracy is the recall. The recall is a process by which
the people seek to remove an elected official from office.
iv. Plebiscite: It means a problem of great public importance
may be referred to the people and the problem is solved as
per the decision of the majority of the people revealed in
the plebiscite.
Indirect or Representative Democracy:
Pure or direct democracy can exist and function only in
small states with a limited, homogeneous population where people
can conveniently meet and deliberate together. In large and
complex societies, when the number of people is too large and
the area of the state is too extensive, direct democracy is
impracticable. So, what has developed as an alternative to it is
representative or indirect democracy. Under representative or
indirect democracy people elect their representatives to rule who
take decisions on their behalf.
Accordingly, the prevailing system of democracy in most
countries is indirect or representative democracy. In other
words, the responsibility of taking decisions on public affairs
and issues of governance and administration as well as of
formulating laws towards that end rests with not with the
people themselves but with their representatives. The
representatives are periodically elected by the people. For this
62
purpose elections take place in democracies at certain
intervals. In the UK and India, General Elections take place
after every five years and in USA after four years in order to
elect the representatives. In both the UK and India, the
representatives are designated as Members of Parliament. John
Stuart Mill defines indirect or representative democracy as one
in which "the whole people or some numerous portion of them,
exercise the governing power through deputies periodically
elected by themselves."
To illustrate the case of indirect democracy let us take
India as an example. India is country with more than 115 crore
population today. India is also a diverse country in terms of culture,
language, region, religion etc. Such a huge and diverse country
cannot be ruled directly by the people themselves. Therefore,
India has developed a representational system of government at
various levels. All of you are aware of the fact that Indian
constitution provides for a parliamentary form of government.
Under aparliamentary form of government, people do not directly
elect the government. Rather, they elect their representatives to
the Parliament and the government is formed from within the
representatives. India has a Parliament at the Union level;
Assembly at the State level and Panchayats at the grassroots.
People elect their representatives to all these institutions at various
levels to make laws on their behalf. To execute the laws enacted,
we have the Union government, State governments and the
Panchayats. People elect their representatives to these institutions
for a definite period i.e. for five years and re-elect or reject them
after five years depending on the performance of the
representatives.
Liberal view
Liberal democracy, also known as constitutional
democracy, is a common form of representative democracy.
According to the principles of liberal democracy, elections should
be free and fair, and the political process should be competitive.
Political pluralism is usually defined as thepresence of multiple

63
and distinct political parties. The Liberal democracies usually have
universal suffrage, granting all adult citizens the right to vote
regardless of race, gender or property ownership. Historically,
however, some countries regarded as liberal democracies
have had a more limited franchise, and some do not have secret
ballots.There may also be qualifications such as voters being
required to register before being allowed to vote. The decisions
made through elections are made not by all of the citizens, but
rather by those who choose to participate by voting. The
liberal democratic constitution defines the democratic character
of the state. The purpose of a constitution is often seen as a limit
on the authority of the government. The Anglo-
American political tradition emphasises the separation of
powers, an independent judiciary, and a system of checks and
balances between branches of government. Many European
democracies are more likely to emphasise the importance of the
state follows the principle of rule of law. Governmental authority
is legitimately exercised only in accordance with written, publicly
disclosed laws adopted and enforced in accordance with
established procedure. Many democracies use federalism-also
known as vertical separation of powers-in order to prevent abuse
and increase public input by dividing governing powers between
municipal, provincial and national governments.
Liberalism supported the ideas of liberal democracy. Its
chief features are
1. It enshrines supremacy of the people;
2. It takes individual as the basic unit of democratic model,
assuming that he is rational, ethical, active and self-interested;
3. It hated the tyranny of monarchies and aristocracies;
4. It advocated representative government with elected
leadership;
5. More than one political party freely competing for political
power;
6. Periodic election based on universal adult franchise;
7. Protection of civil liberties;
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8. Independence of the judiciary.
Criticism
In spite of being a comprehensive theory of democracy, it
has been vehemently criticized on following grounds
1. It ignores the role of organized groups, leaders or
emotions in political affairs.
2. Public opinion as the basis of government is a democratic
myth.
3. Democracy becomes a competition among the elite rather
than the masses with the advent of the party system.
4. It is based on political equality and economic inequality.
5. According to Marxists, liberal democracies exclusively
serve bourgeois interests. It tries to perpetuate the economic
division of society.
Gandhian View on Democracy
Gandhiji's ideal society was based on democracy without
state. It is an enlightened anarchy in which social life is based not
on external but on internal, that is moral restrain.
In such a society there is no relationship of command and
obedience, superior or inferior. Everybody rules over himself
and regulates his own action in the interests of the society
because he is a social animal. Gandhiji did not make any direct
suggestion as to the nature of the state. He was a philosophical
anarchist and he rejects the state outright and in any of its form.
He regarded the state as an instrument on coercion and
compulsion which goes against the free moral development of
the individual. The state represents violence in a concentrated
and organized form. Since state cannot be completely done away
with, it therefore should continue to perform only negative
functions. So, in fact, Ghandhiji wanted a non-violent state.
Gandhiji's concept of state and democracy is based on truth,
non-violence, Trusteeship and decentralization. He believed that
in a stateless society there will be proper adjustment between
law, freedom and social restraint on the basis of dharma. He felt
that dislocation came only because state wanted to use violent
65
means which were not acceptable to the people and that this
dislocation could be properly adjusted by means of dharma.
Gandhiji wanted to transform the system of capitalism and put
an end to its vicious effect on social order. He therefore preached
his doctrine of trusteeship. Trusteeship provide a means of
transforming the present capitalist order of the society into a
classless one, but gives the present owning class a chance of
reforming itself. It aims at transforming the character of the rich.
Thus he aimed at class collaboration and class coordination as
the firm step towards the classless democracy. Gandhiji perhaps
comes closest to democracy of a liberal kind in as much as it
believes in political freedom, equality before law, freedom of
assembly, and free election. But it will not be possible to identify
him completely with it because he envisaged a classless
democracy. Gandhiji went beyond the traditional liberal
democracy in three majorrespects. Firstly, liberal democracy
gives greater emphasis on the structure of political machinery.
So it is conservative. But Gandhian method is based on action
and change. So it is revolutionary.
Secondly Compromise plays an important role in liberal
democracy and it is an essential method of resolving all the
differences in the political system. With the sole objective of
remaining in power or maintaining political stability, liberal
democracy keeps on sacrificing the essential principles too.
Gandhiji believed in compromise, but made a distinction between
nonessentials and essentials. A satyagrahi is not prepared to
yield on any position which he holds to be true. There is no
compromise about basic principles.
Most of all, Gandhian state is based on Gram Swaraj, a
ruling system depends on decentralization, cottage industry and
self- sufficient village economy.
Marxian view
The Marxist view is fundamentally opposed to liberal
democracy believing that the capitalist state cannot be democratic
by its nature, as it represents the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.

66
Marxism views liberal democracy as an unrealistic utopia. This
is because they believe that in a capitalist state all "independent"
media and most political parties are controlled by capitalists
and one either needs large financial resources or to be supported
by the bourgeoisie to win an election. Lenin (1917) believed
that in a capitalist state, the system focuses on resolving disputes
within the ruling bourgeoisie class and ignores the interests
of the proletariat or labour class which are not represented
and therefore dependent on the bourgeoisie's good will.
"Democracy for an insignificant minority, democracy for the rich
- that is the democracy of capitalist society.
If we look more closely into the machinery of capitalist
democracy, we see everywhere, in the "petty" - supposedly
petty - details of the suffrage (residential qualifications, exclusion
of women, etc.), in the technique of the representative
institutions, in the actual obstacles to the right of assembly
(public buildings are not for "paupers"!), in the purely capitalist
organization of the daily press, etc., - we see restriction after
restriction upon democracy. These restrictions, exceptions,
exclusions, obstacles for the poor seem slight, especially in the
eyes of one who has never known want himself and has never
been in close contact with the oppressed classes in their mass
life (and nine out of 10, if not 99 out of 100, bourgeois
publicists and politicians come under this category); but in
their sum total these restrictions exclude and squeeze out the
poor from politics, from active participation in democracy."
(Lenin, State and Revolution, Chapter 5)
Main points.
1. It associated democracy with establishment of a socialist
society, and its destruction as a form of state in the higher
stage of communism.
2. Socialist democracy is the highest form of democracy
because it is genuine democracy for the majority of the
people.
3. Liberal democracy exclusively serves the interests of the
bourgeoisie.
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4. Liberal democracy tries to perpetuate the economic
division of society Conditions necessary for the working
of democracy Democracy can be made a model form of
government, if the following conditions are fulfilled:
An important condition for the success of democracy is
universal education. The citizens can develop necessary qualities
and become aware of their rights and duties only when they are
properly educated.
Political Consciousness: It is essential to inculcate political
consciousness among the citizens to make democracy effective.
Citizens must keep an eye on the government so that it does
not grow authoritarian. The presence of a strong public opinion:
An important condition of democracy is the existence of a free,
fearless and unfettered press, which vigilantly guards democracy.
Rights and freedom: In a democracy, the citizens must
be able to enjoy basic civil rights and freedom so that can
express and develop their personality. In a democracy people
are given fundamental rights because in the absence of these rights
the development of an individual is not possible. Fundamental
rights have been granted to the people in their constitutions in
India, Japan, USA, France and Italy.
Equality: To make democracy successful, all kinds of
social, economic and political inequalities must be removed. The
people must be democratic-minded. On the political side, a
democratic government ensures equality of men by giving every
citizen the right to cast only one vote irrespective of status.
Similarly, in the social and economic spheres too, a democratic
government must create equal opportunities for all. In a
democracy there can be no place for any discrimination based
on caste, class, birth, religion or wealth. In other words, there
should be social justice in a democracy.
However, in order that there is real social justice in a
democracy, a democratic state must try to eliminate vast
inequalities of wealth and ensure equitable distribution of wealth.
A democracy also depends on good leadership. Effective
leadership is a must if democracy has to be successful.
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Written Constitution and Independence of
Judiciary: Where there is no written constitution, the
government can extend and exercise its powers in an autocratic
manner In a democracy, the constitution guarantees basic
rights and freedoms to the citizens. In a democracy, it is the
responsibility of the judiciary to protect the fundamental rights of
the people and stand as the guardian of the constitution. .In
order that the judiciary is able to do that, it must be independent
of any political influence. Accordingly, Independence of
Judiciary is another pre-condition for the success of democracy.
In our country, the Supreme Court and the High Court's
protect the Constitution and the fundamental rights of the people.
Law and order: The maintenance of law and order in
society by the government is an essential condition for the success
of democracy. Spirit of Co-operation.A democracy can flourish
only if there is no big gap between the thinking of the people and
of the government and when there is a spirit of co-operation
between them. Decentralization and Local Self-Government. The
concentration of power makes the government autocratic.
The division of power between the Center and the
provinces bring efficiency in administration. With the introduction
of local self- government, people take interest in administration
and they give full support to the government. Periodic
election. Independent, impartial and periodical elections help in
establishing faith of the people and opposition in democracy.
In the absence of free election, the opposition parties shall try
to change the government through undemocratic ways.
Sound Party System: Constructive criticism has an important
role in democracy. For this reason, many parties crop up in
democratic set up. In the countries where there is only one party,
and where other parties are banned, only dictatorship will
developed there.
Criticism of democracy
Economists since Milton Friedman have strongly criticized
the idea of democracy. They base this on their premise of the
69
irrational voter. Their argument is that voters are highly uninformed
about many political issues, especially relating to economics, and
have a strong bias about the few issues on which they are fairly
knowledgeable. The 20th Century Italian thinkers Vilfredo Pareto
and Gaetano Mosca (independently) argued that democracy was
illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed,
they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human
nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as
opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that
democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise
of power from oppression to manipulation. Mob rule. Plato's
The Republic presents a critical view of democracy through
the narration of Socrates:
"Democracy, which is a charming form of government, full
of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to
equals and unequaled alike."In his work, Plato lists 5 forms of
government from best to worst. Assuming that the Republic was
intended to be a serious critique of the political thought in Athens,
Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the
unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men) is a just form of
government.
Political instability.More recently, democracy is criticised
for not offering enough political stability. As governments are
frequently elected on and off there tends to be frequent changes
in the policies of democratic countries both domestically and
internationally. Even if a political party maintains power,
vociferous, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism
from the mass media are often enough to force sudden,
unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard
to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so
hinder economic growth. For this reason, many people have put
forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing
country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty
are top priority.

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MODULE IV
POLITICAL PARTIES

A) Party Systems : An Overview.

Modern representative democracy has brought about
Party System as an indispensable factor in every political society.
It is now generally agreed that representative government cannot
work without political parties. Still, surprisingly enough, the
phenomenon of party system was almost unknown hundred and
fifty years ago. To the founding fathers of the United States of
America the influence of parties was bad. They considered the
whole people as one unit. Only in formal democracy parties
attain significance. Briefly speaking, with the extension of franchise
to the mass of citizens, the struggle for political power is
institutionalized in the operation of political parties. A political
party may be defined as an organized group of citizens who
prefers to share the same political ideas and who by acting as a
unit try to secure the control of a government.
According to R.G. Gettell, "A political party is a group of
citizens more or less organized, who act as a political unit, and
who by the use of their voting power aims to control the
government and carry out their general policies". In the opinion
of MacIver, "A political party is an association of organized people
in support of some principle or policy which by constitutional
means endeavors to make the determinant of government". Thus,
it is evident that four elements are necessary to constitute a political
party. First, the people should be organized, secondly, there
should be similarity of principles. Thirdly, the aim of political
party should be to attain political power. Fourthly, a political
party should use peaceful means for attaining political power.
On the basis of the existence of number of political parties, the
party system may be classified into various types. There are one
party system, tow party system and multiparty system, within
each of these categories, however there may be further variations.

71
If there is only one party functioning within a political system that
may be called one party system. For ex:
People's Republic of China. This kind of party system is
also known as authoritarian or totalitarian one party system
because such a system represents a single, monolithic,
ideologically oriented party. There may be pluralistic one party
system which is characterized by a single party that is
pluralistic in organization and less ideological in outlook. There
may also be the totalitarian one party system, such as the National
Socialist Party of Hitler. Two party system may be classified into
distinct and indistinct two party system. In distinct two party
system, parties are more centralized and ideologially based, ex:
British and Australian party system. In distinct two party system,
parties are less ideologically organized, ex: United States.
Multiparty system may be classified into working multi-party
system and unstable multi-party system. For example Kerala
and India at present.
Sometimes, within the framework of a multiparty system,
there emerges what is known as one party dominant system.
For ex: the erstwhile Congress system in India.
Political parties perform a wide range of functions and the
most important among them is interest aggregation. Political
parties harmonises various interests with each other.
Another important function of the party is to ensure two
way communication process between government and the people.
It is mainly through the parties that the government is constantly
kept informed about the general demands of society, about the
interests and attitudes of the people in relation to the governing
process. Parties educate and instruct the people on public issues.
Political recruitment is another important function of a political
party. In a democracy political elites are recruited mainly through
political parties. Political socialization is another function
performed by political parties. It is an instrument of ensuring
political involvement of the people in a country. The role of
politicalparties in relation to the legislative organ is very much

72
important in democracies. The Opposition acts as a check on
the tyranny of the party in power and the ill considered legislation.
Through the opposition the government also feels the pulse of
the people regarding bills introduced in legislatures. Finally, in
parliamentary government, the political parties help close co-
operation between the executive and the legislature as the same
party controls both of them.Role of Interest Groups and Pressure
Groups.
A group formed with certain specific interest or interests is
called an interest group. A political party is a coalition of group
interest pursuing general political policies. Interest groups exists
for the realization of certain specific ends. For example, interest
groups of businessmen, labourers, teachers, students etc. For
achieving their interests interest groups engage in picketing strike
etc. Interest groups may be classified into many. There are
anomic interest groups, in which individual self-representation
takes place. These kind of groups are marked by limited
organization and lack of constant activity on behalf of the group.
Another type of interest groups is called nonassociational interest
groups with ethnic and regional status. Institutional interest group
is another variety of interest groups.
They are found within such organizations as political parties,
bureaucracies, churches etc. The important function of an interest
group is interest articulation. There are many techniques of
articulating demands by the interest groups. Physical
demonstrations and violence is one of the means of articulating
demands. Personal connection constitutes a second important
means of access to political elites. Elite representation on behalf
of an interest group constitutes a channel of access which can be
utilized with great effect by some interests. It may take the form
of the presence of a group member in the rule making structure
or sympathetic representation by an independent elite. Pressure
groups do not nurse the constituencies for competing polls. Their
sole concern is to influence government in order to obtain laws
compatible with their own special interests. Pressure groups

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are organizations interested primarily in policy and they do
not ordinarily undertake to nominate candidates. According to
H. Zeiger, a pressure group is "an organized aggregate which
seeks to influence the context of governmental decisions without
attempting to place its members in formal governmental
capacities". In several countries there is a close relationship
between pressure groups and political parties. In recent years,
the relations between pressure groups and government have
been institutionalized. In U.K., for instance, there are advisory
committees which contain group representatives. In modern
political systems, pressure politics has become a subject of serious
study because interest groups like business organizations, labour
organizations, farmers groups, religious and communal groups
and professional bodies actively engage in interest articulation.
However, the critics of interest group phenomenon points
out that as the various interest groups seek to arrogate to
themselves power without corresponding responsibility, they
seem to be a menace to representative government. For they
undermine the basic assumption of democracy viz., common
interest and general welfare.
Public Opinion and Mass Media.
The concept of public opinion came to lime light in the wake
of democracy. Public opinion is the ruling force and the pulse of
the people who are sovereign in a democracy. It is one of the
most powerful institutions which can make and unmake
governments. An alert and intelligent public opinion is absolutely
necessary for the successful working of democracy. It was
Rousseau who first used the phrase public opinion on the eve of
French revolution.
Public opinion is the opinion of the people in general on the
question of general good or general welfare. It is the opinion
involving matters of common interests to a community like
national integration, foreign policy, nationalization etc. The theory
of public opinion is

74
thus a derivative from democracy as a form of government.
The broad assumption on
which the theory is built are:
(i) that public is interested in government;
(ii) that the public knows what is wants;
(iii) that the public has the ability to express what it wants;
(iv) that public's will would be enacted into law.
Public opinion may also be defined as the social judgement
reached upon a question of public importance after national
thinking. In the field of political dynamics, it is intended to produce
a concrete governmental policy. Hence, as Finer observes
"politics is most concerned with public opinion as will - which
typically eventuates in a state in administration". In modern
democratic states, many agencies help to mould public opinion
Nature of Public Opinion
Public opinion is an opinion of right minded citizens. It is the
opinion which in actual practice has became the opinion of the
majority and that too of powerful groups which dominate the
society. Though it may be the opinion of the right minded persons
yet in every society there are people who oppose it, though their
opposition does not change that. As already said it is not
necessarily majority opinion though in democracy political party
which forms the government claims to represent public opinion.
Agencies of the Public opinion:
(i) The Press: Press is an important agency of creating public
opinion. News papers in particular and the press in general
are very effective in the formulation of public opinion. Besides
publishing news, it expresses views and supplies arguments
for and against all important problems. The economic, social
and cultural questions can be well discussed through news
papers. Speeches from the party leaders, debates in the
legislature and public meetings are reproduced in the press.
The newspapers ventilate public grievances and try to voice
the feeling and views of the people. Thus it is generally

75
agreed that free and impartial press is indispensable to
the success of democracy
(ii) The Platform: Platform speeches are very useful means
for educating the people and formulating public opinion. One
the eve of election public platforms are fully exploited. Public
speakers represent different views and analyse and discuss
problems from different angles.
(iii) Educational Institutions: Educational institutions like
schools, colleges and universities also play an important role
in the formulation of public opinion. Many of the current
problems are discussed in educational institutions and thus,
education widens outlook and develops critical judgement.
Educational institutions inculcate civic virtues to the citizens
of tomorrow.
(iv) Radio, Television, Cinema: These are also agencies of
public opinion. Radio, Television and Cinema can influence
even the illiterate masses and enlighten them about the socio-
political affairs. This will help the ordinary masses to formulate
their own opinion about nation building.
(v) Political Parties: The most important agency for the
formation of public opinion is political parties. Lowell
describes parties as "brokers of ideas". They educate the
people on political affairs and socio-economic problems.
They conduct election campaigns, organize public meetings
and distribute printed literature to formulate public in support
of their policies.
(vi) Legislature: Legislature consists of representatives of
various interests of the people. The debates and discussions
in the legislature have immense educational value and
can help in developing public opinion. Apart from these
agencies various associations and interest groups also seek
to influence public opinion in their favour. These are several
factors which hinder the creation of sound public opinion.
Some such factors are dishonest press, superstition and
religious conservatism, sectarian and communal outlook,
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absence of civil liberties, lack of education and political
indifference. It is highly necessary to remove these factors
for the formation of sound and healthy public opinion.
(vii). Family and School: Family is the first centre where public
opinion is formed. It is the family that the individual develops
habits, likes and dislikes. It is with the manifestation of
all these habits emerges in the society and learn to
cooperate and non-cooperate with others. It is there he
expresses his opinions which ultimately become the part of
public opinion. Similarly in school the character and the
habits of his teachers and classmates are of much
importance. The type of education which he gets lasts with
him throughout his life. It will reflect on his opinion regarding
public issues.
(viii) . Political Literature: The leaders of political parties,
editors, professors and other educated persons write and
publish many type of political books every day. The
peopleread this books and their views are moulded
accordingly. Most of the people have no firm thinking of
their own, and they are easily swayed by the views expressed
in these books.
(ix). Religious Associations: Religion has a great impact on our
politics. If religion means morality, its effect shall be useful,
but many a time, certain political parties use religious
places for political propaganda. It has an adverse
effect on politics, because religious places become a
forum for propaganda by selfish leaders and their sanctity
is destroyed. The task of formation of public opinion is very
difficult and as such each political party, economic, religious
and social group make every effort to ensure that once a
favorable public opinion is created that should not in anyway
become unfavorable.
Importance of Public Opinion.
Public opinion occupies an important place in democracy.
The democratic government derives its power from the public
77
opinion and is based on it. Each government tries to keep the
public opinion in its favour and it should not go against it at any
cost. The ministers are very much afraid of the criticism voiced in
the press. The electorate elects a government for a fixed tenure
periodically. After the election, the government cannot become
despotic because of the public opinion. The government which
violates the public opinion cannot stay long. The opposition parties
create public opinion in their favour by criticizing the government.
The voice of the people is the voice of the god. Thus the
government which ignores public opinion is bound to meet its
doom very soon. Public opinion is considered as the best
protector of the fundamental rights of the people. In countries
where public opinion is not awakened, the government becomes
absolute. It is therefore, collectively said that "An alert and
enlightened public opinion is the first essential of democracy".
Even in dictatorship, government tries to create public opinion in
its favour and for this purpose it controls the means which create
it. Not only this but as we know that, even in a democracy only
such laws get easily implemented which have the support of the
public that are based on sound public opinion.
The Other View
These days the other view about the importance of public
opinion is being propagated.
Walter Lippman in his book 'Public opinion' wrote, "Public
opinion cannot be regarded as an Omni-competent and
omniscient collectivity equipped to decide the affairs of the state."
According to him, an average person has neither time, talent nor
taste for including in any debate over mighty matters concerning
state. They cannot collect adequate information on every issue
and most of them are incapable of taking initiative on public
matters. The supporters of this view point also say that because
of media explosion, the people are being manipulated by mass
communication media like radio, TV and newspapers. They
therefore, argue that concept of public opinion as influential giant
has been replaced by opinion manipulators and consent makers.

78
Though the views expressed above are true to some extent and
it is equally true that because of extended activities of the
government and technical nature of work, an average citizen gets
confused. The public too is always not provided with full
information yet it cannot be denied that policy innovations are
inversely connected with mass sentiments. Even anauthoritarian
government consults public opinion and tries to maintain an
equation between the government and the public through the
process of adaption and adjustment.

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Module V
Globalization

Globalisation is the emergence of a complex

interconnectedness that means that our lives are increasingly
shaped by events that occur, and decision that are made, at a
great distance from us. The central feature of globalisation is
therefore that geographical distance is of declining relevance and
that territorial boundaries, such as those between the nation states,
are becoming less significant. By no means, however, does
globalisation imply that the local and the national are subordinate
to the global. Rather, it highlights the deepening as well as
broadening of the political process in the sense that local, national,
and global events constantly interact each other.
Scholars like Antony Gidden, a British Sociologist, conceive
globalization as "the intensification of worldwide social relation
which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings
are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa".
Robert Cox an American Political Scientist visualizes globalization
from a different perspective. For him the characteristics of
globalization trend include the internationalizing of production,
the international division of labor, new migratory movements, from
south to north, the new competitive environment that accelerate
these processes, and internationalizing of state, making states
into agencies of the globalizing world.
The term globalisation is used to draw attention to a set of
complex and multi- faceted changes that started to take place in
the second half of the twentieth century. In the first place, global
interdependence was one of the results of the superpower rivalry
that characterized the Cold War period. The capabilities and
resources of the post -1945 superpowers (the USA and USSR)
were so over whelming that they were able to extend their
influence into virtually every region of the world. Second, the
spread of international trade and transnational character of
modern business organization brought a global economy into
80
existence. In particular, the collapse of communism gave impetus
to the emergence of global capitalist system. Third, globalization
has been fueled by technological innovations. This has affected
almost every realm of existence, ranging from the development
of nuclear weapons and emergence of global pollution problems
such as acid rain and ozone depletion to the introduction of
international telephone links, satellite television and the internet.
Fourth, globalisation has an important politico ideological
dimension. One aspect of this has been the spread of Western
liberal political values sometimes portrayed as the word wide
triumph of liberal democracy, but it is also linked to the growth
of Islam as a transnational political creed and to burgeoning
interest in green ideas and philosophies.
Features of globalization
Globalisation is marked by privatization, liberalization, free
trade, deregulation of tariff barriers, internationalization of national
economies, global movement of capital, information and
technology, increased activities of economic and political
globalization and rapid growth in globalized social movements.
Most importantly, globalisation has come to signify
'deterritorialization' and geography is becoming less relavant to
how people live in contact. Globlisation is characterised by
increasing flow of trade, capital and information, as well as mobility
of individual across borders. Therfore globalisation signifies:
1. Opening up national economies to foreign capital, foreign
direct investment and foreign technologies.
2. Efforts of integrating national economies with the global
economy.
3. Free trade, meaning free flow of trade and removal of tariff
and trade barriers, protective regimes including granting of
Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status.
4. Privatization is the key to liberalization which means less
and less control of state over ownership of means of
production and distribution.

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5. Increased proliferation of agents of globalization in the form
of multinational corporations and international institutions
such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and others.
6. Information and technological revolution, bringing about a
sea- change in modes of communication, has resulted in
fast movement of capital, goods, information and people
around the globe.
7. Deterritorialization is making geography irrelevant. Global
stock and bond trading and fixation of international financial
and exchange rate transactions have really made geography
a thing of the past.
8. Globalisation of social movements have resulted in global
civic activism and range from movements for human rights,
women's issues, Greenpeace and other environment
movements to HIV/AIDS.
9. Global governance is through suprastate agencies such as
international and regional organizations, the United Nations,
the IMF, the World Bank, WTO, and a host of regional
arrangements like ASEAN, European Union.
Much of the debate about globalisation is focused upon its
impact upon the state and its implication for national politics.
Some have argued that globalsation implies the 'death of politics'
and irrelevance of the state. If national economics has effectively
been absorbed into large global economy, and if information and
cultural exchanges are now routinely transnational, national
government is perhaps an anarchism, even though effective supra
national bodies have yet to emerge. The alternative interpretation
is not that the state has become irrelevant but that its functions
have changed. In this view, economic globalisation has fostered
the emergence of 'competition states' states whose role is primarily
to develop strategies for national property in a context of
intensifying transnational competition. Globalisation is also
significant because it has unleashed countervailing forces, in the
form of ethnic politics and particularist nationalism. In an
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increasing globalised world ethnicity may replace nationality as
the principal source of social integration, its virtue being that,
whereas nations are bound together by civic loyalties, ethnic and
regional group are able to generate a deeper sense of organic
identity.
Finally there is debate about whether globalization should
be embraced or resisted. Its supporters highlight the prospect of
rising prosperity and technological advance; its opponents warn
against the spread of the capitalist values, the deepening of
inequality and loss of identity. Some, indeed, suggest that
globalisation is largely a myth, exaggerated by politicians who
wish to portray market driven shifts in economic policy as
necessary or inevitable.
Feminism
Feminism is a type of political movement and philosophy
that intends to modernize the social role of females. It was one of
the great political and social movements of the 19th and 20th
century. The term feminism can be used to define a political,
cultural or economic movement aimed at establishing equal rights
and legal protection for women. Feminism involves political and
sociological theories and philosophies concerned with issues of
gender difference, as well as a movement that advocates gender
equality for women and campaigns for women's rights and
interests. Feminists have emphasized what they see as the political
relationship between the sexes that is the supremacy of men and
the domination of women in most of the societies.
Feminist ideology is categorized by two basis beliefs. First,
women and men are treated differently because of their sex, and
second, that imbalanced treatment can and should be overturned.
Although most feminists embrace the goal of gender equality, it is
misleading to define feminism in terms of this goal as some feminists
distinguish between liberation and equality, debating that the latter
implies that women should be 'like men'. The fundamental notion
in feminist analysis is patriarchy, which draws attention to the
totality of oppression and exploitation to which women are
subject. This highlights the political importance of gender,
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understood to refer to socially imposed rather than biological
differences between women and men. Most feminists view gender
as a political paradigm, usually based upon stereotypes of
'feminine' and 'masculine' behaviour and social roles.
Concept of feminism
Feminism is a group of social theories, moral philosophies
and related political activities that supports social, political and
economic equality between the sexes. The word Feminism
denotes to an intense consciousness of identity as a woman and
interest in feminine problems. The suppression of woman is core
fact of history and it is the main cause of all psychological
disorders in society. Janet Richards spoke that "The essence of
Feminism has a strong fundamental case intended to mean only
that there are excellent reasons for thinking that woman suffer
from systematic social injustice because of their sex, the
proposition is to be regarded as constituting feminism." According
to Virginia Woolf, "A woman must have money and room of her
own if she is to write fiction."
Francine and other feminists want to guarantee that women
have all the same rights and opportunities as men, which has not
been the case through much of history. In fact, women did not
get the right to vote in the United States until 1919 with the
adoption of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution well
over 100 years after the Declaration of Independence, the United
States Constitution and the Bill of Rights were penned.
Feminism is a term that arose long after women started
enquiring their substandard status and demanding an improvement
in their social position. Even after the word feminism was coined,
it was still not adopted as a term of identification by many of
those who campaigned for women's rights. Even many of the
women's rights organizations in the late 1960s and early 1970s
did not call themselves feminist: the term feminism had a restricted
use in relation to specific concerns and specific groups.
Many studies have shown that feminism is a struggle for
equality of women, an effort to make women become like men.
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Feminism is visualized as the struggle against all forms of
patriarchal and sexiest aggression, such as oppositional definition
presents.
History
Maggie Humm and Rebecca Walker stated that the history
of feminism can be divided into three waves. The first feminist
wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the
second was in the 1960s and 1970s, and the third extends from
the 1990s to the present. Feminist theory emerged from these
feminist movements. It is manifest in a variety of disciplines such
as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary
criticism.
Modern feminism were emerged with the writings of Mary
Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill. Wollstonecraft wrote the
Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792, which debated that
women should have the equal rights as men, including the right to
education, earnings and property. John Stuart Mill, in his 1869
book, The Subjection of Women, also discussed that women
should be given same legal rights as males.
Historians described the first wave of feminism as being
from the middle of the 19th century to the early 20th century.
The feminist movement during the first wave was principally
concerned with fundamental political rights, such as the right to
vote; economic rights, such as the right to own property apart
from a husband; rights to education and employment; and
impartial marriage laws. The first wave of feminism was diligently
related with the women's suffrage movement, which emerged in
the 1840s and 1850s. The achievement of female suffrage in
most Western countries in the early twentieth century. It meant
that the campaign for legal and civil rights expected a lower profile
and disadvantaged the women's movement of a combining focus.
The second wave of feminism arose during the 1960s and
expressed, in addition to the established concern with equal rights,
the more revolutionary demands of the rising Women's Liberation
Movement. Since in the beginning of 1970s, feminism has
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undergone a process of de-radicalisation, leading some to
pronounce the appearance of post-feminism. This was
indisputably linked to a growing repercussion against feminism,
related with the rise of the New Right, but it also reflects the
development of more individualised and conventionalised forms
of feminism, characterised by an unwillingness any longer to view
women as 'victims'. The focus of the second wave was on
employment and reproductive rights..
The third wave of feminism is the recent movement. The
third wave is in part a reaction to a perceived overemphasis of
the movement to focus on middle-class ordinary white females.
The third wave movement is more diverse and divergent as
compared to the past waves and is spread from a national
movement to the grassroots level. Major concerns of the third
wave of feminism include such things as globalism, technology
and other forces that affect women.
Another major attribute of third wave feminism is the respect
of the value of the feminine. For example, because of traditional
feminine characteristics of nurturing and empathy, females are
often superior at dispute resolution. Additionally, modern feminism
is also about choice. Modern feminism considers that women
should have the choice to chase all the opportunities that are
available to men but also have the right to choose 'traditional'
roles as well. Main point is not what females choose to do but
that they have the choice.
Theoretical schools
Feminist theory is an expansion of feminism into theoretical
or philosophical arenas. It incorporates work in a variety of
disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics,
women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and
philosophy. Feminist theory has aim to understand gender
inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and
sexuality. While providing a evaluation of these social and political
relations, much of feminist theory focuses on the promotion of
women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory

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include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially
sexual objectification), oppression and patriarchy.
The American literary criticizer and feminist Elaine Showalter
defines the phased development of feminist theory. The first she
calls "feminist critique," in which the feminist reader examines the
ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls
"gynocriticism," in which the "woman is producer of textual
meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity;
linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory
of the individual or collective female literary career and literary
history." The last phase she calls "gender theory," in which the
"ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender
system" are explored. The scholar Toril Moi disparaged this
model, seeing it as an essentialist and deterministic model for
female bias that fails to account for the situation of women outside
the West.
Ideologies of feminism
Feminist philosophy and practice is highly dissimilar,
however. Distinctive liberal, socialist/Marxist and radical forms
of feminism are usually identified.
Liberal feminism replicates a commitment to individualism
and formal equality, and is characterised by the quest for equal
rights and opportunities in 'public' and political life. Liberal
feminism proclaims the equality of men and women through
political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism,
which focuses on women's capability to show and maintain their
impartiality through their own actions and choices. Liberal
feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women
as the place from which to change culture. Some prominent
writers were Mary Wollstonecraft, Maria steward, The Grimke
Sisters, Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem and Molly Yard.
Liberal feminists stated that all women are capable of
asserting their ability to accomplish equality, therefore it is possible
for change to happen without changing the structure of society.
Several issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive
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and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal
pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care,
and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence
against women.
Socialist feminism, largely derived from Marxism, highlights
links between female subservience and the capitalist mode of
production, drawing attention to the economic significance of
women being confined to the family or domestic life. Eminent
writers were Marx, Engels, Gilman, Kollontai and Eisenstein.
Socialist feminism links the oppression of women to Marxist
philosophies about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist
feminists consider unequal standing in both the workplace and
the domestic areas holds women down. Socialist feminists
perceive prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage
as ways in which women are browbeaten by a patriarchal system
that diminishes women and the substantial work they do. Socialist
feminists concentrate on far-reaching change that affects society
as a whole instead of on an individual basis. They see the need to
work alongside not just men but all other groups, as they see the
oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects
everyone involved in the capitalist system.
Marx sensed that when class oppression was overcome,
gender oppression would disappear as well. Marxist feminism
focuses their attention on women's position in labor and in the
capitalist system - women's participation in the home and in wage
work. Heidi Hartmann states that the problem in the family, the
labor market, economy, and society is not simply a division of
labor between men and women, but a division that places men in
a superior, and women in a subordinate, position. As a result,
Marxist feminists take on a revolutionary approach to overthrow
capitalism in order to dismantle male privilege. This is the theory
of Marxist feminism. Some socialist feminists, Radical Women
and the Freedom Socialist Party asserted that the classic Marxist
writings of Frederick Engels and August Bebel as a dominant
explanation of the link between gender oppression and class
exploitation. Other socialist feminists, this view of gender
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oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists
has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class
phenomena. Some supporters of socialist feminism have
disparaged these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent
on gender oppression except to include it underneath broader
class subjugation.
In the end of nineteenth century and beginning of twentieth
century, both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the
demonization of men and supported a proletarian revolution that
would overcome as many male female disparities as possible.
As their movement already had the most radical demands of
women's equality, Marxist leaders such as Clara Zetkin and
Alexandra Kollontai counterpoised Marxism against feminism
instead of conglomerate them.
Anarchist
Anarcha-feminism, also known as anarchist feminism and
anarcho-feminism, conglomerates anarchism with feminism. It
normally views patriarchy as an expression of involuntary
hierarchy. Anarcha-feminists consider that the struggle against
patriarchy is an indispensable part of class struggle and of the
anarchist struggle against the state. In brief, the philosophy
perceives anarchist struggle as an essential component of feminist
struggle and vice versa. According to L. Susan Brown, as
anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships
of power, it is inherently feminist" (Brown, Susan, 1990). Some
dominant historic anarcha-feminists were Emma Goldman,
Federica Montseny, Voltairine de Cleyre, Maria Lacerda de
Moura, and Lucy Parsons. In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-
feminist group, Mujeres Libres ("Free Women"), linked to the
Federaci N Anarquista Ibrica, organized to protect both anarchist
and feminist thoughts.
Radical feminism
Radical feminism goes beyond the viewpoints of established
political traditions in portraying gender divisions as the most
fundamental and politically significant cleavages in society, and in
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calling for the radical, even revolutionary, reformation of personal,
domestic and family life. Radical feminists pronounce that 'the
personal is the political'. However, the breakdown of feminism
into three traditions such as liberal, socialist and radical. That has
become increasingly redundant since the 1970s as feminism has
become yet more sophisticated and diverse. Among its more
recent forms have been black feminism, psychoanalytic feminism,
eco-feminism and postmodern feminism. Influential writers of the
period are Mary Daly, Andrea Dworkin, Kate Millet, and Juliet
Mitchel.
Radical feminism created the slogan 'The personal is political'
to emphasize that individual experiences brings out political issues
that need to be addressed and acknowledged. They take on a
ground-breaking approach in that social and political changes
are necessary in order to overthrow the structural framework of
inequality between men and women. They argue that individual
female identity and experience is the first step to collective
revolution.
Radical feminism considers the male-controlled capitalist
pyramid, which it defines as sexist, as the crucial feature of
women's harassment. Radical feminists consider that women can
free themselves only when they have done away with what they
consider an innately oppressive and dominating patriarchal system.
Radical feminists understand that there is a male dominating
society and power structure and that it is responsible for
subjugation and inequality, and that, as long as the system and its
values are in place, society will not be reformed. Some radical
feminists visualized that there is no alternatives other than the
total displacing and modernisation of society in order to realise
their goals.
Existential Feminism
Existentialist feminists highlight concepts such as freedom,
interpersonal relationships, and the experience of living as a human
body. They value the capacity for radical change, but identify
that factors such as self-deception and the anxiety caused by the

90
possibility of change can limit it. Many are devoted to exposing
and undermining socially imposed gender roles and cultural
constructs limiting women's self-determination, and criticize post-
structuralist third-wave feminists who deny the intrinsic freedom
of individual women. A female who makes considered choices
regarding her way of life and suffers the anxiety related with that
freedom, isolation, or nonconformity, yet remains free,
demonstrates the tenets of existentialism. The novels of Kate
Chopin, Doris Lessing, Joan Didion, Margaret Atwood, and
Margaret Drabble include such existential heroines. Simone de
Beauvoir was a famous existentialist and one of the principal
creators of second-wave feminism.
Women have to assert her autonomy in defining herself
against any men. She has to define her own identity, dealing herself
a past and creating for her solidarity for other women.Simon De
Beauvoir (the Second Sex).
Individual Feminism
Individualist feminists makes effort to change legal systems
to eradicate class privileges and gender privileges and to ensure
that individuals have equal rights, including an equal claim under
the law to their own persons and property. Individualist feminism
boosts women to take full responsibility for their own lives. It
also opposes any government interference into the choices adults
make with their own bodies because, it contends, such interference
creates a coercive hierarchy. One central theme of individualist
feminism revolves around the Free Love Movement, which
indicates that a woman's sexual choices should be made by her
and her alone, rather than by government regulations. It
communicates about frustrations of middle class women. It
emphasis on liberating sexuality of women Germaine Greer.
Postcolonial feminism
Postcolonial feminism, also known as Third World feminism,
draws on postcolonialism, which deliberates experiences
undergone during colonialism, including "migration, slavery,
overpowering, resistance, representation, difference, race, gender,
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place and responses to the influential discourses of imperial
Europe." Postcolonial feminism focusses on racism, ethnic issues,
and the long-lasting economic, political, and cultural effects of
colonialism, inextricably bound up with the unique gendered
realities of non-White non-Western women. It visualizes the
parallels between recently decolonized nations and the state of
women within patriarchy, both postcolonialism and postcolonial
feminism take the "perspective of a socially marginalized subgroup
in their relationship to the dominant culture.".
`Western feminists universalize the issues of females, thereby
eliminating social classes and ethnic identities, reinforcing
homophobia, and disregarding the activity and voices of non-
White non-Western women, as under one application of
Orientalism. Some postcolonial feminists disparage radical and
liberal feminism and some, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty,
criticized Western feminism for being ethnocentric. Black
feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view.
Another opponent of Western viewpoints is Sarojini Sahoo.
Postcolonial feminists can be defined as feminists who have
responded against both universalizing tendencies in Western
feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in
mainstream postcolonial thought.
Post-structural feminism, also called to as French feminism,
adopted the insights of various epistemological movements such
as psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and post-
Marxist theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual
currents for feminist concerns . Many post-structural feminists
uphold that difference is one of the most prevailing tools that
women possess in their scuffle with patriarchal domination, and
that to associate the feminist movement only with equality is to
refute women a plethora of options because equality is still defined
from the masculine or patriarchal viewpoint.
Postmodern feminism integrates postmodern and post-
structuralist theory. Judith Butler maintains that sex, not just gender,
is created through language. In her book published in1990

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'Gender Trouble', she draws on and critiques the work of Simone
de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan. Butler
appraises the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between
biological sex and socially constructed gender. She opined that
the sex/gender distinction does not allow for enough disapproval
of essentialism. According to Butler, "woman" is a debatable
category, complicated by class, ethnicity, sexuality, and other
facets of identity. She states that gender is performative. This
argument concluded that there is no single cause for women's
subservience and no single approach towards dealing with the
issue.
The major strong point of feminist ideology is that it has
exposed and challenged the gender prejudices that encompass
society and which have been overlooked by conventional political
thought. As such, feminism has gained growing decency as a
distinguishing school of political thought. It illuminated established
concepts such as power, domination and equality, but also
introduced a new sensitivity and language into politics related to
ideas such as connection, voice and difference.
Feminism in the Indian Context
In India, feminism movement occurs speedily in modern time.
To comprehend and sympathizes the responsiveness of feminism,
it is important to observe that Indian feminist present altogether
different picture sequence. The long and sore suffering of women,
the bitter fight for the exception of the idea of equal pay for equal
work, the continuing battles on behalf of woman's right to abortion
and to practice of birth control are some of the noticeable marks
of the gender disparity that has continued and that woman had to
fight. Feminist situation in India possess a different dispensation.
Indian society has always been highly hierarchical. The several
hierarchies within the family concreting age, sex and ordinal
position, congenial and fine relationship or within the community
referring to the caste lineage, learning, occupation and relationship
with ruling power have been maintained very stringently.
`One of the breakthroughs in the growth of an organized
women's movement was the formation of the All India Women's
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Conference in 1927. Initially, it was set up to debate the issue of
female education, but afterwards, this question could not be
addressed without looking at other issues such as purdah and
child-marriage.
The movement is visualized in three waves. The first
movement started with the mass mobilization of women during
the national movement. After independence, for over a decade,
there was a stillness in political activity by women. The legitimacy
accorded to the post-independence state and the developmental
programmes launched by the government dulled the edge of
combativeness. Gradually, the economic policies adopted by the
ruling classes were describing its logic. Growing unemployment
and rising prices led to mass rebellions, especially in Gujarat and
Bihar. This period, from the late 1960s onwards, can be called
the second wave, with a renaissance of political activity by women.
Since 1960s, it was clear that many of the promises of
Independence were still unfulfilled. It was that the 1960s and
1970s saw an epidemic of movements in which women took
part: campaigns against rising prices, movements for land rights,
peasant movements. Women from different parts of the country
joint together to form groups both inside and outside political
parties. Ubiquitously, in the different movements that were
sweeping the country, women participated at large scale.
Everywhere, their participation resulted in altering the movements
from within.
The Indian Left disintegrated in the early 1970s, and there
was an inquiring of earlier analyses of revolution. In Maharashtra,
the United Women's Anti Price-Rise Front, formed in 1973 by
Socialists and Communists, rapidly became a mass women's
movement for consumer protection. The movement spread and
linked up with the students' agitation against corruption in Gujarat,
and it became a huge middle class movement which soon shifted
its focus to an overall appraisal of the Indian state. The struggle
was crumpled by brutal police repression and the announcement
of the Emergency. It was actually after the Emergency in 1975-

94
76 that many of the modern women's groups known as third
wave feminists began to get formed, with their members often
being women with a history of involvement in other political
movements. This revolutionary move by the women activists
spread all over speedily, uniting women of all the parts of India.
The distinctive features of the new women's groups were
that they avowed themselves to be feminist in spite of the fact
that most of their members were drawn from the Left, which
saw feminism as conventional and troublesome. They insisted on
being autonomous even though most of their members were
affiliated to other political groups, generally of the far Left. This
fact influenced the feminist movement of the late 1970s and early
1980s in multifaceted manner.
One of the first issues to receive nation-wide attention from
women's groups was violence against women, specifically in the
form of rape, and dowry deaths in India. The killing of young
married women for dowry and the money or goods is widespread
in India in present situation also. This was also the beginning of a
process of learning for women. Most of these protests were
focused at the state level, because women were able to mobilize
support, the State responded, seemingly positively, by changing
the law on rape and dowry, making both more stringent. This
seemed, at the time, like a great triumph. But the knowledge
began to sink in that mere changes in the law meant little, unless
there was a will and a mechanism to implement them at the grass-
root level, and that the core problem of discrimination against
women lay not only in the law, but was much more widespread.
Women movements against dowry deaths now began to be
taken up by neighbourhood groups, teachers associations, and
trade unions. Within feminist groups a series of strategies were
devised to enhance public mindfulness of the problems associated
with dowry. Stri Sangharsh produced a street play, Om Swaha
(priests incantation around the ritual wedding fire) attracted large
crowds all over India. Manushi, a Delhi-based feminist magazine,
organized a series of public meetings at which people pledged

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neither to take nor give dowry. Overall the campaigning against
dowry-related crimes led feminists to varying suppositions. On
the one hand, they observed that they could get huge public
support for campaigns against certain kinds of crimes against
women, such as dowry-related murder. On the other hand, they
found how difficult it was to work with the law against such crimes.
After few months of the campaign against dowry related
crimes, the agitation against rape started with campaigns against
police rape. The scale and frequency of police rape are quite
surprising in India. When the new feminist groups were formed
in the late 1970s, they were already familiar with the categories
of police and landlord rape, for both, especially the former, had
been addressed by the Maoist movement. The issue of police
rape realised new significance in 1978. In 1979, there were
women's demonstrations against incidents of police and landlord
or employer rape in many parts of the country. Campaigns against
these incidents, however, remained inaccessible from each other
until 1980, when an open letter by four senior lawyers against a
judgment in a case of police rape in Maharashtra sparked off a
campaign by feminist groups. The campaign against rape
noticeable in a new stage in the development of feminism in India.
In the beginning of 1980s, feminism had diverged into a
series of activities that range from the production of literature
and audio visual material to slum-improvement work, employment
generating schemes, health education, and trade unions. New
attempts to organize women Worker's unions were made. At
this stage, the feminist movement had diversified from issue based
groups into distinct organizational characteristics. Possibly the
most noteworthy development for women in the last few decades
has been the introduction of 33% reservation for women in local,
village-level elections. In the early days, when this move was
introduced, there was considerable skepticism.
Recently, the euphoria of the 1970s and early 1980s,
symbolized by street-level protests, campaigns in which groups
mobilized at a national level, the sense of a commonality of

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experience cutting across class, caste, region and religion, all this
seems to have gone, replaced by a more considered and complex
response to issues. In many parts of India, women are no longer
to be seen out on the streets protesting about this or that form of
injustice. This apparent lack of a visible movement has led to the
complaint that the women's movement is departed or
disappearing.
To portray the reaction to the feminist movement in India,
Suma Chitnis composes, The most distinctive features of this
movement that it was initiated by man. It was only towards the
end of the century the women joined the fray. The list of who,
champion the cause of women are Raja Ram Manohar Roy,
Ishwarchandra Vidya Sagar, Keshav Chandra Sen, Matahari,
Phule, Agarkar, Ranade, and many more. All these eminent
personality did impressive reform to enhance the status of women.
It reveals that their efforts spanned action to abolish the practice
of Sati, the custom of child marriage, custom of distinguishing
widows, the ban on remarriage of the upper caste Hindu widows
and many other civil practices that affected women.
The feminist thought and feminist movement in the west have
considerable impact on the woman's movement in the developing
country such as India. Yet, feminism as it exists today in India has
gone beyond its western counter parts. Uma Narayan rightly
stated it third world feminism is not mindless imitating of western
agenda in one clear and simple sense. Due to historical and cultural
specifications of the region in India, it has to think in terms of its
agenda and strategies. In the Indian environment, several feminist
have realized that the subject of women's invasion in India should
not be reduced to contradiction between men and women. The
woman in order to literate herself and advance needs to empower
herself to admit different institutional structures and cultural
practices that subject herself to patriarchal domination and well-
being.
A major development in modern Indian fiction is the
development of a feminist or women cantered approach, that

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seeks to project and interpret experience, from the angle of a
feminine consciousness and sensibility. Patricia Meyer Specks
comments: There seems to be something that we call a women's
point of view on outlook sufficiently distinct to be recognizable
through the countries."
Many Indian women novelists have discovered female
subjectivity in order to establish an identity, which is imposed as
a patriarchal society. The subject is from childhood to woman-
hood- developed society respecting women in general. The
modern Indian women's movement is a multifaceted, variously
placed, and fertile undertaking. It is perhaps the only movement
today that covers and links such issues as work, wages,
environment, ecology, civil rights, sex, violence, representation,
caste, class, allocation of basic resources, consumer rights, health,
religion, community, and individual and social relationships.
In present situation, the women's movement in India is a
rich and effervescent movement, which has spread to various
parts of the country. It is often believed that there is no one single
cohesive movement in the country, but a number of fragmented
campaigns. Activists see this as one of the strengths of the
movement which takes different forms in different parts. While
the movement may be dispersed all over India, they feel it is
however a strong and plural force. Therefore, the future is bright
and clear.
Feminism in its literary sense is the physical and psychic
liberation of women from the painful traditional controls of man.
Since ancient time, particularly in Asian countries and in India,
the social custom and dogmas have overall control of man. Shashi
Deshpande has sincerely been accepted as a significant literary
figure on the contemporary literary scene. She was born in a
famous educated Brahmin family in 1938 at Dh?rwad in
Karnataka. She acquired an intellectual determined of mind and
love for learning from her father, Adya Rangacharya, a dramatist
and Sanskrit scholar. At the age of fifteen, she went to Mumbai,
graduated in Economics, and moved to Bangalore, where she

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also got degree in Law, English and followed by Diploma in
Journalism. Shashi Deshpande's novels signify the modern modern
women's struggle to define and attain an independent selfhood.
Her female protagonists are at great pains to free themselves
from stultifying, traditional restraints. The social and cultural
change in the post- Independence India has made women
conscious of the need to define themselves, their place in society,
and their environments.
Shashi Deshpande has also been one of such writers and
she makes an earnest effort to understand the inner aspect of the
female characters. For the depiction of the predicament of
middleclass educated Indian women, their inner conflict and quest
for identity, issues pertaining to parent-child relationship, marriage
and sex, and their exploitation.
Women in India have raised concern for their pains the age-
old patriarchal domination. They are no longer dummies in hands
of man. They have revealed their worth in the field of literature
both qualitatively and quantitatively and are showing it them today
without any obstacle. Today the works of Kamla Markandaya,
Nayan Tara Sahgal, Shashi Deshpande, Anita Desai, Shobha
De and many more is marvellous that portray female characters
in their writings.
Feminism undertakes that women experience the world in
a different way from men and write out of their different
perspectives. Feminism in Indian fiction has not developed rapidly
but it has developed slowly and steadily. Bankimchandra Chatterji
and Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Jitendra kumar in Hindi,
Saratchandra Chatterji created the remarkable portraits of
women in Indian literature, it was something of a feminist by
centurion. In Urdu language, Ismat Chustai had outraged many
by her outspoken themes. Rashid Iqlam, 1930's written stories
of Angare and 'Aurat' (The Woman) had dealt with the problem
of woman.
In Marathi, Vasumati Dharkar published a number of stories
from the 1930's to 1950's in which she has portrayed the strong

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woman's characters of their time. The major themes of these
women writers were subjugation and exploitation of woman in a
patriarchal society.
A major obsession in recent Indian Woman's writing has
been a description of inner life and subtle interpersonal
relationships. In a culture where individualism and protest have
often remained unfamiliar ideas and marital ecstasy and the
woman's role at home is a central focus. It is to observe the
emergence of not just an essential Indian sensibility but an
expression of cultural displacement. Women are more self-
confident, more liberated in their view and more eloquent in their
expression than the women of earlier time. To understand and
sympathies the sensibility of feminism in its holistic perspective, it
is important to observe that Indian Feminism presents an
altogether different striking scene.
Suma Chitnis Describrd the reaction to the feminist
movement in India and wrote that The most distinctive feature of
this movement is that it was initiated by man. It was only towards
the end of the century the women joined the fray".
The authenticity of feminine sensibility and feminine
experiences would demand a brief inspection of the changing
position of women in India. The study of the Indian feminine
psyche evolves a change from tradition to modernity. Opponents
have proposed various methods to define these patterns of
change. Shri K.S. Iyanger, divides the history of Indian writing in
English in three general periods - '1875 to 1900', the new
flowering of the creative Indian genius, 1990 to 1947, the Gandhi
an Era 1947 onwards the post-Independence period.
Feminism has been criticised on the grounds that its internal
divisions are now so sharp that feminist theory has lost all
consistency and unity. Postmodern feminists even question
whether 'woman' is a meaningful category. Others propose that
feminism has become disengaged from a society that is
increasingly post-feminist, in that the women's movement, the
domestic, professional and public roles of women, at least in
developed societies, have experienced a major revolution.
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To appraise the feminism, it can be said that feminism has
transformed principal perspectives in myriads of areas within
Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists
have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract,
property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity
and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights
(including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for
protection of women and girls from domestic violence, sexual
harassment and rape; for workplace rights, including maternity
leave and equal pay; against misogyny; and against other forms
of gender-specific discrimination against women.
To summarize, Feminist political philosophy is subdivision
of philosophy that focuses on understanding and critiquing the
way political philosophy is usually interpreted and on articulating
how political theory might be recreated in a way that improves
feminist concerns. Feminist political philosophy is a branch of
both feminist philosophy and political philosophy. As a branch of
feminist philosophy, it serves as a form of critique or a hermeneutics
of suspicion. In the second decade of the twenty-first century,
feminist theorists are involved in extraordinary work on matters
political and democratic, including global ethics, human rights,
disabilities studies, bioethics, climate change, and international
development. It can be established that feminist political
philosophy is a still developing field of thought that has much to
offer mainstream political philosophy. In the past two decades, it
has come to exert a stronger influence over mainstream political
theorizing, raising oppositions that mainstream theorists have had
to address, though not always very persuasively. It is well
demonstrated in studies that feminism is a struggle for equality of
women, an effort to make women become like men. The agonistic
description of feminism sees it as the struggle against all forms of
patriarchal and sexiest aggression.
Environmentalism
Environmentalism can be described as a social movement
or as an ideology focused on the welfare of the environment.

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Environmentalism seeks to protect and conserve the elements of
earth's ecosystem, including water, air, land, animals, and plants,
along with entire habitats such as rainforests, deserts and oceans.
Concepts dealing with environmental issues include the
management of natural resources, overpopulation, commercial
logging, urbanization and global warming. The effects of human
development ad activity have harmed and altered the earth's
natural state. Environmentalism works to correct the damage as
well as prevent future destruction.
Although environmentalism is usually seen as seen as a new
ideology that is linked the emergence of ecological, or green,
movement in the late twentieth century, its roots can be traced
back to the ninetieth century revolt against industrialization.
Environmentalism therefore reflects concern about the damage
done to the natural world by the increasing pace of economic
development and anxiety about the declining quality of human
existence and ultimately, the survival of the human species.
Environmentalism is an alternative to the anthropocentric or
human centered stance adopted by all other ideologies.
Environmentalist are concerned with moderating impact of
human activity on the environment and with protecting nature as
far as is compatible with human purpose. They do not purpose
radically to alter these purposes- for example they might argue
for better public transport to reduce the use of cars, but not for
major changes in the social and economic structure to obviate
the need for personal mobility. Environmentalist, typically, argue
for re-cycling, economy in the use of resources and protection
and conservation of wildlife and countryside.
Environmentalism and ecologism are two strains of what
has come to be labelled the 'green movement' or the 'greens'.
Though the terms 'environmentalism' and 'ecologism' were once
used interchangeably, most people would now discern a distinction
between them. Environmentalists believe that green issues,
however important they are, can be addressed within the existing
political and economic structures. To succeed, this would require

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wise government, appropriate legislation and the voluntary
adoption of environmentally sound practices by consumers.
Ecologists deny that this is possible. The environmental crisis is
so great, they believe, that only a thoroughgoing reorganisation
of the political, social and economic system would achieve a
solution. This would necessitate a massive change in human
values.
The green movement, like all ideological and political
movements, is driven by people with a complex mix of ideas,
often in conflict and usually involved in controversy with their
fellow greens and with their ideological opponents. This is to be
expected of a movement that is so new and is still working out its
fundamental beliefs and a political strategy to garner support and
win influence and power in the conventional political world. It is
not an easy task for a movement that challenges many of the
fundamental assumptions of the modern industrialised world.
The rise of environmentalism and ecologism
The term 'environmentalism' defines concern for the natural
world and its protection from excessive human depredation. It
constitutes no clear political or ideological agenda. The term is
derived from the Ancient Greek words oikos ('household',
'habitat') and logos ('science', 'argument'). Precursors of
ecologism can be found in the writings of Greek and Roman
poets and their love of the bucolic life on their country estates
(although they might be more properly viewed as, at most,
'environmentalist' in their view of nature). Medieval and
Renaissance poets and artists celebrated the natural world and
its spiritual values. But it was during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries that there arose a strong reaction to the world view
derived from Judeo-Christian religious and moral values, the
mechanistic ideas of Cartesian philosophy and Newtonian
physics, and, most of all, the industrial revolution. Rousseau's
writings were highly critical of the 'corrupting' nature of 'civilisation'
and contrasted the modern world unfavourably with the peaceful,
agrarian world of the American 'noble savage'.

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Nineteenth-century Romanticism and a love of wild places
as displayed in the poems of William Wordsworth and the
Lakeland poets were also part of the reaction to industrialism.
The twentieth century saw the growth of the 'countryside' as a
place of recreation and leisure pursuits, a place for the urbanised
to live out Arcadian fantasies (especially if they earned their living
in the towns). Perhaps most significant are such critics of
industrialisation as William Morris and Leo Tolstoy, both of whom
exposed industrialisation as taking the human value, satisfaction
and skill out of work, as well as destroying what was beautiful in
the natural world. Nor are the origins of ecologism always to be
found among the libertarian left - rather embarrassingly for
modern greens. The Nazis, for example, were influenced by some
green concerns, such as alternative energy sources and soil
conservation.
While environmentalism is manifestly of long standing, the
modern ecological movement can be dated from the 1960s and
1970s when a number of books, studies and reports appeared
which argued that humanity, even the living world - the biosphere
- was under unique threat from a combination of over-population,
intensive agricultural methods and chemical pollution. The greatest
single threat was the profligacy of the industrial process itself, a
process based on false assumptions. Economic resources (most
notably fossil fuels) were not infinite. The external costs of
economic development, such as the destruction of the rain forests,
the poisoning of the oceans and the rapid extinction of many
living species, could not be simply dismissed.
The greening of politics
Many European countries have green political parties. Some,
notably in Germany, where Green Party politicians have served
in coalition governments, have enjoyed modest success. In Britain
the Green Party (formed in 1985 out of the Ecology Party, which
was founded in 1975) has been far less successful if measured in
the conventional terms of votes, elected representatives and levels
of opinion-poll support. Votes peaked in the 1989 European

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Parliament elections but declined rapidly in subsequent
Westminster elections, although greens have won a few council
seats in local government and the occasional Euro-Parliament
seat (on the basis of very low voter turnouts).
Although this might appear to suggest that ecologism is a
fringe movement, such an inference would be mistaken. Ecologist,
or at least environmental influence, has spread far beyond the
Green Party to become a significant feature in mainstream politics.
All political parties and movements are anxious to advertise their
green credentials.
Conservative environmentalism
An important element in conservatism is 'conservation' and
slow, incremental change in society. Conservatives stress the
importance of the generational links between those who have
gone before, those who are alive today, and those yet to be
born. Conservatism is often linked to anti-industrialisation, anti-
urbanism and pro-hunting, the countryside and hunting being vital
elements in environmental protection. Environmentalism is very
much a countryside and small town or 'historic' city concern.
Care about the urban environment tends to centre on the
preservation of ancient buildings and townscapes. Somehow, Bath
seems more worthy of preservation than Manchester, even though
both are Roman towns and both are of considerable 'historical'
importance.
Socialist environmentalism
Socialists argue that capitalism exploits both humans and
the natural world. Environmental objectives will be met only by a
move towards a post-capitalist society. Many Marxists look on
environmentalism as a diversion from the class struggle, while
some socialists see it as even more important than the class
struggle. Environmental socialists think that class struggle
unjustifiably postpones the need to reform society along
environmental lines. Planning, tax, regulations and other reforms
are needed now to encourage a green lifestyle, including recycling,
greater use of public transport and energy efficiency.
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Liberal environmentalism
Liberals argue that the 'market' can help solve most
environmental problems. The key issue is that 'public goods',
such as fresh air, fish and water, an aesthetically pleasing
environment and wild animal species, are 'free'. There is an
incentive for people to use up a declining free resource before it
is gone. If, however, one places a price on everything in the natural
world then the market will ensure that valued goods, such as
animals, plants, air and water, will survive. The failure of the market
adequately to protect the environment derives from interference
by government regulations - which distort markets - and from
the lack of value placed on the environment by people and
businesses. Indeed, the latter exploit the environment with the
polluting and damaging side effects of their activities (known as
externalities) and leave society to clean up, thus keeping their
own costs down. Create a properly functioning market, where
people carry the full costs of their activities, and you produce a
better way of protecting the environment.
Feminist environmentalism
This term applies to the belief that a link exists between the
male oppression of women and male oppression of Mother Earth
as a consequence of male power and male ideologies of
domination of the human and natural world. Women have a special
role in green politics because of their crucial role as mothers and
carers.
Fascist environmentalism
Environmental concerns are seen as important elements in
fascist movements. Earth, forests and mountains are of special
significance to the 'soul' of a nation or race. Both Italian Fascism
and German Nazism invoked rural and peasant values as the
backbone of their movements, even though their militarism
involved an expansion of industrialisation to provide the materiel
for war. In recent years the French National Front and the British
National Party have also sought to stress their green credentials
as another way of garnering support from elements of the
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electorate who are disillusioned at the failures of mainstream
parties to treat green issues with great urgency.
Anarchist environmentalism
Nature left to its own devices exhibits a degree of self-
government, harmony, balance and diversity - 'anarchy' -
attractive to anarchists, who believe the world's problems spring
mainly from formal structures of government. Small communities
and self-sufficiency are the goals of this element in the
environmental movement.
Several other social and political movements are highly
consonant with green attitudes, such as animal rights,
vegetarianism, nature conservation and even folk music, canal
restoration and real ale.
Radical green politics may be on the wane. In part this is
because of insoluble contradictions within the movement. For
example, if 'traditional' parties and governments do adopt and
implement some effective green proposals, the need for
revolutionary change is reduced. Again, some green policies are,
however much this is denied, essentially technological fixes - such
as the development of wind and tidal power, and the introduction
of the catalytic converter for motor car exhaust fumes. These, if
they work (or at least appear to be working), undermine the
deep green case for root and branch social revolution.
However, the evidence still mounts that there are major
problems. Global warming and radical climate change continue
to be proved by scientific and personal observation of the
weather. Reports increasingly identify the scale of the problem.
The 2002 Environmental Sustainability Index, for example, placed
the UK ninety-eighth out of 142 countries, noting its poor record
on reducing air pollution, protecting habitats and reducing
greenhouse gases. The UK has one of the worst records for
reducing household waste and increasing recycling.
Whether in fact the shift in global consciousness in a green
direction leads to a total political change remains to be seen. As
things stand, the jury is out. At most it appears to be painfully
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slow, while the environmental challenges appear to grow. If
change does occur it may well be by means outside the
conventional constitutional or even revolutionary political
traditions by an as yet unidentified process.
Summary
As ideologies go, environmentalism and ecologism are very
recent creations. Environmentalism has come to mean a concern
with threats to the environment, threats which can be effectively
dealt with within the status quo, while ecologism radically
challenges the entire economic and social structure and even
proposes a new value system and morality. Both are traceable
to a reaction to the Enlightenment, Newtonian physics and
industrialisation, but the concerns grew with a widespread
realisation in the 1960s that economic expansion and the social
structure and value system underlying it could not go on indefinitely
without making the planet unfit for life. Greens therefore proposed
alternatives ranging from technological solutions to a reordered
society and a new value system. Attractive though green ideas
appear, they have been attacked as unscientific, impractical and
even immoral. Politically the greens have received little electoral
support, especially in Britain, but green assumptions and values
are increasingly becoming part of the wider political culture.

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