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community planning
second edition
Community Planning
An Introduction to the Comprehensive Plan

Second Edition

Eric Damian Kelly

Washington | Covelo | London

© 2010, Eric Damian Kelly

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part
of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing
from the publisher: Island Press, Suite 300, 1718 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC
20009.

ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of the Center for Resource Economics.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kelly, Eric D.
Community planning: an introduction to the comprehensive plan / Eric Damian Kelly. —
2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59726-552-2 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59726-552-7 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-1-59726-553-9 (pbk.: alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59726-553-5 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. City planning—United States. 2. Regional planning—United States. 3. Land use—
United States—Planning. 4. City planners—United States. I. Title.
HT167.K38 2009
307.1′2160973—dc22
2009010638

Printed on recycled, acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Keywords: Urban planning, zoning, site planning, public transport, transit-oriented develop-
ment, land use policy, municipal regulations, smart growth, regional planning, open space,
sustainable design, planning, processes, city planners, sprawl, public health, parks planning,
community security
To my mother, Pat Kelly, and to the memories of my late father and
grandparents, Bret Kelly, Ruth and Damian Ducy, and Florence and
Bill Kelly, who by example and by exposition taught my sister, Kate,
and me the responsibilities of citizenship: to make a difference in the
communities of which we are a part.
contents

Introduction 1
Updates to the Second Edition 1
Substance and Structure of the Book 1
Focus on Comprehensive Planning 1
Legal and Historical Significance 2
Relationship to Other Kinds of Planning 3
A Pragmatic Note 6
The Role of Planners 7
The Role of Individual Citizens 7
Users’ Guide 8
Glossary of Key Terms 9

PART I THE COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING PROCESS 11

Chapter 1 Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and
Human Health 13
Relationship to Climate Change 13
Complexity of the Issues 14
Sprawl 14
Resources and Sustainability 19
Human Health 22
School Facility Siting 23
Conclusion 26
Chapter 2 Introduction to Planning 29
Elements of a Planning Process 29
Community Planning in Concept 31
Systems Thinking and Planning 33
Planning Traditions in the United States 33
Planning in a Contemporary Democracy 36
Maps as Planning Tools 37
The Role of GISs 43
Conclusion 45
Chapter 3 Introduction to the Comprehensive Plan 47
Comprehensive Plan Defined: Examples 49
Historical Evolution of the Comprehensive Plan 50

ix
x Contents

Elements of a Comprehensive Plan 51

The Planning Commission 53
Updating the Plan 56
Conclusion 57
Chapter 4 Analysis of Existing Conditions in the Community 61
Practical Aspects of Existing Condition Analysis 63
Conclusion 74
Chapter 5 Projecting Possible Futures for the Community 77
Techniques for Determining What Is Feasible 79
Bringing Feasibility into the Planning Process 85
Conclusion 87
Chapter 6 Involving Citizens in Making a Plan 91
Methods of Achieving Citizen Participation 91
Different Approaches to Planning and Citizen Participation 92
Techniques for Citizen Participation 96
Conclusion 103

PART II THE PLAN AS A DOCUMENT 107

Chapter 7 Planning for Future Land Use 109
Creating the Future Land Use Map 109
Basic Principles 110
Mapping Uses 118
Conclusion 120
Chapter 8 Planning for Public Facilities Such as Parks, Roads,
and Utilities 123
Overview of the Issues 123
Federal, State, and Regional Involvement 125
Planning for Roads and Other Infrastructure 126
Planning for Multiple Modes of Transportation 127
Planning for or around Other Transportation Facilities 135
Planning for Sewer and Water Systems 136
Planning for Other Utilities 137
Planning for Parks, Open Space, and Green Infrastructure 138
Planning for Schools, Fire Stations, and Other Facilities 139
Planning for Telecommunication Infrastructure 140
Technology and the Landscape 141
Conclusion 142
Chapter 9 Putting It All Together 145
The Adoption Process 145
The Final Plan 148
The Best Format for an Adopted Plan 149
What Does the Official Plan Include? 151
Is the Final Plan Internally Consistent? 151
Conclusion 152
Contents xi

PART III MAKING PLANS WORK 155

Chapter 10 Decisions That Change the Land 157
How Development Occurs 157
How Planning Can Distort the Market 160
Where the Market Partly Follows the Plan 160
Conclusion 161
Chapter 11 Controlling the Use of Private Land through Zoning 163
Regulating Use 163
Cumulative and Noncumulative Zoning 164
Regulating Intensity 165
Regulating Dimensions 165
Design Implications of Traditional Zoning 166
Variances 171
Uses by Review 172
Contemporary Zoning Reforms 172
The Zoning Map 175
Conclusion 181
Chapter 12 Controlling the Development of Land 183
Concept and Substance of Subdivision Regulation 183
Street Layout and Connectivity 186
Planning for Pedestrian and Bicycle Circulation 191
Private Streets 191
Planning for Stormwater 192
Open Space and Green Infrastructure 193
Other Public Facilities Required in Subdivisions 193
Subdivision Review Process 194
Paying for Public Improvements 196
Exactions 196
Site Planning 197
Conclusion 204
Chapter 13 Controlling When and Where Development Takes Place 207
Growth Management Programs 207
APF Controls 208
Phased-Growth Programs 214
Rate-of-Growth Programs 214
Urban Growth and Urban Service Area Boundaries 215
Annexation 217
Smart Growth 218
Conclusion 221
Chapter 14 Deciding When and Where to Build New Public Facilities 223
Policy and Political Issues 223
Link between CIP and Planning 225
Sustainability, or Shaping Growth to Fit the Plan 226
Adoption of CIPs 227
Conclusion 231
xii Contents

Chapter 15 Fitting the Plans Together: The Regional Perspective 233

The Government Context 234
The Challenge and the Opportunity 236
Regional Planning in the United States 238
Municipal Planning and Zoning beyond Municipal Boundaries 241
Other Legislative Models 242
A Note on Larger Regions: Megapolitans and Others 244
Conclusion 245
Chapter 16 Planning for Parks, Open Space, and Green Infrastructure 247
Classification of Open Lands 250
Agricultural Land 252
The Value of Open Space 254
Planning for All Open Space Needs 255
Ownership and Acquisition of Open Space 256
Conclusion 259

PART IV PLANS FOR SPECIAL TOPICS OR AREAS 263

Chapter 17 Planning for Particular Geographic Areas 265
Neighborhood Plans 266
District or Sector Plans 268
Downtown Plans 270
Historic District Plans 271
Plans for Agricultural and Sensitive Environmental Areas 272
Plans for Other Types of Districts 272
Plans for Major Road Corridors and Gateways 273
The Planning Process for Specific Areas 274
Conclusion 274
Chapter 18 Planning for Renewal and Revitalization 277
The Need for Renewal 277
Large-Scale Renewal Efforts 278
Public–Private Partnerships 279
Common Areas Targeted for Revitalization 281
Issues 288
Conclusion 293
Chapter 19 Planning for Natural Hazards and Community Safety 297
Creating Safer Public Places 297
Designing Streets to Facilitate Emergency Response 301
Addressing Risks from Nature 302
Conclusion 309
Chapter 20 Planning for Housing 313
Housing Supply and Demand 314
The Fair Housing Act and Americans with Disabilities Act 323
Effect of Financing, Tax, and Highway Policies 323
The Role of Local Government 323
Local and State Affordable Housing Programs 325
Conclusion 326
Contents xiii

Chapter 21 Planning for Jobs 329

Principles of Economic Development 329
The Context for Economic Development 331
An Economic Development Plan 333
Opportunities in Small Business 334
Implementation Strategies 335
Economic Development and Comprehensive Planning 336
Sustainable Economic Development 338
Conclusion 339

PART V THE PLANNING PROFESSION 343

Chapter 22 Planning Ethics and Values 345
Values 345
Ethics 346
Applying These Principles 349
Other Ethical Principles 354
Conclusion 355
Chapter 23 Becoming a Planner or Planning Commission Member 357
What Makes a Good Planner 357
Serving on a Planning Commission 361
Conclusion 361

acknowledgments 363
notes 365
bibliography 383
index 391
Introduction

Updates to the Second Edition • Description of contemporary efforts to imple-

ment plans for smart growth (Chapter 13)
The first edition of this book appeared in 2000, us- • A new chapter on planning for personal and
ing material that was prepared in 1998 and 1999. community security (Chapter 19)
The world has changed, and in many ways plan-
ning has changed over the 10 years that have inter-
vened. This edition includes updated material Substance and Structure of the Book
throughout, giving more current examples and ref-
erences. Some of the material included in the first This book introduces community planning as
edition has been moved to the Web site for the practiced in the United States, focusing on the
book (www.communityplanningbook.org), allow- comprehensive plan. The target audiences for the
ing the inclusion of new topics and new material book include planning students (anyone who
without using significantly more paper and other might want to become a planner), practicing plan-
resources. Major substantive updates to this edi- ners, and citizens who want to understand local
tion include the following: planning and land use controls. For students, the
text, combined with the exercises and discussion
• Expanded discussion of sprawl, its character, questions, will provide a good introduction to the
and implications (Chapter 1) field. Through the use of the “Further Reading”
• Discussion of how planning affects public suggestions, instructors can use this book as a com-
health (Chapter 1) bination primary text and syllabus for graduate or
• Expanded discussion of the relationship of advanced course use.
planning to the sustainability of society and
to the related issue of climate change (Chap-
ter 1) Focus on Comprehensive Planning
• Expanded discussion of the role of walking
and biking as important elements of local This book uses the comprehensive plan to intro-
transportation systems (Chapters 1 and 8) duce community planning in the United States.
• Addition of the concept of green infrastruc- Sometimes known by other names, including mas-
ture to the chapter dealing with parks and ter plan, general plan, and even local government
open space (Chapter 16) plan, the type of plan described in this book is the

1
2 c o m m u ni ty planning

predominant form of local government planning local government about regulating activities on
in the United States. private land.
Although many government agencies make These practical considerations are reinforced
plans for their own programs or facilities, for most by state laws that encourage or require local gov-
places in the United States the comprehensive ernments to develop comprehensive plans or
plan is the only planning document that considers something similar. Although some of those laws al-
multiple programs and accounts for activities on low local governments a choice of whether to plan
all land located within the planning area, whether or not, laws in an increasing number of states re-
that land is public or private. quire the adoption of some form of plan; laws in
One reason that comprehensive planning is so other states require a comprehensive plan only if
important is that it is carried out by local govern- the local government wants to exercise specific
ments, the level of government that most directly powers, such as regulating activity on private land,
interacts with most citizens most frequently. It is charging fees to developers, or even qualifying for
the local government—city, town, village, county, specific state grant funds. Even states that do not
borough, or parish—that builds and maintains require planning typically have laws describing the
roads and sidewalks, that regulates zoning and land kinds of planning that local governments ought to
use, that typically provides park and recreation ser- do if they plan, and those laws also describe a kind
vices, that provides a police force and fire protec- of planning that is like the comprehensive plan-
tion, and that delivers fresh water and takes care ning described in this book.
of sewage. Although there are special forms of lo- Three important factors make a plan com-
cal governments and even some private utility prehensive:
companies that provide these services in some
areas, the primary responsibility for the services • Inclusion of all of the land area subject to the
and control over the providers still resides with the planning or regulatory jurisdiction of the lo-
city, county, or other local government of general cal government preparing the plan
jurisdiction. Thus, local government planning is • Inclusion of all subject matter related to the
essential to provide a context in which local offi- physical development of the community
cials can make important decisions about these ser- • A long time horizon
vices and facilities.
Most land in this country, and in developing These factors are discussed in Chapter 3.
areas in particular, is privately owned. Although we
have a strong tradition of private property rights in
this country, we also have long recognized that Legal and Historical Significance
there must be limits to the use of individual pieces
of property; for example, locating a foundry, a race The comprehensive plan has its roots in the plan-
track, or a slaughterhouse in a residential area ning and government reform efforts of the 1910s
would damage the quality of life of those living and 1920s, although much contemporary practice
there. Since the 1920s, the policy of most states for has evolved since the mid-twentieth century. It is
most land in this country has been to delegate to the tool that well-managed communities use to de-
individual local governments decisions about the termine their needs and set the goals and objec-
regulation of activities on private land, largely tives that direct their future development.
through techniques called zoning and subdivision The Advisory Committee on Planning and
regulation (topics that are discussed in Chapters 11 Zoning of the U.S. Department of Commerce in-
and 12, respectively). Thus, local planning is also stitutionalized that type of comprehensive plan-
important to provide a context for decisions of the ning in the Standard Zoning Enabling Act (1926)
Introduction 3

and the Standard City Planning Enabling Act Transportation Planning

(1928). As described in Chapter 3, the zoning act
required that zoning be “in accordance with a Local transportation planning typically takes place
comprehensive plan,” and the planning act pro- in the context of a comprehensive plan. Transporta-
vided the first formal definition of the type of plan- tion and circulation needs are inextricably tied to
ning discussed here. land use patterns, and it thus makes sense to address
Two subsequent federal programs provided sig- them together. The confusing twist in transporta-
nificant funding for local planning. Both the “701” tion planning comes from the fact that many key
planning program, funded through the Depart- parts of the transportation network are built by
ment of Housing and Urban Development, and state departments of transportation, using federal
the “208” area-wide wastewater treatment man- money. Planning for interstate highways and other
agement program, funded through the Environ- state highways and roads is often quite different, but
mental Protection Agency, reinforced the com- federal law now mandates increased coordination
mitment to the kind of comprehensive plan- with local land use planning. These complex rela-
ning described here: long-range planning for a tionships are discussed in Chapter 8. The details of
defined area, with an emphasis on the physical a local transportation plan may fill a full chapter or
environment. a separate element of a comprehensive plan, but it
is the comprehensive plan that provides a context
for effective transportation planning.
Relationship to Other Kinds
of Planning Environmental Planning

Some planning professors view comprehensive Environmental planning takes place at many lev-
planning as simply one of a number of theories els. Since an activist Congress began to address
of planning.1 This book presents comprehensive such issues seriously in 1970, most of the planning
planning as a framework rather than as a theory, for air and water quality in this country has been
however. That framework provides a structure for driven by federal laws and regulations imple-
many related types of planning, and the resulting mented under those laws by the Environmental
plans provide a context for making well-considered Protection Agency. Although extremely important,
public decisions. At its best, comprehensive plan- those laws are beyond the scope of this book and
ning incorporates many other types of planning, are well addressed in other sources.2 Planning for
several of which are described here. environmental issues related to private land, how-
ever, remains a matter of primary local concern.
Some approach this as largely an environmental is-
Land Use Planning sue; this book presents it as an integral part of land
use planning. The type of comprehensive plan-
ning described in this text starts with careful analy-
Planning for future land uses is one of the most vis-
sis of both natural and built environments and de-
ible forms of community planning. Chapter 7 pres-
velops plans in that context.
ents this activity as an essential and integral part of
comprehensive planning but not as a separate ac-
tivity. Future land use plans make sense only in the Planning for Open Space
broad context provided by a comprehensive plan,
which addresses related topics of roads, infrastruc- Parks and open spaces are important land uses
ture, and urban boundaries. to be included in any good comprehensive plan.
4 c o m m u ni ty planning

Although traditional work in this field has focused construction, opening, and closing of school facili-
on planning for formal parks and recreation areas, ties. Thus, the planning for school facilities that
modern approaches also recognize the importance changes the future in most communities is that
of planning for a green infrastructure network, a conducted by the school board. Some school
topic discussed in Chapter 16. The need for parks boards work closely with the local planning com-
and open spaces is in significant part a function of mission and planning staff, resulting in coordi-
population and land use patterns, which are core nated planning processes. Others function quite
issues in comprehensive planning. The logical lo- independently, however, with the result that plans
cations for parks and open space evolve easily from for schools may differ from or even conflict with
the kinds of analysis included in thorough compre- what the comprehensive plan suggests.
hensive planning. Like transportation plans, de-
tailed park and open space plans may be contained
in a specific element of the comprehensive plan, Neighborhood Planning
but there is little justification for planning for parks
and recreation outside the context of the compre- Neighborhood planning resembles comprehen-
hensive plan. sive planning in some ways, but it provides greater
detail for a smaller area. Like other types of plan-
ning, neighborhood planning works best in the
Planning for Utilities and Infrastructure context of a comprehensive plan. If the plan for a
city or county is simply a compilation of neighbor-
Providers of electricity, telephone service, cable hood plans, it is likely that all of the neighborhoods
television, and natural gas typically follow growth will plan for single-family housing and upscale
patterns. The combination of a future land use shopping facilities, and none will plan for waste
map and data about actual construction activity disposal sites, heavy industry, lumberyards, broad-
governs the decisions of these utility operators casting towers, and other items essential to modern
about their own future plans. In contrast, sewer, community life. An important priority in most
water, and drainage services are often provided by comprehensive planning efforts is the protection of
local governments. For reasons described in Chap- established neighborhoods like the one shown in
ter 8, decisions about extensions of sewer and water Figure I.1. A comprehensive plan provides a con-
service in particular may actually guide future land text in which good neighborhood planning can
use patterns. Effective planning for the efficient occur.
delivery of those services must be closely coordi-
nated with future land use planning and with the
related subject of transportation planning; for ex- Historic Preservation
actly these reasons, those are logical elements of a
good comprehensive planning process. Where preservation planning focuses on an indi-
vidual building, it is far more narrow in scope than
the topics discussed in this book. Where it focuses
Planning for School Facilities on preservation of a downtown, a neighborhood, or
a context in which one or more historic buildings
Many local comprehensive plans address the need exist, it is much like comprehensive planning but
for future school facilities. The history of schools in with a more narrow focus. Most effective preserva-
this country is that most have their own governing tion plans exist in the context of a comprehensive
boards, separate from other bodies in local govern- plan, with the comprehensive plan providing the
ment, however. Those boards typically have great land use and other context for the preservation
autonomy on all matters, including the location, plan.
Introduction 5

Figure I.1. The preservation of established neighborhoods, such as this one in Missoula, Montana, is typi-
cally a very high planning priority. Photo: Richard Grice.

Planning for Housing Social Planning

Many communities today plan for housing to help Social planning is a broad term that can apply to
ensure that there will be housing opportunities for such topics as state planning to help people move
people of many different socioeconomic condi- from welfare to work, local efforts to deliver specific
tions. Housing must have a context, however. It social services, and social equity planning, which is
must fit into some sort of a larger plan. Those living discussed in the next section. This book focuses
in housing depend on a transportation system to largely on physical planning and thus does not ad-
provide access to work and to shopping and ser- dress social planning in depth. Nevertheless, it is
vices. Although a good housing plan includes op- important to understand that many of the issues of
tions for financing and other details that may go concern to social planners have physical roots: qual-
beyond a classic comprehensive plan, it is the com- ity of neighborhood services; land use patterns in
prehensive plan that provides the context for the neighborhoods, particularly declining neighbor-
provision of housing. Thus, housing is an element hoods; access of disadvantaged people to grocery
addressed in many comprehensive plans; detailed stores, libraries, and other essential services; and
housing plans can then be based on the compre- transportation accessibility for poorer neighbor-
hensive plan. hoods. Furthermore, although the subject matter
6 c o m m u ni ty planning

of comprehensive planning focuses heavily on the provides an important (although not exclusive)
physical environment, social goals often control the context for the activities of the advocate planner.
plan—goals such as improving the quality of life for The work of the social equity planners and radi-
inner-city residents, providing safe neighborhoods, cal planners relates closely to and is often based on
encouraging development of new industry to em- John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice, in which he urged
ploy local residents, and offering a range of recre- that government ought to provide the greatest ser-
ational opportunities to all citizens. Although such vices and benefits to those with the greatest need
social programs as welfare and health care programs and the fewest choices.8
will have operating elements that go beyond the
scope of the typical comprehensive plan, good com-
prehensive plans address social issues and their Regional Planning
physical ramifications.
A major limitation on the effectiveness of local
comprehensive planning efforts is the fact that
Social Equity Planning, Advocacy Planning, many communities are simply smaller parts of
and Radical Planning larger metropolitan areas or other regions. Eco-
nomic, social, geographic, and other forces affect-
Students who pursue planning studies beyond an ing such communities are often regional. For rea-
introductory course are likely to learn about plan- sons explained in Chapter 15, regional planning is
ning for social equity,3 advocacy planning,4 and weak in the United States, with some notable ex-
radical planning.5 Those phrases refer to political ceptions in Oregon, Hawaii, and a few other
philosophies intended to change the plans and, of- places. A series of individual local comprehensive
ten, many other aspects of a local community. A plans is not a good substitute for a good regional
good comprehensive planning process is a partici- plan, but that is what governs most regions.
patory one that allows advocates and those with Changes in the approach to regional planning will
“radical” or other views to present them as part of come from changes to state laws and state and fed-
the process; to the extent that the community ac- eral funding policies, not from simple changes in
cepts those views, they will ultimately guide the local planning practice. Chapter 15 discusses some
plan itself. Thus, comprehensive planning is differ- possible and desirable policy changes to encourage
ent in its focus from advocacy planning or radical more regional planning. In the meantime, most
planning, but it certainly does not preclude adher- planning in the United States remains local; be-
ents of those views from pursuing them in the con- cause this book focuses on planning as it is cur-
text of local planning. rently practiced in the United States, most of it ad-
A good example relates to the work of Paul dresses such local planning.
Davidoff,6 whose professional career focused heav-
ily on advocacy for increased suburban housing op-
portunities for people of lower income and limited A Pragmatic Note
choices. His primary battle was against the use of
zoning to keep apartments and small homes out of One purpose of this book is to introduce the field
the suburbs. Those are land use issues regularly ad- of community planning to people who may want to
dressed in the comprehensive planning process. To- become planners. Most people who undertake that
day, in part because of Davidoff’s work, the state of career path will spend a significant part of their re-
New Jersey specifically requires that local plans in- spective careers helping to prepare, analyze, up-
clude “fair share” housing elements.7 Clearly, an ef- date, and implement comprehensive plans. There
fective advocate planner must influence the com- are far more jobs working with these different
prehensive planning process, and the process thus stages of the comprehensive planning process than
Introduction 7

there are developing radical plans, housing plans, then provides a blueprint for making decisions that
or park plans. This book focuses on what typical affect the future of the community.
planners working for local governments really do, Chapter 23 provides an introduction to plan-
and it emphasizes doing that well. Radical plan- ning as a career. Who planners are, where they
ners and others may argue that planners really work, and how they get their jobs are subjects
ought to spend their time doing something else, treated in more depth in Chapter 24, available on
but that is not the focus of this book. the Web site only (www.communityplanning-
book.org). For more detail on that subject, read
that chapter now. Also, boxes at the end of most
The Role of Planners chapters in the first four parts of this book describe
how planners relate to each stage of the planning
Professional planners make planning work. Most and implementation process.
professional planners in the United States work for
local governments because that is where most of
the planning (at least the type of planning that is The Role of Individual Citizens
the subject of this book) takes place. What makes
planning so interesting and challenging is that the A comprehensive plan represents the future for a
role of planners is to help communities make their community. A community consists of a group of
own plans. As many planners discover, and as you people who live together as part of an organized
will learn as you work through this book, getting a system. Most community plans are created and
whole community to agree on a plan for its future adopted by agencies of local government, but ulti-
is not as simple as sitting in a quiet office and mak- mately that government, and the plans it creates,
ing a plan, but the excitement and satisfaction of represent and serve individual citizens.
professional planning come from helping people Anyone who has ever served on a committee
collectively to define their future together. understands that it is sometimes difficult to get a
Some planners specialize, focusing their work group of people to agree even on simple matters.
on transportation systems, parks, downtowns, or When the issues at stake are as complicated as the
economic development. Many deal with all those future of a community, and when the affected peo-
issues and more over the course of a year, and most ple number in the thousands, achieving agreement
will deal with a variety of planning subjects over or even consensus may seem like an overwhelming
the course of their careers. Downtown revitaliza- challenge. Achieving community consensus may
tion, neighborhood protection, low-income hous- be difficult, but it is also essential. Laws in every
ing development, historic preservation, park build- state provide for public hearings at which citizens
ing, suburban growth, highway construction, and have the opportunity to address planning issues;
industrial development are some of the topics that however, because a public hearing is a formal pro-
planners address in their work. This illustrates an- ceeding that usually occurs late in the planning
other characteristic of planning that makes the process, most communities offer other opportuni-
field attractive to many people: It involves a variety ties for citizens to become involved in making
of work and an opportunity to learn about many plans. Those opportunities may include informal
different parts of a community. community meetings, open-ended questionnaires
Will a community have a future without plan- to help identify issues, narrowly focused surveys to
ning? Of course. The future will come regardless determine community preferences on particular is-
of whether the community has a plan. Planning sues, workshops, charrettes, and the circulation of
provides a community with the opportunity to draft plans for comment.
make conscious, considered choices about what Chapter 6 of this book focuses on methods of
kind of future it wants to have. The resulting plan involving the larger community in the planning
8 c o m m u ni ty planning

process, and boxes at the end of most chapters de- report in writing, the effective instructor can turn
scribe the opportunities for individual citizens to many of these exercises into discussion opportuni-
become involved in each stage of the planning and ties for the entire class. An individual reading this
implementation process. book on her or his own will also find it useful to en-
gage in at least some of these exercises. They pro-
vide a means of applying the learning of the chap-
Users’ Guide ter to a familiar context—often a far more effective
Boxes method of reinforcing learning than simply taking
notes or highlighting paragraphs.
At the end of each chapter in the first four parts of There is at least one discussion question at the
the book are boxes labeled “The Role of the Profes- end of each chapter. The text should suggest other
sional Planner” and “The Role of the Individual topics for discussion, and a number of the exercises
Citizen.” The first box summarizes the role of the may be adapted for use as discussion questions
professional planner in the aspect or stage of plan- without the interim step of small group work.
ning discussed in that chapter. The professional
planner has a role to play in every stage of plan-
ning, but that role varies from data collector to in- Further Reading and Technical Resources
formation analyst to process facilitator and imple-
mentation expert, with a variety of related roles in Materials listed in the “Further Reading” section at
between. the end of chapters in the first four parts of the
The second box contains a discussion of how cit- book provide more depth on some or all of the ma-
izens can participate in and influence the planning terial discussed; annotations on each entry indicate
process at that stage. As you will see, some stages of the scope of the material covered there. These ma-
the planning process are built around the participa- terials will provide good background for students
tion of the individual citizen, and others are highly interested in preparing a paper related to that chap-
technical, with limited opportunity for citizen par- ter, for a professor preparing to lead a class in dis-
ticipation. The ultimate role of the body politic, cussing unfamiliar material, or for honors or ad-
which represents individual citizens, is that of plan vanced students who want to explore the subject in
maker. As in all other parts of democracy, the indi- more depth than that presented in this introduc-
vidual citizen can choose how small or how great a tory text.
role to play in that process. In a democracy, we get In contrast, the material listed under “Techni-
the government we deserve; if a community of citi- cal Resources” at chapter ends is generally techni-
zens chooses not to plan, they will probably get— cal material, useful for the practitioner (or group of
and certainly deserve—an unplanned future or a students) trying to apply the technique but not par-
future that is planned for them by others. ticularly desirable as background reading material.
Reference material often includes statistics, formu-
las, and detailed methods that are essential to rigor-
Exercises and Discussion Questions ous application of the techniques but inappropri-
ate for most class discussion in an introductory
The Web site for the book includes exercises and course.
discussion questions for each chapter. They are de-
signed to reinforce the learning in the chapter.
Such exercises are often most effective when as- Online Resources
signed to small groups, creating opportunities for
cooperative learning. By asking the small groups to Because online resources are evolving rapidly and
report to the class as a whole, rather than simply to Web addresses are changing constantly, this book
Introduction 9

provides references to only a few key online re- Governing body: The body that has general legisla-
sources. However, we will maintain a chapter-by- tive authority in the local government—usually
chapter list of useful online resources at the Island a city council or board of county commis-
Press Web site at www.communityplanningbook sioners but, in some places, a township board,
.org. That annotated listing will provide links to board of selectmen, board of aldermen, or
reference sites, to sites providing multiple links to board of trustees. This is the body that has the
related sites, and to sites that provide good exam- power to make and change the laws of the local
ples of material discussed in the chapter. government.
Local government: The formal, legally structured
government of general jurisdiction (the govern-
Glossary of Key Terms ment with zoning and other police power au-
thority) over the planning area. As used in this
The following terms are used in very particular but book, the term refers to the entire local govern-
consistent ways throughout the text. ment structure, including the mayor or other
chief executive, the council or other legislative
Charrette: Architects use this French term to refer body, and all of the commissions and adminis-
to a short, intensive design exercise; the word trative offices that are part of it.
apparently evolved from work that French ar- Planning agency: The person or office assigned the
chitects did on the tailgates of small carts on the primary responsibility for administering or facil-
way to present their proposed plans. Planners itating a planning process for a community. In
sometimes use similar short, intensive exercises larger communities that is typically a planning
to address focused issues or small areas, and this department; in other situations, it may be a con-
book uses the term in that way. sultant, a planning agency with another local
Citizens: Used broadly to refer to people who live government, or some other local official.
or work in a community. Planning body: For reasons explained in Chapters
Community: The geographic planning jurisdic- 2 and 3, communities sometimes use a special
tion, whether it is a city, county, township, or task force or steering committee to lead a com-
town, and the people, businesses, and institu- prehensive planning effort; we use this term to
tions that are a part of it and make it a center of refer to the entity actually preparing the plan,
human activity. The typical planning jurisdic- whether it is the official planning commission
tion is a city or town, but the principles and or some other ad hoc or standing committee.
practices included in this book apply equally to Planning commission: The official body within a
counties and other local jurisdictions. local government identified in state law as the
Comprehensive plan: This book uses this term only body with the duty and the power to prepare
for the kind of plan described in Chapter 3. To plans for the community and its local govern-
be comprehensive, a community plan must ment. In many places, this body is called the
have at least three basic characteristics: It must planning and zoning commission, but it is often
be geographically comprehensive, including called simply the planning commission or plan-
the entire jurisdiction of the local government; ning board.
it must be comprehensive as to subject matter, Stakeholders: Individuals and (usually) groups that
addressing all issues affecting the physical fu- have some real stake (economic, social, physi-
ture of the community; and it must be long cal, or political) in the outcome of a planning
range, typically using a planning horizon of process. Although all citizens of a community
about 20 years. Other types of plans are identi- are stakeholders, some stakeholders may not be
fied simply as plans or by the use of some other citizens, such as people who work there or who
descriptive word. live in a nearby community and are affected by
10 c o m m u nity planning

the air quality, traffic, and other impacts of that includes some of the classic theory articles cited
planning decisions in the community. here and a discussion of their relationship to the com-
prehensive plan.
Friedmann, John. 1987. Planning in the Public Domain:
From Knowledge to Action. Princeton University Press,
Further Reading Princeton, NJ. An excellent history of planning and its
theoretical foundations in the United States, followed
Alexander, Ernest R. 1992. Approaches to Planning: Intro- by the author’s argument for radical planning.
ducing Current Planning Theories, Concepts, and Is- Krumholz, Norman, and John Forester. 1990. Making Eq-
sues, 2nd ed. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, uity Planning Work: Leadership in the Public Sector,
Philadelphia. An excellent, coherent treatment of plan- Conflicts in Urban and Regional Development. Temple
ning theory. University Press, Philadelphia. A case study of the ap-
Davidoff, Paul. 1965. Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning. plication of this alternative approach to planning, with
Journal of the American Institute of Planners 31:331– discussion of the reasons for it in the context of Cleve-
337 (included in Stein 2004). An extremely influential land in the 1970s.
article on the role of planners as agents of change. Stein, Jay M. 2004. Classic Readings in Urban Planning:
Faludi, Andreas. 1973. A Reader in Planning Theory, Urban An Introduction, 2nd ed. American Planning Associa-
and Regional Planning Series, Vol. 5. Pergamon , New tion Planners Press, Chicago. A good collection of read-
York. An excellent early collection on planning theory ings, including some classic works in planning theory.
part i
The Comprehensive Planning Process

The first part of the book introduces the concept of Chapter 4 describes techniques of existing condi-
planning and then presents the process of creating tion analysis, which provides the starting point for
a comprehensive plan in the sequence most com- a community planning process.
monly followed by communities. Chapter 5 explains how planners bring a sense
Chapter 1 describes some overarching issues of reality to planning, by answering the question
that will be part of most contemporary discussions “Where can we go?” This chapter examines alter-
of planning and that are likely to be central sub- native approaches to determining what realistic
jects in a new plan: sprawl, sustainability, and the choices are available to a community.
relationship of public health to planning. The most important question in any plan is
Chapter 2 introduces the concept of planning, “Where do we want to go?,” which is the subject of
as applied in many different contexts. Comprehen- Chapter 6. It describes goal setting and other meth-
sive planning for a community is easiest to under- ods of determining what results the community
stand in the larger context of planning for human would like to see from the successful implementa-
activity in general. tion of the plan. Much of the chapter is devoted to
Chapter 3 describes the comprehensive plan the topic of citizen participation in the planning
and places it in the context of the planning con- process because it is through such participation
cepts explained in Chapter 2 and in the context of that the plan becomes a plan of and for the com-
a community and the local government that is re- munity as a whole.
sponsible for planning for that community.
The first thing anyone needs to know when us-
ing a map to find directions is the starting point.

11
Chapter 1

Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and

Human Health

This chapter introduces some overarching issues— Sprawling development patterns may compro-
issues that affect many aspects of local planning. mise our ability to live sustainably when consid-
Some specific issues, such as transportation and ered from the perspectives of energy, the environ-
land use, are typically the subjects of specific ele- ment, or, for most communities, even local fiscal
ments or sections of a local comprehensive plan. policies. The most sprawling suburbs are the ones
The issues discussed in this chapter are rarely where people walk the least, a fact that leads to ma-
treated as separate elements, but they often affect jor health problems. One of the secondary effects
most or all elements of a good local plan and are of the excess energy consumption and environ-
very important issues with which it is important for mental impact of sprawl is that it increases the
planners to become familiar. amount of air pollution generated by automobiles,
The three issues—sustainability, sprawl, and thus adding to human health risks.
human health—are closely related. The sprawling
patterns of development that emerged as conse-
quences of road building, home financing, and Relationship to Climate Change
other post–World War II policies are fundamen-
tally not sustainable; many of the sprawling sub- An emerging issue of note, which is not addressed
urbs have physical designs that discourage active, in this chapter in detail but is directly related to
healthy lifestyles. Any effective effort to create sustainability and health, is climate change. Cli-
more sustainable, healthier communities entails mate change is a major international public policy
an understanding of the government programs and issue in the early twenty-first century. In a 2007 re-
socioeconomic forces that have led to the move- port, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
ment of people from walkable cities to isolating Change concluded that global warming is real and
suburbs. that human activity creating greenhouse gases is a
Sustainability is the extent to which develop- major contributor to the warming trend. According
ment and the resulting lifestyles can be sustained to the report, “There is very high confidence that
over a long period of time without depleting natu- the global average net effect of human activities
ral resources. If one (or two or three) generations since 1750 has been one of warming.”1 In a new
exhaust scarce resources (e.g., petroleum reserves), book, Reid Ewing and others recommend reduc-
those are not available to future generations, and ing the miles traveled by automobile as one of the
therefore a lifestyle dependent on them is also not legs of a “three-legged stool” needed to address
sustainable. the contribution of transportation to the carbon

13
14 c o m m u nity planning

dioxide emissions that damage the ozone layer; the out. Although most people would agree that sus-
other two are improvements in automobile tech- tainability is a good goal for an individual lifestyle
nology and changes in the types of fuel.2 Although and for a community plan, few are willing to give
automobiles are not the only source of green- up their automobiles to make their lives—and
house gases, one third of carbon dioxide emis- communities—more sustainable.
sions come from transportation uses.3 Thus, reduc- There appears to be increasing public aware-
ing sprawl—low-density, auto-dependent develop- ness of sustainability issues, but there is seldom a
ment resulting in overconsumption of land—and connection made to what sustainability means for
creating more walkable communities to reduce individual communities and lifestyles. To the ex-
driving are positive local contributions to reducing tent that it means tax credits for solar collectors,
damage to the ozone layer. The initial focus of green roofs on buildings, and other measures with
most state and local governments in the United lots of glitz and little apparent cost in lifestyle,
States that have adopted climate change plans, many people are supportive. To the extent that it
however, has been on making government build- means smaller cars, more walking and less driving,
ings more energy efficient and, at the state level, more dollars spent on transit, a smaller selection of
taking steps to change the mix of automobile fuels mostly local groceries to reduce shipping costs and
or adopt tougher emission standards for vehicles.4 energy, and a reduction in the use of products
As discussed in Chapter 13 and other parts of this shipped from halfway around the world, there ap-
book, a number of state and local governments pears to be far less public support. That lack of sup-
have implemented programs to reduce sprawl; al- port often leads people to decide that maybe it is
though not identified specifically as plans to ad- not an issue after all. Nevertheless, it is a real issue
dress climate change, those and other efforts rec- and one that ought to be addressed.
ommended in this chapter to address sprawl and In short, these are not easy questions. With lim-
human health will also contribute to the effort to ited public awareness, lack of agreement on defini-
mitigate climate change. tions, and lack of agreement on priorities, it is diffi-
cult to build a consensus around a definition of
each of these issues, making it very difficult indeed
Complexity of the Issues to build a consensus around solutions. On the
other hand, simple things such as including side-
Sprawl is an issue high in the public consciousness walks in all new developments and allowing de-
and is often the topic of discussion at planning velopers to build at the higher densities that they
meetings. The fact that people are aware of the is- request can help improve a community’s perfor-
sue does not mean that they all agree on it, how- mance in dealing with these issues. Because they
ever. Although researchers have offered plausible are overarching, or cross-cutting, issues, planners
working definitions, there is no general agreement and public officials should be conscious of them
among citizens and public officials about what when creating plans. A plan can help to reduce
sprawl is. To some public officials, new develop- sprawl, reduce automobile dependence, and en-
ment represents growth, and growth is good, even courage more walking, thus helping to improve
if it consumes additional land and expands the ur- human health, without ever using the terms
ban area. To individuals and families seeking an sprawl, sustainability, or human health.
idealized lifestyle, the most distant, least dense
suburbs (often the very definition of sprawl) may
seem like utopia. And residents of growing areas Sprawl
who purport to hate sprawl may oppose new devel-
opment in their communities, thus pushing addi- After World War II, suburban communities grew
tional housing development farther and farther significantly while the population density of cities
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 15

declined. Two sets of federal programs and policies direct result of such policies. The VA typically
contributed to suburban growth: federal guaran- adopted the FHA standards.
tees of home mortgages and the construction of the Although neither the FHA nor the VA is a big
interstate highway system. factor in the housing market today, some of the
Through a series of laws, the U.S. government standards that they once imposed have been
created the Federal Housing Administration adopted by the Federal National Mortgage Associa-
(FHA), which provided mortgage insurance. After tion (FNMA, commonly called Fannie Mae).
World War II, Congress created the Veterans Ad- FNMA is a large mortgage pool (obtaining its
ministration (VA) home loan program, which guar- money by selling bonds to investors) that, through
anteed low-interest, long-term mortgages with low 2008, was the largest buyer of home mortgages in
down payments. the United States. Many local mortgage “lenders”
Through these programs, the federal govern- are actually “loan originators” that sell most of
ment began to redefine housing. During the years those loans to FNMA. Even banks that own some
after World War II, the FHA published an increas- mortgages want to make loans that can be sold to
ing number of guidelines and regulations for FNMA in case the bank suddenly needs cash (e.g.,
homes that would receive insurance through the if many depositors suddenly want to withdraw their
program. These guidelines showed a strong bias to- money). Therefore, most mortgage loans in the
ward suburban, single-family developments. De- United States today meet FNMA standards, which
velopments like the one show in Figure 1.1 are a are, in part, carryovers from the FHA standards. As

Figure 1.1. This photo shows a sprawling, low-density development on farmland, with no indication that it is
near an existing community or services. Homes in such developments typically follow federal financing guide-
lines for construction quality and neighborhood improvements but contribute to the problems of sprawl.
Photo: iStock.
16 c o m m u nity planning

a result, the FHA standards that favored new ties. One solution to sprawl has been to make infill
homes in new, residential-only suburbs continue a more attractive option.
to influence lending practices today. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin ex-
When Dwight Eisenhower became president amining the relationship between human health
of the United States in 1953, he led the federal gov- and sprawl provide this succinct definition:
ernment in creating what has become today’s in-
terstate highway system. Its original purpose was We consider sprawl to be any environment
defense oriented, to provide high-speed transporta- characterized by (1) a population widely dis-
tion for soldiers and equipment between all U.S. persed in low-density residential development;
(2) rigid separation of homes, shops and work-
metropolitan areas, but it was that system more
places; (3) a lack of distinct, thriving activity
than anything else that opened up the suburban centers, such as strong downtowns or subur-
development of the 1950s and created the sprawl ban town centers; and (4) a network of roads
of the 1970s and beyond. Today, most of the spend- marked by large block size and poor access
ing on the system involves system improvements from one place to another.6
within—not between—metropolitan areas. The
Surface Transportation Policy Project calculated Not all growth is sprawl, and not all of the in-
that the increase in roadways in urban areas in the creased consumption of land is necessarily irra-
1990s amounted to more than 22,000 lane miles tional. Changes in society have led most commu-
per year (the equivalent of 5,500 miles of new four- nities to expand outward, even if they are not
lane road).5 Although the stated purpose of much growing very much in population. Average house-
of that road expansion is to address current conges- hold size in the United States in 1970 was 3.14
tion, it has the indirect but entirely predictable ef- people; by 2007, that figure had dropped to 2.57.7
fect of facilitating future commuting and sprawl. If a community anticipated growth of 10,000 peo-
Most people think of their commuting burden ple when it adopted a plan in 1971, it would have
in time, not miles. Therefore, widening a road or needed to plan for about 3,200 additional dwelling
adding a road to a particular area makes that area units to house those people. A community antici-
more attractive to residential users because it pating growth of 10,000 people and adopting a
“moves” it closer to town by reducing the commut- plan in 2008 would have to plan for about 3,900
ing time to it. additional dwelling units. That increase need not
Easy access from the interstate highways made result in a significant increase in the land needed
large tracts of suburban land attractive to develop- for housing. The decrease in average household
ers, often leaving developable land in the city size includes an increase in households of senior
vacant or underused. Into the 1970s, local govern- citizens and other family units that are likely to be
ments contributed to sprawl by providing the nec- more interested in townhomes and multifamily
essary infrastructure of roads, schools, water and units than in sprawling homes on large suburban
sewer systems, electric and gas lines, and neighbor- lots.
hood parks. However, by the mid-1970s, as federal Consider land consumption from a different
funding decreased, communities found it more perspective. A typical block in a city built in the
and more difficult to finance sprawl, particularly nineteenth or early twentieth century was 600 feet
when existing infrastructure needed more funding by 300 feet, or about 180,000 square feet, or 4
for maintenance and upgrading. As older schools acres, in size. Downtown areas, where most people
became vacant, inner-city parks too dangerous to shopped, consisted of many blocks like that with
use, roads more congested, and tax rates high, lots of retail shops on the first floor and some mul-
communities began looking for alternatives to tistory department stores that each occupied a
sprawl. This became particularly critical in older quarter block or a half block. People often walked
cities totally enclosed by incorporated communi- or rode the bus to these stores. If they drove, they
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 17

parked on the street or in public parking lots. To- areas. Figure 1.2 shows one section of the four-
day, many people like shopping at Target, Wal- story Stutz building, which was an automobile fac-
Mart, or Kmart. The “super” versions of these tory in Indianapolis in the 1920s. Many factories
stores typically occupy more than 200,000 square built in the nineteenth and early twentieth century
feet, or more than a whole city block. Although the were multistory structures. Such structures were
major chains have developed multistory formats often located on single urban blocks or small
for stores in large cities such as New York, Chicago, groups of such blocks, with minor interruptions to
and Seattle, in smaller cities they still offer only the the street system.
standard sprawling format; those smaller cities are In contrast, a modern automobile factory is a
often auto dependent, meaning that such a store sprawling, one-story building designed around the
will need a parking lot as large as the store. Such assembly line that Henry Ford helped to perfect
stores simply will not fit easily into traditional (Figure 1.3).
downtown areas. It is possible that retail patterns Communities that want large facilities such as
may shift from these stores, but as long as people modern automobile plants typically have to find
vote with their feet by shopping at such stores, they large sites, outside the developed area.
will be a fact of life for planners. In short, changes in family size, shopping pat-
Industry has also changed and contributed to terns, and manufacturing technology have led to
the changes in urban form, in part due to early some of the increased land consumption. Such
zoning that separated industry from residential sprawl seems difficult to avoid in a healthy, growing

Figure 1.2. The Stutz Building in Indianapolis is now an office complex, but the Stutz company once made
automobiles such as the famous Stutz Bearcat in this building. Photo: Eric Damian Kelly.
18 c o m m u nity planning

Figure 1.3. The Honda plant in Lincoln, Alabama covers dozens of acres and sits on a site of hundreds of
acres. Photo: iStock.

city, as some will always want a suburban lifestyle stopped. With an aging population and smaller av-
and some who would prefer to live in a walkable, erage household sizes, housing demand is shifting.
transit-oriented community are unable to find af- One study shows that in 2007 the United States
fordably priced housing there. had enough large single-family homes on lots
Sprawl is reflected in recent land consumption greater than 7,000 square feet to satisfy demand
trends. Table 1.1 lists sprawl figures for ten major for a decade or more. The growth areas in housing
metropolitan areas. In most of those, the per capita will be in townhouses, condominiums, and other
land consumption increased over the study period; multifamily units, and small single-family units on
in three of those metropolitan areas, the per capita small lots.8 Such units fit easily into infill develop-
land consumption increased by more than 40 per- ment projects and work best when they are near
cent. If the population density at the beginning of mass transit or walkable neighborhoods—all good
the study period was 3,000 people per square mile, reasons for planning for such development primar-
a 40 percent increase in land use per capita would ily in already developed areas and not in new
result in a density of 1,800 people per square mile suburbs.
at the end of the period. Some of that change in- One kind of sprawl that can be stopped without
volved movement out from densely populated much effect on the way people seem to want to
parts of the city, but a lot of it involved urbanization live, work, and shop is leapfrog sprawl: new devel-
of large additional land areas at low densities. If opment that appears to leap out from the existing
new development is built close to or within the ex- community, leaving a gap of undeveloped land.
isting urban area and at densities typical of the ur- Because commuters from the new development
ban area, that kind of sprawl can be reduced or and a variety of public services for the new devel-
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 19

table 1.1 ward, it needs fire stations within reasonable dis-

Per Capita Sprawl Compared with Population tances of the new development.
Not all of the costs are paid in cash. Anthony
Growth in Per
Capita Land Growth in
Downs of the Brookings Institution writes in his
Urbanized Area Consumption Population Still Stuck in Traffic that people who move to the
suburbs to “get away from congestion” may spend
1. Atlanta, GA 42% 84%
2. Houston, TX 26% 73%
much of each workday dealing with the congestion
3. New York City, NY–NJ 24% –1% between home and work.11 Suburbs are often far
4. Washington, DC–MD–VA 41% 36% from museums, art centers, live theater, and other
5. Philadelphia, PA–NJ 48% 5%
6. Los Angeles, CA –8% 37%
cultural institutions typically found in central
7. Dallas–Fort Worth, TX –15% 59% cities; such facilities are thus less accessible to sub-
8. Tampa–St. Petersburg– urban residents and may be inaccessible to subur-
Clearwater, FL 13% 98%
9. Phoenix, AZ –18% 132% ban youth, who cannot drive and have no other
10. Minneapolis–St. Paul, MN 21% 22% way to get to the city without rides from parents.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau data as compiled by Leon One of the least recognized costs of sprawl is the ef-
Kolankiewicz and Roy Beck, Weighing Sprawl Factors in Large fect of sprawl on human health, the topic of the last
U.S. Cities: Analysis of the U.S. Bureau of the Census Data on the section of this chapter.
100 Largest Urbanized Areas of the United States (Arlington, VA:
www.sprawlcity.org, 2001), Table 1, p. 10.

Resources and Sustainability

opment must cross that undeveloped space, such
leapfrog sprawl is often highly inefficient.9 Plans for communities in the United States often
Sprawl is not only detrimental to the environ- seem to assume the availability of almost limitless
ment and human heath, but it is expensive. Econ- resources. Most urban areas in the United States
omists and fiscal analysts often debate the methods today are heavily dependent on fossil fuels, the
used to calculate the costs of sprawl, but the costs source of gasoline, which powers the most fre-
are significant. Using national population figures quently used form of transportation in those com-
and modeling development at the county level, fis- munities. There is a limit to the availability of fossil
cal experts at Rutgers University compared the fuels, a limit that may not be adequately reflected
costs of selected infrastructure under continued in the cheap price of gasoline in most of the early
sprawl development and under a managed growth twenty-first century. An oil embargo by the Middle
scenario that results in more compact and contigu- Eastern countries from which we receive much of
ous development. Over a 25-year period, they pro- our supply could create a practical shortage of this
jected that the sprawl alternative would require an important resource long before there is a real one.
additional $12 billion in capital costs for sewer and Dramatic increases in gasoline prices in 2008—
water systems and $6 billion in capital costs just for from less than $2 per gallon to more than $4—
local roads.10 clearly had an effect on driving patterns and may
One significant cost of sprawl is building new have a beneficial long-term influence on how peo-
schools to accommodate suburban growth, but ple think about how their lifestyle choices, such as
elected officials often do not talk about the fact that commuting, relate to fuel consumption. If people
they are simultaneously closing schools in older buy more fuel-efficient cars but continue to com-
neighborhoods because the population has moved mute for long distances, energy demand and air
outward. The need for new fire stations may be less pollution will decrease, but the pattern will still be
obvious, but it is real. The principal issue in plan- one that is far from sustainable. On the other hand,
ning for fire service is response time, which is a if more people decide that long-distance commut-
function of distance. Thus, as a city sprawls out- ing by car does not make sense and choose to live
20 c o m m u nity planning

in town, telecommute, or take mass transit, there natural course of which goes nowhere near the
will be multiple benefits for sustainability. city. Similarly, the expansion of Los Angeles re-
In short, the auto-dependent communities that sulted in part from massive investments that
evolved in the 1990s are largely not sustainable be- moved water from fertile, inland agricultural areas
cause we are depleting the fossil fuel resources to the growing metropolitan area on the coast.
needed to move people around them. But trans- Even where water used for urban purposes remains
portation is not the only area in which today’s de- in the same drainage basin, however, urban devel-
velopment practices lack sustainability. Here are opment often disrupts the hydrologic cycle on
other examples. which the water sources depend. Many communi-
Land. Mark Twain recognized more than a ties in the country depend on wells for their wa-
century ago that land is a scarce resource, and it ter supplies. Those wells tap into underground
has become more so. Even those who argue for the aquifers. Those underground aquifers depend on
primacy of humans and a corollary right for hu- rain and melting snow that soaks through the soil
mans to use the resources they need must begin to to recharge their water supplies. As humans pave
recognize that today’s development patterns in- the earth and the water runs off directly to nearby
volve the consumption of land far beyond reason- streams and rivers, many underground aquifers are
able needs. The United States is different from depleted. There are methods of managing runoff
many Western nations in that it does not consider that restore some of that recharge to aquifers, but
the scarcity of land in public policy decisions about many communities have not adopted such meth-
how private land ought to be used. ods. Other concerns in water management include
A complicated environmental land use issue is the quality of runoff. Although wastewater is care-
the increased interest in ethanol, soy diesel, and fully treated and often returned to a river in such a
other biofuels in an effort to limit the United condition that the river is both swimmable and
States’ dependence on foreign oil. To the extent fishable below the discharge, stormwater runoff
that the market for such fuels continues to grow, it contains motor oil and other automobile residues
is likely that some land now in conservation reserve from streets, lawn chemicals, and pet droppings. In
or used for food production will be shifted to grow- some states, this seems not to be a problem be-
ing soybeans and corn to be used for fuel. Such a cause water is usually plentiful; even in those
shift has obvious land use implications. One of states, however, water can become scarce in a par-
the encouraging trends in land use in recent years ticular place at a particular time, as a 2008 drought
has been an increase in wetlands and other areas that affected large areas of the Southeastern United
set aside in conservation reserves, some of which States demonstrated. And in states such as Califor-
may be lost to increased demand for ethanol. In re- nia, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and
cent years, market demand for ethanol has been Arizona, the water issue is critical.12
stronger than for soy diesel. That has led to a some- Wetlands. Besides providing rich sources of bio-
what unbalanced demand in some areas. As a re- diversity, wetlands are nature’s best flood manage-
sult, some farmers have discontinued their normal ment tools. In wet weather, they act like giant
crop rotation patterns of corn and beans, growing sponges, soaking up large amounts of water. Dur-
more corn. Such a one-crop farming method is ing dry periods, they gradually release that water,
far less sustainable than one in which crops are which then flows downstream. Because flooding is
rotated. almost always a temporary problem resulting from
Water. Rapid urbanization is taxing water re- a major storm, such temporary storage of water is
sources. Although some communities treat and re- all that is necessary to alleviate most or all of the
turn to the source nearly as much water as they potential damage from flooding. With rising sea
take from it, there are many exceptions. For exam- levels due to climate change, flooding is likely to
ple, much of the growth of Phoenix has depended increase, and conserving wetlands will be even
on water transported from the Colorado River, the more critical.
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 21

In 1992 the Midwest suffered from devastating sue and provides additional points toward LEED
floods, which resulted in significant part from de- certification for using recycled materials and for
cades of efforts to drain the wetlands of the up- using new “building materials or products that
per Midwest. Ironically, the federal government, have been extracted, harvested or recovered, as
which ultimately paid much of the bill for the well as manufactured, within 500 miles of the proj-
flood damage, probably exacerbated the effect of ect site.”17
the floods with the approval in the second quarter The ways in which buildings are conditioned
of the nineteenth century of the Swamp Lands and lit are environmental and human health fac-
Act, which provided both policy and fiscal support tors. Today, many public and private buildings
for programs to drain the wetlands. Far from be- have rooms without any natural light and other
ing swamps just waiting to be filled, wetlands are rooms with windows that provide light but do not
valuable economic and ecological resources for a open, so the buildings have only recirculated air.
community.13 Although some of the electricity that provides cool-
Buildings. Buildings are major consumers of ing and lighting (and a limited portion of heating)
energy, water, and materials, and they contribute comes from nondepleting hydroelectric sources,
significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Com- much of it also depends on dwindling fossil fuels.
mercial and residential buildings account for Studies have shown that workers in office buildings
about 39 percent of energy-related carbon dioxide with natural sunlight are more productive and
(a major greenhouse gas) emissions in the United have fewer absences.18
States.14 Most development projects in the United Industrial inputs and outputs. The location of
States today involve new buildings. In some cases, natural resource inputs into industry has always
the new buildings meet new needs. In others, they influenced the location of industry. In contrast,
replace existing buildings, sometimes physically the source of manufactured inputs into industrial
replacing buildings that are torn down and some- processes is often not a factor in determining in-
times simply leading to the abandonment of build- dustrial locations. Taking advantage of special pro-
ings elsewhere. In other countries, it is common to visions of the North American Free Trade Agree-
add onto and remodel buildings extensively, often ment, many companies moved parts of their
over many generations and several centuries. That production facilities to Mexico in the 1990s, leav-
represents a different set of values. With the help of ing other parts in the United States. Manufactur-
green building incentives, education, and stan- ing processes and product delivery depend on
dards in the United States, more consideration transportation modes that consume large amounts
may be given to reusing existing buildings. In its of fossil fuels such as airplanes, trucks, and cargo
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ships. Such systems are not sustainable over the
(LEED) standards for green buildings, the U.S. long run and may break down in the event of a ma-
Green Building Council includes specific stan- jor transportation strike; they may become eco-
dards for existing buildings (LEED EB). They also nomically impracticable as fuel prices inevitably
award extra points toward certification for renova- rise. Chattanooga, Tennessee broke out of this pat-
tion projects that retain 75–95 percent of exterior tern with an economic development strategy fo-
walls or 50 percent or more of interior, nonstruc- cused on seeking industries that would use both
tural elements in their new construction rating cat- products and byproducts of the region in produc-
egory (LEED NC).15 The system also gives credit tion processes. The relationship between the loca-
for diverting 50–75 percent of materials removed tion of manufacturing and the location of all of
in a renovation project from landfills.16 its inputs is an important element in planning for
In typical building design little or no considera- sustainability.19
tion is given to the true cost of obtaining and trans- Wildlife habitat and biodiversity. Planning in
porting the materials used in the building. The the United States is largely human centered, with
U.S. Green Building Council has addressed that is- little concern for the impacts on other species.
22 c o m m u nity planning

However, there is a growing awareness that hu- that every dwelling unit had access to light and air
mans have a higher moral obligation to other spe- would limit the spread of contagious diseases and
cies.20 There is also growing evidence that preserv- generally improve public health.23 This effort to
ing biodiversity is in our own self-interest.21 For a separate industrial uses and to reduce housing den-
community that places value on habitat and biodi- sities predated modern pollution controls, sanita-
versity, there are a variety of methods for protecting tion laws, and efforts to manage public health
them.22 directly through improved sanitation, building
It is important to include in an analysis of exist- codes, and vaccination programs. There was thus
ing conditions (Chapter 4) an assessment of the an important public interest, backed by reasonable
sustainability of the community. That must start scientific evidence, in using the tools of planning
with a realistic assessment of the ecologically valu- and zoning to address these issues.
able features of the community. Does the commu- Overlapping this period of major concern with
nity depend on wells? If so, how is the aquifer serious public health issues was the garden cities
recharged? Is recharge continuing at a reasonable movement. It started in the United Kingdom and
rate, or is development causing a reduction in the spread in significant part through a little book writ-
rate? Are there wetlands in or near the community? ten by a minor town official in England, Ebenezer
How do they function, hydrologically and physi- Howard.24 His garden cities were early models for
cally? Are parts of the local environment particu- modern suburbs: residential communities sepa-
larly fragile? Are there unusual natural hazards, rated from urban activity and many land uses by
such as geologically unstable areas or areas subject green space, with green space also shaping the
to wildfire? Ian McHarg’s Design with Nature, form of the community. Howard’s book signifi-
cited repeatedly in this text, remains the basic cantly influenced city and town planning not only
guide to this kind of analysis. The other part of a in his native England but in the United States.25
sustainability analysis is a sort of performance audit Building in part on the work of landscape architect
of the community’s current level of sustainability. Frederick Law Olmsted, garden city advocates in
To what extent is the community dependent on re- the United States argued that living in well-
sources that are dwindling or that come from dis- planned, low-density suburban environments was
tant and uncertain sources? To what extent are its the best way to maintain and improve public
basic local functions, including manufacturing, health.26
dependent on transportation? Are development Major federal laws passed in 1970, 1971, and
and building patterns increasing dependence on 1972 have significantly reduced air and water pol-
energy for local transportation, lighting, and space lution and brought the air quality in most cities—
heating? Are development patterns destroying crit- including areas around factories—to a level that,
ical natural resources, including wetlands, habi- according to modern science, is safe for humans to
tat, and other areas of significant environmental breathe. Industries and cities are required to clean
value? their wastewater, and providers of drinking water
are required to take further steps to ensure that the
water they deliver meets public health standards.
Human Health Epidemics have become rare in this country, and
most of the flu epidemics that still occur seem to
Improved public health has been a goal of city spread at schools and workplaces, not between
planning efforts in the United States since the dwelling units that are crammed together. Modern
modern planning movement began in the early health and building codes, as well as zoning ordi-
twentieth century. Housing reformers and other nances, require that light and air be provided di-
early advocates for planning and zoning believed rectly to each dwelling unit. Modern building
that reducing the density of housing and ensuring codes also require smoke detectors and the avail-
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 23

ability of exit windows in all bedrooms, reducing tion between sprawl and obesity. Would changing
the danger of death or serious injury from fire. the patterns and character of development make a
These improvements in living conditions are in- difference? Several studies have found a significant
cluded in the densest modern neighborhoods of correlation between the density or design of resi-
New York and San Francisco as well as in residen- dential areas and the amount of physical activity in
tial areas in Nogales, Arizona and Selma, Alabama. which residents engage.33 Similarly, the National
With all these laws on the books to protect human Governors Association notes that “students who
health, scientific evidence and common sense no live close to school are more likely to choose walk-
longer support the early twentieth-century notion ing or bicycling as their means of transportation to
that people can live healthy lives only in suburban school.”34
communities. Clearly people are more likely to walk or bike in
As a result of sprawling, car-dominated develop- a more walkable community. A 2003 study pub-
ment patterns, air pollution from automobiles is lished in the American Journal of Public Health
now a more significant source of health-threaten- identified major characteristics of a walkable neigh-
ing air quality problems than industrial pollution borhood.35 They included density and mix of resi-
in a number of metropolitan areas.27 The average dential uses; mixture of land uses, including grocery
automobile produces 8,800 pounds of carbon diox- stores, video stores, and nonfast-food restaurants;
ide per year, and automobiles account for 62 per- lack of convenient parking; development design;
cent of carbon monoxide emissions, 32 percent of availability of sidewalks; traffic speed on nearby
nitrous oxides, 16 percent of volatile organic com- streets; aesthetics of walking routes; and crime
pounds, and 9 percent of particulates.28 safety (addressed in Chapter 19).36
Another health impact of auto-dominated, low- The design of streets in a residential develop-
density development is the increasing obesity rates ment also makes a difference. Chapter 12 discusses
in these areas, where the effective use of active the importance of street connectivity and safe and
modes of transportation is difficult or impossible. A friendly pedestrian routes to create a neighborhood
2008 study examining data from a dozen countries that encourages walking. Figure 1.4 illustrates dif-
showed a powerful negative correlation between ferences in walking distances based on neighbor-
the use of active transportation and obesity.29 The hood design. As this book went into production,
study examined the travel modes people use for the U.S. Green Building Council was in the pro-
daily activities and distinguished between active cess of developing LEED certification standards
transportation and other modes. Along with bicy- for neighborhood design (LEED-ND), recogniz-
cling and walking, it included use of mass transit as ing the significance of such design factors in affect-
a form of active transportation, reasoning that most ing transportation and lifestyle choices.37
people who use transit have to walk to and from
transit stops. The United States, in which only
about 12 percent of daily trips involve active trans- School Facility Siting
portation,30 has the highest rate of obesity, whether
measured by self-reported height and weight or by It is difficult to overstate the effect that trends in
measured height and weight.31 Switzerland and planning for school facilities have had on neigh-
the Netherlands, which have the lowest obesity borhoods in general and walking in particular. Ac-
rates, have by far the highest rates of use of active cording to data from the National Household
transportation, including more than 60 percent of Travel Survey, in 1969 approximately 50 percent of
trips in Switzerland.32 elementary school students lived within 2 miles of
Correlations do not prove causation, of course. their school; by 2001, only about 33 percent lived
The authors of the 2008 study cite other published within this distance.38 In a policy paper, the Na-
research that reinforces their findings of a correla- tional Governors Association reported,
24
c o m m u nity planning
Figure 1.4. This figure shows aerial photographs of two neighborhoods in Atlanta. One has a grid pattern of development, with many points of
connection between streets. The other has a number of loop roads and cul-de-sacs. Points A and B on the two maps are equal distances from
each other when measured in a straight line. With the grid pattern, they are about that distance apart for a pedestrian; in contrast, in the other
neighborhood, a pedestrian must travel nearly three times the linear distance to get from one to another. Source: Lawrence D. Frank, Peter O.
Engelke, and Thomas L. Schmid, Health and Community Design: The Impact of the Built Environment on Physical Activity (Washington, DC:
Island Press, 2003), p. 119, Figure 7.1.
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 25

The decrease in students walking and bicy- Trends indicate that the average school size
cling to school correlates with an increase in has grown and that new schools have been in-
the number of overweight and obese children. creasingly located on large sites away from the
The Centers for Disease Control and Preven- families in the neighborhoods that they serve.
tion estimates that in 2003–2004 more than 17 The National Center for Education Statistics
percent of children and adolescents ages 2–19 notes that the number of schools in the United
were overweight. This is a sharp increase from States decreased from 262,000 in 1930 to
1971–1974 during which only 4 percent of 91,000 today, while student population over
children ages 6–11 and slightly more than 6 the same time has risen from 28 million to
percent of adolescents ages 12–19 were esti- 53.5 million. The student population contin-
mated to be overweight. Children who are ues to grow; the U.S. Department of Educa-
overweight or obese are more likely than chil- tion estimates that by 2030, it will reach 60
dren of normal weight to become overweight million.40
or obese adults, and consequently more at risk
for related health problems such as heart dis-
ease, diabetes, stroke, and several types of The National Trust for Historic Preservation
cancer.39 has published a report titled Why Johnny Can’t
Walk to School, essentially indicting school plan-
These increased travel distances are not just a ners for many of the problems addressed here.41
result of people living in less dense neighborhoods. School buses transport many students who could
They result from a shift in philosophy about the de- walk to school, and the sheer number of them at
sign and siting of schools, a shift that has been seen many schools makes walking up to the school un-
across the country. According to the Partnership pleasant and even risky for those who do (Figure
for Safe Schools, 1.5).

Figure 1.5. Two of a dozen school buses leave an in-town middle school after dropping their loads; the
others follow in rapid succession, crossing the main walking route to the school from several nearby
neighborhoods. Photo: Eric Damian Kelly.
26 c o m m u nity planning

One of the major purposes of the comprehen- possible. Even without changing the modes of
sive plan is to ensure that planning for all major transportation, however, a recent study funded by
public and private facilities is coordinated. Laws in the Environmental Protection Agency found that
most states require either that public bodies, such increased densities result in fewer vehicle miles
as school boards, consider the recommendations traveled. Using a broad comparative study of met-
of the comprehensive plan as they make decisions ropolitan areas in the Midwestern United States,
about major public facilities or that such plans be the authors concluded that a 10 percent increase
submitted to the local planning commission for in local densities (measured at the census tract
review and comment. Both types of laws are in- level) is associated with a 3.5 percent reduction in
tended to require the consideration of larger plan- vehicle travel.43
ning issues as bodies make decisions about individ- Planners and citizens interested in planning
ual facilities. It is important for planners and can encourage the use of the following techniques
members of planning commissions to remind to create more compact, walkable, sustainable
school officials and members of other public bod- communities:
ies about these requirements if the officials seem to
be ignoring them. • Encourage reasonable mixtures of uses (see
The benefits of rethinking current school de- Chapter 7).
sign are addressed in a study funded by the U.S. • Encourage or require higher densities (see
Environmental Protection Agency: discussion of density in Chapter 11).
• Zone to allow for neighborhood shopping
Schools built close to students, in walkable centers in neighborhoods (see Chapter 11).
neighborhoods, can be called neighborhood • Require sidewalks everywhere (see Chapter
schools. We conclude that compared to our 8).
sample from existing schools, neighborhood
• Require “complete streets” that are friendly
schools would reduce traffic, produce a 13
percent increase in walking and biking and a to pedestrians and bicyclists as well as to auto-
reduction of at least 15 percent in emissions of mobiles (see Chapter 8).
concern. Numerous state and local initiatives • Require street connectivity (see Chapter 12).
are responding to the health and environmen- • Update requirements for site design for com-
tal impacts of school location. We hope this mercial uses, offices, multifamily buildings
study is the first of many efforts that add to our and institutional uses to be pedestrian
understanding of how school location and de- friendly and to include facilities for bicyclists
sign can support educational, civic, health,
(see last part of Chapter 12).
and environmental goals.42
For more detail on these and similar concepts,
Conclusion see the discussion of smart growth principles at the
end of Chapter 13.
Sprawl, sustainability, and human health are
global issues, but local actions can make a differ- Other Material
ence. Better planning can create communities that
reduce sprawl, reduce resource consumption, and The Web site contains exercises, discussion questions,
improve human health. and online references related to this chapter. See www
.communityplanningbook.org under Chapter 1.
Reducing the absolute and proportionate use of
automobiles for transportation is a major factor in
addressing all three issues. Reducing vehicle miles Further Reading
traveled and the resulting air pollution from auto-
mobiles is best accomplished by providing other Arnold, Craig Anthony. 2007. Fair and Healthy Land Use:
means of transport, including mass transit where Environmental Justice and Planning, Planning Advisory
Chapter 1: Some Overarching Issues: Sustainability, Sprawl, and Human Health 27

The Role of the Professional Planner

Although a great deal has been written about both sprawl and sustainability, understanding the is-
sues in a local context is a complex subject. As material throughout this book indicates, one of the
most important roles of planners is the gathering and analysis of data to turn it into useful informa-
tion. In dealing with sustainability and sprawl, that is where planners must start. Planners can start
by computing the extent of sprawl in the community, the changes in land consumption per capita,
and the relationship of these changes to changes in household size. Using some of the material in-
troduced in this chapter along with supplemental readings and references, planners can also begin
to assemble a sustainability analysis for the community. The relationship between community de-
sign, physical activity, and human health is difficult to model. This may be an issue on which it is
best to start with a community dialogue about whether existing and new neighborhoods are walkable
and bicycle-friendly and whether the pattern of urban development in general encourages people to
use active transportation.

The Role of the Individual Citizen

Sprawl has drawn broad public attention since the 1990s, but many local plans contain few provi-
sions to address the challenges of sprawl. Sustainability and the relationship between physical activ-
ity and physical planning are not even on the agenda in many communities. Individual citizens are
the ones who can get these items on the agenda by asking (or demanding) that public officials begin
to address them. These are subjects on which some professional planners may lack background, so
research and analysis of the issues by citizens may be welcomed by planners and public officials
alike.

Service Report. American Planning Association, Newman, Peter, and Jeffrey R. Kenworthy. 1999. Sustain-
Chicago. A detailed and excellent treatment of issues of ability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Depen-
social and environmental equity, with additional refer- dence. Island Press, Washington, DC. An interesting
ences. and very readable work by two scholars with an exten-
Downs, Anthony. 2004. Still Stuck in Traffic: Coping with sive record of studying the relationship between trans-
Peak-Hour Traffic Congestion, Kames A. Johnson portation and land use.
Metro Series. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, Roome, Nigel J. 1998. Sustainability Strategies for Industry:
DC. A very readable and interesting analysis by one of The Future of Corporate Practice, Greening of Industry
the leading scholars on the patterns of urban growth. Network Series. Island Press, Washington, DC. A good
Ewing, Reid, Keith Bartholomew, Steve Winkelman, Jerry and still relevant introduction to this topic.
Walters, and Don Chen. 2008. Growing Cooler: The
Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change.
Urban Land Institute, Washington, DC. An important
new work discussing how patterns of urban develop- Technical Resources
ment contribute to climate change and how better
planning can reduce the damage. Baskin, Yvonne, and International Council of Scientific
Frank, Lawrence D., Peter O. Engelke, and Thomas L. Unions, Scientific Committee on Problems of the En-
Schmid. 2003. Health and Community Design: The Im- vironment. 1997. The Work of Nature: How the Diver-
pact of the Built Environment on Physical Activity. Is- sity of Life Sustains Us. Island Press, Washington, DC.
land Press, Washington, DC. A seminal work on a field A scientific approach to a topic that others have ad-
of growing interest. dressed more qualitatively.
28 c o m m u nity planning

Beatley, Timothy. 1994. Habitat Conservation Planning: struction and Major Renovation, version. 2.2. U.S.
Endangered Species and Urban Growth. University of Green Building Council, Washington, DC. The cur-
Texas Press, Austin. A practical guide to balancing the rent edition of standards for LEED-certified green
needs of wildlife and urban growth. buildings. Updated from time to time. Check Web site
U.S. Green Building Council. 2005. LEED for New Con- at www.usgbc.org.
Chapter 2

Introduction to Planning

Would you rather plan your future or just wait to policymaking, implementation, and monitoring.
see what happens? If the subject is next Friday In a simple planning process, two or even three of
night, waiting to see what happens may be an ac- these elements may be undertaken simultane-
ceptable answer. But what if the subject is the rest ously, but they are almost always distinguishable
of your life? What if the subject is the future of your factors in the planning process.
community? Planning the future of an entire com-
munity may seem like an overwhelming challenge,
but do you think a community ought to just wait to Data Gathering
see what happens? Planning involves making con-
scious choices about the future. Those who do not Every rational plan or decision is based on some set
plan just let the future happen. of information. A transportation department plan-
Planning is a rational way of preparing for the ning a highway gathers data on traffic demand, ca-
future. It typically involves gathering and analyz- pacities of existing roads, budgets, road construc-
ing data, examining possible future trends, consid- tion costs, and cost and availability of rights-of-way.
ering alternative scenarios, analyzing costs and Planners preparing a comprehensive plan gather
benefits of those scenarios, choosing a preferred data on existing conditions and on population
scenario, and planning for implementation. trends that will bring changes; they also gather data
Every year in some community, the state trans- on the capacity of the natural and built systems of
portation department improves the roads on the the community to absorb the effects of change.
east side of the town, while the public works de-
partment extends new sewer and water service to
the south, and the school district decides to build a Data Analysis
new school on the west side of town, on land that
turns out to have been a bargain because it has Sometimes data are self-explanatory, but usually
poor road access and no sewer or water service. some interpretation and analysis are needed to
Communities ought not to make such mistakes in turn them into useful information. Transportation
planning (or failing to plan) their own futures. demand, for example, is a complex topic. Planning
a new road involves a great deal more than just sub-
tracting presumed demand from the capacity of ex-
Elements of a Planning Process isting roadways. Raw population data tell one story
about a community, but careful analysis of that
Some basic elements are common to almost all data can provide a good basis for predicting fu-
forms of planning: data gathering, data analysis, ture school enrollment, cemetery needs, and other

29
30 c o m m u nity planning

trends related to the number of people in the com- Implementation

munity. In most cases, the comparison of proposed
plans to the available budget is itself a critical step Meaningful plans are those that become the basis
in the process of data analysis. for implementing decisions. Implementation of a
plan for a new highway typically entails buying
rights-of-way, conducting environmental studies,
Policymaking designing the new road, taking bids for its con-
struction, and then planning its construction in a
Data analysis sometimes limits the range of policy way that minimizes disruption of existing traffic
choices. A careful review of costs and budget may flow along it and related roads. Implementation of
suggest that there is only one choice of where to a plan for a new product involves design, legal
build a road or locate a new school. Often, how- protection (patents and trademarks), production,
ever, the data and their analysis provide a context marketing, and distribution. Money to pay for the
for making a policy decision, which often involves implementation is an element common to all
choices. Transportation planners may have to plans.
choose between a route for which construction Community plans are sometimes even more
costs would be low but that would cross a popular complex to implement. One goal in a community
public park and a route with higher construction plan may be “to alleviate congestion on Route 38
costs but no disruption to parklands or homes. from Broadway to High Street,” for example. High-
Someone must decide which choice to make. In a way engineers might achieve congestion relief by
community comprehensive planning process, it is widening such a road and adding traffic signals and
usually the governing body, with the advice of the turning lanes. Other alternatives for alleviating
planning commission, that makes such choices; congestion might range from closing some inter-
usually it does so only after a public hearing or sections and driveways along the road to building a
some other structured forum for receiving com- parallel road to absorb some of the traffic.
ments from citizens and stakeholders. To choose from among such alternatives, a
Note that the first two elements of planning— community needs a policy more detailed than this
data gathering and data analysis—are essentially general goal. Thus, the basic elements of public
objective and rational. Policymaking ultimately in- plans often include three distinct subelements:
volves judgment. Sometimes analysis of the data
makes the choice so obvious that the policymaking • Goals. Goals are the general aims of the com-
is very rational—or irrational if it does not reach munity, such as achieving specified levels of
the obvious conclusion. In many cases, however, travel efficiency on most roads.
the policymaker will have to make difficult • Objectives. Objectives are more specific sub-
choices, such as the choice between an inexpen- elements of goals, usually providing measura-
sive highway route through the middle of a park ble, midrange strategies. Thus, the objective
and an expensive one that goes around it. for improving traffic flow along a designated
Conceptually, the policymaking aspect of plan- road might be to build a parallel road at a
ning is the most complex, and therefore a large part specified location.
of this book addresses it. Policymaking for commu- • Policies. Policies are operational actions, usu-
nities is particularly complex because it is not al- ally with the purpose of short-term imple-
ways clear who has the power or authority to make mentation. Policies for the objective of build-
such a policy and because those who have the ap- ing a new road might include making the
parent power or authority may not choose to exer- new road the highest-priority item in the cap-
cise it. ital budget; assessing an impact fee (see
Chapter 2: Introduction to Planning 31

Chapter 14) to developers desiring access to goal; and policies requiring specific implementa-
either road, with the revenues to be added to tion actions, actions that are usually immediate.
a fund to help pay for the road; and deferring
approval of new development along the exist-
ing road until construction on the new road Monitoring
has begun.
The best plans include a feedback loop that pro-
Another way to think of this list is this: vides monitoring of the plan. Transportation de-
partments check traffic counts, speed, and flow
• Goals, including general aims with some before and after construction of a new road to de-
details termine whether it improves traffic flow. Environ-
• Strategies, including additional details of the mental enforcement officers measure the effluent
objectives and specific methods for making from sewage treatment plants to ensure that the
them occur plants are meeting clean water goals. Community
• Actions, focusing on the fiscal or physical im- planners observe and map changes in land use,
plementation of the plan comparing them to the plan.
One aspect of monitoring is its role in im-
Sometimes the goals, objectives, and policies plementation. Zoning enforcement officers (see
are all included in a local comprehensive plan (dis- Chapter 11) check new buildings to ensure that
cussed in depth in Chapter 3). More typically, they conform with zoning, for example, which is
however, objectives are established through some one of the implementation tools for planning; zon-
sort of midrange implementation planning pro- ing officers have a variety of methods for stopping
cess. Often, establishment of the specific objec- construction on a building that is inconsistent with
tives to implement a goal requires additional study. the plan. Another aspect of monitoring goes be-
A capital improvement program is one sort of yond implementation, however, and provides the
midrange implementation plan often used by local foundation for updating a plan and preparing its
governments, but there are others. Policies and ob- replacement. Communities base their plans on
jectives may evolve from the same stage of the projections of future population growth and other
planning process, but policies are often specific changes. If the population grows more slowly or
tools that are approved by a separate agency. Thus, more quickly than planners anticipated, that differ-
the public works department of the local govern- ence in growth will affect the plan. Community
ment, perhaps with the advice of the planning planners monitor such changes and suggest plan
commission, may develop the objective of building updates and amendments based on them.
the parallel road, while the implementing policies
require the approval of budgets and the adoption of
ordinances by the governing body. Community Planning in Concept
The terms goals, objectives, and policies are
not used with complete consistency in the field of Planning for a community is very different from
comprehensive planning. Thus, a plan may use planning for many other organizations, because
the term policies to refer to what are called goals the first step in planning for a community must be
here. In general, however, when the terms are used to identify a collective set of goals or a common vi-
together, they are used in the hierarchy described sion. Many organizations that plan already know
here, with goals setting the long-range, general what their goals are. Some of the leaders in effec-
aims of the community; objectives establishing tive planning are business and military organiza-
more specific, midrange strategies to meet the tions. Their goals are firm and clear. A business
32 c o m m u nity planning

must make a profit. It may have objectives of offer- rest of the planning process. Establishing
ing excellent customer service and providing a long-range goals is often a complex process,
healthy and happy working environment, but the however, sometimes requiring sophisticated
ultimate goal must be a profit. A business that does management. Public participation in this
not make a profit eventually exhausts its capital process is very important but sometimes
and ceases to exist, at which point concepts such as complicated; ultimately, the task of framing
“customers” and “employees” become irrelevant. the goals must fall to a smaller group, such as
Similarly, the clear goal of a military organiza- the planning body or the governing body.
tion is to take ground or hold ground. In peace- (Note that trend analysis and issue identifica-
time, society may forget that, but military planners tion, also discussed here, are often used as in-
never do. In most cases, the specific ground that a puts into a goal-driven process.)
military unit must try to seize or defend is an objec- • Trend driven. A trend-driven approach to
tive determined outside that organization and planning simply projects current population
given to it as an assignment. and land use trends into the future and
There are many other examples. The local uses those as the basis for planning. This is a
United Way plans its annual campaign with the technical and not particularly participatory
knowledge that its goal is to raise money for social approach. Because trends are so likely to
services and other charities in the community. The change, it is not the ideal approach to form
school district knows that its goal is to provide an the core of a community planning process. It
education to children and youth of specified ages, can provide a useful point of reference for
in accordance with standards set out in state law. other planning approaches, however.
Thus, the task in the kind of planning used by • Opportunity driven. In an opportunity-driven
businesses, military organizations, and others with planning process, a community assesses its fu-
defined goals is to determine how best to meet ture based on opportunities and constraints
those goals. In contrast, a good community plan- rather than on simple projections of trends.
ning process must begin with a process to deter- Often, citizen participation efforts in local
mine the goals. planning involve identification of opportuni-
ties and strengths. Professional planners of-
ten identify objective opportunities, such as
Alternative Approaches underused transportation facilities, large and
vacant industrial buildings, and availability of
There are several different approaches to commu- cheap energy sources.
nity-wide planning. Planners have used all of these • Issue driven. In an issue-driven planning pro-
approaches as the basis of comprehensive plans in cess, a community identifies the critical is-
different communities at different times. Each has sues facing it and focuses its planning efforts
strengths and weaknesses. The choice of approach on those issues. This is a simple and practical
(or approaches) will depend on local needs and approach to planning that can be broadly par-
preferences; that choice in significant part will de- ticipatory. It is typically very result oriented.
fine the process that is used and influence the re- Issue-driven planning can take one of two
spective roles of professional planners and inter- forms. Sometimes it poses challenging ques-
ested citizens, as well as the role of the planning tions such as “What type of industry can re-
body. Here are the basic approaches: place our historic dependence on the auto in-
dustry?” In other cases it may be the obverse
• Goal driven. This is the classic approach to of the opportunity-driven approach, with the
planning. It establishes long-range goals for “questions” really representing problems,
the community, and those goals guide the such as “How do we eliminate the traffic con-
Chapter 2: Introduction to Planning 33

gestion that discourages new industry from energy with their environments (which are
coming here?” larger systems).
• Vision driven. Although the term visioning is
A student is a system, made up of many biologi-
sometimes used loosely to refer to a goal-
cal systems. That student is a part of several larger
setting process, the term vision is more accu-
systems, perhaps including a class in which this
rately used for an overarching goal that con-
book is used as a text. That class is a part of a larger
trols the entire process. True visions generally
system, probably an academic department. That de-
arise from within a community through
partment, in turn, is part of a school or college that is
strong leadership (which is often informal
part of a university, which itself is part of a state.
leadership). A plan to fulfill a vision can be
Understanding the relationships of systems in-
one of the most exciting kinds of plans to
volved in a planning study is often critical to the suc-
develop. It is difficult to use a vision-driven
cess of that planning effort and its implementation.
planning process to extract a vision where
Understanding systems can be particularly impor-
one does not exist, however.
tant in facing difficult problems, because a problem
that is not solvable at one system level may be easily
Most local plans are developed using some
solvable at a higher system level. Consider parking
combination of approaches. Sometimes separating
as an example. Today many communities require
the approaches, as in this list, oversimplifies mat-
that new development include adequate off-street
ters. On the other hand, simplification makes
parking to serve the buildings and land uses in the
them easier to explain and understand. In prepar-
development; that usually implies creating parking
ing a plan, communities should blend one or more
spaces on the same lot. In that context, each lot is a
approaches to best meet their unique local needs.
system. However, trying to address parking needs on
Trend-driven planning works best as an input to
individual building lots in a downtown area may in-
other types of planning approaches, illustrating
terfere with other goals of creating a dense and
what will happen without a plan for managing a
pedestrian-friendly environment. At the system
change in trends. All of the other approaches rep-
level of the individual lot, there is no good solution.
resent valid approaches to planning, each useful in
If planners consider an entire block, or even the
its own way.
whole downtown, however, it becomes practicable
to think about solving the parking problem off the
Systems Thinking and Planning individual lot but within the larger system; for ex-
ample, First Street might be pedestrian oriented,
with buildings filling every lot, and Second Street
Systems analysis provides a rigorous framework for
would be lined with parking lots behind the First
making some planning decisions. It is easily adapt-
Street buildings. A problem that has no good solu-
able to computerized analysis and testing of alter-
tion at one system level may have one or more easy
natives, making it an appealing tool to those who
solutions at another system level. Thus, it is often
want quantifiable, defensible decisions.
useful in planning to define the systems involved
Equally important to planning is the notion of
and to consider solving a difficult problem by mov-
systems thinking. Systems theory starts with three
ing to a different system level.
basic concepts:

• Everything is a system. Planning Traditions in the

• Every system is a part of one or more larger United States
systems (and thus, by corollary, every system
is made up of other systems). Planning has been an essential element in build-
• Most systems are open systems that exchange ing this country and remains an important and
34 c o m m u nity planning

pervasive activity. Businesses plan their operations Canal, the famous waterway that effectively con-
and marketing campaigns. Television networks nected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, al-
plan their seasons. Armies plan battles, campaigns, though the canal itself ran only from Buffalo on
and entire wars. Some engineers plan highways, Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson River; the
and others plan sewer systems. College students Hudson in turn flows out to the Atlantic, around
plan their programs of study. Professionals plan Manhattan Island. Major cities grew up along this
their days, often using computer systems to track important route of commerce, and therefore later
multiple appointments and other commitments. planners for railroads and highways placed their
Planning is a fundamental activity, essential to major infrastructure along this route. Even today, a
any complex or long-range endeavor. It is much map of the major cities in New York State looks
older than our nation, but it has played an impor- like an inverted letter L, reflecting the route of the
tant role in our nation’s evolution. The Constitu- Erie Canal through the middle of the state, con-
tion that guides us some 200 years after it was necting on the east to the Hudson, which forms the
drafted was a plan for a nation—a plan developed leg of the L.
when the proposed Articles of Confederation The combination of two grand plans opened
proved unacceptable. The creation of the District up the West, as the United States acquired more
of Columbia resulted from a plan to create a na- Western territory through purchase and conquest.
tional capital outside the boundaries of any state. One plan promoted settlement through the home-
Even today the capital reflects the remarkable stead program, under which a family or individual
planning of a Frenchman, Pierre L’Enfant, which could acquire a quarter section (160 acres) of land
was updated more than one hundred years later in the new territories simply by claiming it, liv-
by the MacMillan Commission (a congressional ing there, and beginning to improve it or use it
body)1 and again in the 1990s by the appointed Na- productively. Figure 2.1 sets out the preamble to
tional Capital Planning Commission.2 the law that established the homesteading pro-
An early example of physical planning that gram. Much of the private property in the West-
helped to shape the nation is provided by the Erie ern United States today traces its history to orig-

Homestead Act of 1862:

An Act of the Thirty-Seventh Congress, Session II, Chapter 75, 1862

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Con-
gress assembled, That any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-
one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or shall have filed this declaration of intention to be-
come such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United States, and who has never borne
arms against the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, shall, from and
after the first of January, eighteen hundred and sixty-three, be entitled to enter one quarter section or
a less quantity of unappropriated public lands, upon which such person may have filed a preemption
claim, or which may, at the time the application is made, be subject to preemption at one dollar and
twenty-five cents, or less, per acre; or eighty acres or less of such unappropriated lands at two dollars
and fifty cents per acre, to be located in a body, in conformity to the legal subdivisions of the public
lands, and after the same shall have been surveyed.

Figure 2.1. The Preamble to the Homestead Act, one of the two major pieces of legislation in Congress’
plan to open the West to settlement.
Chapter 2: Introduction to Planning 35

inal grants from the United States of America to The same system of describing land defines real
homesteaders. property in most of the United States today. The
A related plan for the new territories was a de- exceptions are the original colonies, Texas, and
velopment plan, and that was the plan for rail- parts of the Southwest that trace their titles to origi-
roads. Under that program, beginning after the nal Spanish and Mexican land grants. Homesteads
Civil War, the U.S. government granted millions were based on quarter sections, or squares that con-
of acres of land in the new West to the railroads. As tained 160 acres of land and measured one-half
an incentive, the government granted to the rail- mile on a side. The railroad land grants were based
roads not only the rights-of-way necessary to build on full sections. In many of the Western states, spe-
the railroad lines but also designated parcels of cific sections in every township were retained for
land along the rights-of-way whose development the state as school lands, and those remain sources
into new settlements would profit the railroads. of support for public education in many states
Many Midwestern farm communities were laid today.
out by railroad surveyors on just such land in the Later examples of national planning in the
last half of the nineteenth century, and those early United States include the national park system,5
survey grids still form the heart of many communi- which is the result of the vision of a few people a
ties today.3 century ago, and the interstate highway system.6
The national coordinate survey system repre- The interstate system became a reality under Pres-
sented a different sort of planning, one that was es- ident Dwight Eisenhower, who as General Eisen-
sential to the homesteading and railroad land hower had led the Allied forces in Europe in World
grants. Chaos often resulted from colonial land War II. He believed that an efficient road system
titles, which might describe a parcel of land as for the movement of troops, equipment, and sup-
running, for example, “along the Newtown Road plies was essential to the future defense of the na-
to a large rock, thence west to the creek, thence tion. Today, its principal purpose is to serve com-
north approximately 220 feet along the meander merce and convenience, and many trips on the
of the creek to a large oak tree.” There were often system are intraurban, not interstate. However, the
disputes over which rock and even which road, important point is that this system developed from
and trees disappeared and streams changed their a national plan. It can trace its planning roots to
courses, with or without human help. Therefore, such landmarks as the National Road, the first ma-
engineers working with the new national govern- jor interstate highway, most of which became part
ment developed the national coordinate survey of U.S. 40, and the Lincoln Highway (now mostly
system to describe lands in the new Western terri- known as U.S. 30), which was the first coast-to-
tories. This system, first used in the Ohio Territory coast road.
in the 1780s, created a grid based on lines of lon- Although our society remains very different
gitude and latitude. Major lines in the grid were at from those in which even the economies are cen-
6-mile and 1-mile intervals, creating townships trally planned, a great deal of planning is essential
that were 6 miles by 6 miles and sections that were to the operation of the nation. Without planning,
1 mile square, containing 640 acres; there were, of there would be chaos. There would be roads with-
course, thirty-six sections in a township. Town- out bridges, bridges without roads, railroad stations
ships, ranges, and sections were numbered in ac- in the middle of the prairie and cities without rail-
cord with a uniform system.4 Figure 2.2 illustrates roads, schools without students and students in
the system. The acre became the standard mea- other communities without schools. Although no
sure of land in the United States; it represents 40 system is perfect, planning is more notable for its
percent of the size of a hectare, which had been success in helping the United States achieve re-
the common measure before creation of this markable growth and prosperity than for its occa-
system. sional failures.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
isäntääni Anselmoa, joka on nähnyt hyväksi luovuttaa tuolle
hävyttömälle sellaisen vallan talossaan! Ja jos sinä, señora, nyt
hänet surmaat, kuten luulen sinun mielivän tehdä, niin mitä teemme
hänelle hänen kuoltuaan?

— Mitäkö, ystäväiseni? — virkkoi Camila. — Jätämme hänet siihen

Anselmon haudattavaksi, sillä onhan oikeus ja kohtuus, että hän
nurkumatta vaivautuu kätkemään maan alle oman häpeänsä. Kutsu
hänet, joudu, sillä minusta tuntuu, että viivyttäessäni kokemani
solvauksen kostamista rikon uskollisuutta, jonka olen miehelleni
velkaa.

Anselmo kuuli tuon kaiken, ja jokainen Camilan sana herätti

hänessä uusia tunteita; mutta kuullessaan, että Camila vakavasti
aikoi surmata Lotarion, hän mieli astua esiin ja ilmaista itsensä, jottei
hän sitä tekisi. Hänet pidätti kumminkin paikalleen halu nähdä, mihin
päätökseen johtaisi tuo ylen rohkea ja kunniallinen päätös; mutta
hän ajatteli käydä ajoissa estämään sen toteuttamista.

Samassa Camila joutui ankaran voipumuksen valtaan ja heittäytyi

huoneessa olevaan sänkyyn Leonelan parahtaessa katkeraan itkuun
sanoen:

— Voi minua poloista, jos kohtaloni on niin kova, että hän kuolee
tässä käsiini, tämä maailman kaiken kunniallisuuden kukka, hyväin
naisten kruunu ja siveyden esikuva…!

Lisäksi muuta samanlaista, mitä kukaan ei olisi voinut kuunnella

pitämättä Leonelaa kaikkein osaaottavimpana ja uskollisimpana
palvelijattarena maan päällä ja hänen emäntäänsä uutena ja
ahdistettuna Penelopeiana.[18] Camila toipui pian voipumuksestaan
ja sanoi toivuttuaan:
— Miksi et mene, Leonela, kutsumaan kaikkein uskollisinta
ystävänsä ystävää, mitä aurinko on milloinkaan nähnyt tai yö
peittänyt? Joudu, juokse, riennä, lähde, jottei sinun viipyessäsi vihani
loimu sammu ja toivomani oikeudenmukainen kosto haihdu
uhkauksiin ja kirouksiin.

— Minä menen häntä kutsumaan, señora, — sanoi Leonela —

mutta sinun tulee ensin antaa minulle tuo tikari, jottet minun
poissaollessani tee mitään sellaista, minkä vuoksi kaikki ne, jotka
ovat sinuun kiintyneet, joutuvat itkemään kaiken ikänsä.

— Mene huoletta, rakas Leonela, en minä tee mitään sellaista; —

vastasi Camila — jos näet olenkin mielestäsi huima ja vähäjärkinen
niin tuimasti puolustaessani kunniaani, en kumminkaan tahdo mennä
niin pitkälle kuin entinen Lucretia, jonka sanotaan surmanneen
itsensä, vaikka ei ollut mitenkään hairahtunut, sitä ennen
surmaamatta häntä, joka oli syypää hänen onnettomuuteensa. Jos
kerran on kuoltava, niin minä kuolen, mutta sitä ennen minun tulee
saada kostaa ja ottaa hyvitystä siltä, jonka vuoksi olen tänne tullut
itkemään hänen julkeita tekojaan, joihin en ole millään tavalla
antanut aihetta.

Leonelaa täytyi kauan pyytää, ennenkuin hän lähti kutsumaan

Lotarioa, mutta vihdoin hän kumminkin meni, ja hänen sillä tiellä
viipyessään Camila jatkoi, kuin itsekseen puhellen:

»Jumala minua auttakoon! Eikö olisi ollut viisaampaa torjua

Lotario, kuten monesti ennen, kuin antaa hänelle aihetta, kuten nyt
olen tehnyt, pitää minua kunniattomana ja kehnona, ainakin siksi,
kunnes hälvennän hänen harhaluulonsa? Epäilemättä olisin niin
tehden menetellyt oikeammin; mutta en olisi saanut kostaa eikä
mieheni kunnia olisi tullut hyvitetyksi, jos hän olisi päässyt mitään
korvaamatta ja kaikessa rauhassa astelemaan pois huoneesta, johon
hänen pahat himonsa häntä ajavat. Maksakoon petturi hengellään,
mitä niin irstaasti himoitsi, ja tietäköön maailma (jos se saanee tästä
kuulla), ettei Camila ainoastaan säilynyt miehelleen uskollisena, vaan
kostikin hänen puolestaan sille, joka julkesi häntä solvata. Sittenkin
ajattelen, että olisi ollut parempi ilmoittaa tämä Anselmolle; mutta
minähän koin niin tehdä kirjeessä, jonka lähetin hänelle maakylään,
ja luulenpa, että hän, kun kerran ei rientänyt korjaamaan sitä pahaa,
mistä hänelle huomautin, pelkästä sydämen hyvyydestä ja
luottamuksesta kaiketi ei tahtonut eikä voinut uskoa, että niin
varman ystävän povessa voisi piillä mitään hänen kunniaansa
herjaavia aikomuksia. Enhän itsekään sitä uskonut moneen päivään
enkä olisi uskonut milloinkaan, ellei hänen julkeutensa olisi mennyt
niin pitkälle, että hänen julkiset lahjansa, suuret lupauksensa ja
alinomaiset kyynelensä sen minulle ilmaisivat. Mutta miksi nyt tätä
mietinkään? Kaipaako rohkea päätös mitään neuvottelemista? Ei
suinkaan. Väistykää siis pois, te petteliäät mietteet; tulkoon kosto!
Astukoon sisään se uskoton, tulkoon, saapukoon, kuolkoon ja
kohdatkoon loppunsa, tapahtuipa sitten mitä tahansa! Puhtaana
minä tulin sen miehen haltuun, jonka taivas omakseni antoi;
puhtaana minä hänen luotaan lähdenkin, korkeintaan kylpien
omassa viattomassa veressäni ja kaikkein uskottomimman ystävän
veressä, mitä ystävyys on maailmassa milloinkaan nähnyt.»

Niin sanoen hän liikkui huoneessa edestakaisin, tikari

paljastettuna, niin epätasaisin ja kiihkein askelin ja sellaisin elein,
että näytti kerrassaan siltä kuin olisi menettänyt järkensä ja ollut
raivoisa rikoksentekijä eikä hento nainen.

Kaikkea tuota katseli seinäverhojen taakse piiloutunut Anselmo

kovin ihmetellen ja ajatellen, että hänen jo kuulemansa riitti
hälventämään pahempiakin epäluuloja; olisipa hän toivonut Lotarion
saapumisesta koituvan enemmän todistuksen jäävän antamattakin,
koska pelkäsi voivan sattua jotakin äkillistä onnettomuutta. Hän oli jo
aikeissa ilmaista itsensä ja astua esiin syleilemään vaimoansa ja
hälventämään hänen harhaluuioaan, mutta jäi paikoilleen, kun näki
Leonelan tulevan taluttaen Lotarioa. Havaitessaan Lotarion Camila
piirsi tikarillaan pitkän viivan eteensä permantoon ja virkkoi:

— Lotario, huomaa, mitä sanon: jos uskallat astua tämän tässä

näkemäsi viivan yli tai tulla sen luo, niin nähdessäni sinun aikovan
niin tehdä syöksen samassa tuokiossa poveeni tämän kädessäni
olevan tikarin. Ennenkuin vastaat minulle sanaakaan, kehoitan sinua
kuuntelemaan, mitä minulla on vielä sanottavaa; sitten saat vastata,
mitä ikänä mielit. Ensinnäkin vaadin sinua, Lotario, sanomaan,
tunnetko mieheni Anselmon ja mitä hänestä ajattelet; ja toiseksi
haluan vielä tietää, tunnetko minut. Vastaa näihin kysymyksiini, älä
ole hämilläsi äläkä liikoja mieti, mitä vastaisit, sillä enhän kysy sinulta
mitään vaikeita asioita.

Lotario ei ollut niin typerä, ettei ollut arvannut, mitä Camila aikoi
tehdä, jo silloin, kun hän oli käskenyt toimimaan niin, että Anselmo
piiloutuisi, ja siksi hän sopeutui Camilan suunnitelmaan niin
älykkäästi ja sujuvasti, että tuo valheellinen kohtaus olisi voinut
heidän esittämänään käydä tosimmasta todesta. Hän vastasi
Camilalle näin:

— En minä luullut, kaunis Camila, että olit kutsunut minut tänne

udellaksesi minulta seikkoja, jotka ovat niin etäällä siitä
tarkoituksesta, joka minut tänne tuo. Jos menettelet niin siirtääksesi
tuonnemmaksi minulle lupaamasi suosion, olisit voinut lykätä sen
vieläkin kauemmaksi, sillä onnen kaipaus rasittaa meitä sitä
enemmän, mitä pikemmin toivomme sen saavuttavamme. Jottet
kumminkaan väitä minun jättävän kysymyksiäsi vastaamatta, sanon,
että tunnen puolisosi Anselmon ja että me molemmat tunnemme
toisemme varhaisimmalta iältämme; mutta en halua sanoa
ystävyydestämme, mitä sinä tiedät yhtä hyvin, koska en tahdo itse
joutua todistamaan sitä vääryyttä, jonka minulla teettää hänelle
rakkaus, suurempienkin hairahdusten voimallinen puolustus. Sinut
minä tunnen ja kunnioitan sinua samoinkuin hän; ellei näet olisi niin
laita, en rikkoisi pienempien päämääräin kuin sinun hyvien
ominaisuuksiesi vuoksi sitä, mihin minua velvoittaa oma itseni, ja
vilpittömän ystävyyden pyhiä lakeja, jotka nyt rikon rakkauden,
tämän ylen voimallisen vihollisen tähden.

— Jos sen tunnustat, — vastasi Camila — sinä kaiken sen

verivihollinen, mitä oikeudenmukaisesti kannattaa rakastaa, niin
millaisin kasvoin rohkenet astua sen henkilön eteen, jonka tiedät
siksi kuvastimeksi, missä kuvastelee itseään hän, jota sinun tulisi
käyttää kuvastimenasi, jotta näkisit, kuinka syyttömästi häntä
solvaat? Mutta nytpä minä, onneton olento, ymmärrän, mikä on
saanut sinut pitämään niin mitättömänä sitä, minkä olet itsellesi
velkaa; syynä on varmaan ollut jokin käytöksessäni ilmennyt
varomattomuus, jota en kumminkaan tahdo nimittää
sopimattomuudeksi, koska se ei suinkaan ole johtunut harkitusta
aikomuksesta, vaan huolettomuudesta, jollaiseen naiset monesti
tekevät huomaamattaan itsensä vikapäiksi otaksuessaan, ettei
heidän tarvitse ketään varoa. Ellet sitä tunnusta, niin sano minulle,
sinä pettäjä, milloin olen vastannut hartaisiin pyyntöihisi millään
sellaisella sanalla tai eleellä, joka olisi voinut herättää sinussa
vähintäkään toivon häivää, että häpeälliset pyyteesi tulevat
toteutumaan! Milloin en ole torjunut ja moittinut sinun lempeä-
anelevia sanojasi vakavilla ja ankaroilla vastauksillani? Milloin olen
uskonut tai ottanut vastaan sinun suuria lupauksiasi ja vielä
suurempia lahjojasi? Koska kumminkin on mielestäni selvää, ettei
kukaan voi pysyä hellittämättä lemmenaiheissaan kovin kauan, ellei
hänelle suo tukea jokin toive, tahdon lukea omaksi syykseni sinun
julkeutesi, sillä jokin varomattomuuteni on epäilemättä näin kauan
rohkaissut sinua aikomuksessasi, ja senvuoksi tahdon kohdistaa
itseeni sen koston ja rangaistuksen, jonka sinun rikoksesi ansaitsee.
Näyttääkseni sinulle vielä, etten itseäni niin säälimättömästi
kohdellessani voi olla kohtelematta samoin sinua, halusin saada sinut
tänne sen uhrin todistajaksi, jonka aion antaa arvoisan mieheni
loukatulle kunnialle, jota olemme solvanneet, sinä niin harkiten kuin
suinkin mahdollista ja myös minä liian vähän varoen tilaisuutta, jos
lienen sellaista sinulle tarjonnut, sinun pahojen aikeittesi
suosimiseen ja hyväksymiseen. Se pelko, sanon vieläkin, että olen
varomattomuudellani jotenkin sytyttänyt mieleesi niin järjettömiä
ajatuksia, rasittaa minua eniten ja vaatii minulta oman käden kostoa,
sillä syyllisyyteni voisi tulla yleisemmin tunnetuksi, jos tämän
kostotyön suorittaisi joku toinen. Ennenkuin sen teen, tahdon
kumminkin kuullessani surmata ja viedä mukanani erään, joka täysin
tyydyttää toivomani ja saamani koston kaipuun, jotta pääsen haudan
tuolla puolen, kummassa paikassa tahansa, näkemään, minkä
rangaistuksen puolueeton ja lahjomaton oikeus määrää hänelle, joka
on saattanut minut näin epätoivoiseen tilaan.
Niin sanottuaan hän karkasi uskomattoman kiivaasti ja ketterästi
Lotarion kimppuun, paljastettu tikari kädessään ja niin ilmeisesti
näyttäen aikovan iskeä sen hänen rintaansa, että uhattu mies
melkein joutui epäröimään, olivatko nuo eleet teennäisiä vai
todellisia; hänen näet oli pakko varautua sekä vikkelyyteensä että
voimaansa estäessään Camilaa iskemästä. Camila esitti tämän
merkillisen petoksen ja kavaluuden näytteen niin elävästi, että mieli
omalla verellään luoda siihen totuuden väriä; havaitessaan, ettei
voinut satuttaa Lotariota, tai teeskennellen, ettei voinut, hän näet
lausui:

— Koska kohtalo ei salli minun täysin tyydyttää oikeudenmukaista

aiettani, älköön se ainakaan kyetkö estämään minua toteuttamasta
sitä osittain.

Ponnistellen kaikin voimin saadakseen vapaaksi tikaria pitelevän

kätensä, johon Lotario oli käynyt kiinni, hän kiskaisi sen valtoimeksi,
suuntasi kärjen sellaiseen kohtaan, missä se ei voinut syvään
haavoittaa, pistäen ja piilottaen sen lähelle vasemmanpuolista
kainalokuoppaansa, ja valahti sitten permantoon kuin tajuttomana.

Leonela ja Lotario siitä hämmästyivät ja säikähtivät ja epäilivät

tapahtuman todenperäisyyttä vielä, kun näkivät Camilan makaavan
permannolla pitkänään ja verissään. Lotario riensi viipymättä luo,
kauhistuneena ja voimatta hengittää, vetämään pois tikaria, mutta
nähtyään sitten, kuinka mitätön haava oli, hän toipui pelostaan,
ihmetteli jälleen kauniin Camilan oveluutta, älykkyyttä ja
kekseliäisyyttä ja alkoi, käyden omaa osaansa näyttelemään, esittää
pitkää ja murheellista valitusta Camilan ruumiin ääressä, kuin hän
olisi kuollut, syytäen siinä runsaita kirouksia sekä itselleen että sille
henkilölle, jonka toimesta oli tähän tilaan joutunut. Tietäen
ystävänsä Anselmon kuuntelevan hän valitti siihen tapaan, että ken
hyvänsä kuunteleva olisi säälinyt häntä itseään paljon enemmän kuin
Camilaa, vaikka olisi tätä kuolleenakin pitänyt.

Leonela nosti Camilan syliinsä ja sijoitti sänkyyn pyytäen Lotarioa

hakemaan sellaista henkilöä, joka salaa sitoisi Camilan haavan;
sitäpaitsi hän kysyi hänen neuvoaan ja mielipidettään siitä, mitä he
sanoisivat Anselmolle hänen vaimonsa haavoittumisesta, jos hän
sattuisi palaamaan, ennenkuin Camila ehti tulla terveeksi. Lotario
vastasi, että he voivat sanoa, mitä hyväksi näkivät, sillä hän ei
kyennyt antamaan mitään kelvollista neuvoa; hän vain kehoitti
Leonelaa yrittämään pidättää verenvuotoa ja sanoi itse lähtevänsä
sellaiseen paikkaan, missä ihmiset eivät enää häntä näkisi. Niin hän
poistui talosta ilmeisen tuskan ja mielenliikutuksen vallassa, mutta
havaitessaan sitten olevansa yksin ja sellaisessa paikassa, missä
kukaan ei voinut häntä nähdä, hän ei lakannut ajatuksin ja elein
ihmettelemästä Camilan oveluutta ja Leonelan osuvaa
käyttäytymistä. Hän ajatteli, kuinka varmasti Anselmo nyt uskoi, että
hänellä oli puolisonaan uusi Porcia,[19] ja halusi kohdata hänet,
Lotarion, jotta he yhdessä juhlisivat pahinta petosta ja taitavimmin
valheverhoon peitettyä totuutta, minkä kuvitella voi.

Sillävälin Leonela, kuten sanottu, pidätti emäntänsä verenvuotoa,

jota oli vain senverran, että kavaluus näytti uskottavalta. Leonela otti
hiukan viiniä ja pesi sillä haavan[20] sitoen sen sitten niin hyvin kuin
osasi ja puheli emäntäänsä hoitaessaan siihen tapaan, että Anselmo,
vaikka ei olisikaan jo sitä ennen kuullut samanlaista, olisi varmaan
alkanut uskoa, että hänen Camilansa oli oikea siveyden esikuva.
Leonelan ohella puhui Camilakin soimaten itseään araksi ja
pelkuriksi, koska häneltä oli kaikkein ratkaisevimpana hetkenä
puuttunut rohkeutta lopettaa elämä, jota hän kovin inhosi. Hän kysyi
palvelijattareltaan neuvoa, kertoisiko koko tämän tapahtuman
rakkaalle miehelleen vai eikö, ja Leonela kehoitti häntä olemaan
kertomatta, koska hän siten velvoittaisi Anselmon kostamaan
Lotariolle, mistä välttämättä koitui suuri vaara hänelle itselleen;
kelpo vaimon ei suinkaan pitänyt antaa miehelleen aihetta kiistoihin,
vaan päinvastoin ehkäistä niitä, mikäli vain mahdollista. Camila sanoi
täysin hyväksyvänsä hänen mielipiteensä ja tahtovansa sitä
noudattaa, mutta piti kumminkin tarpeellisena keksiä, mitä
sanottaisiin Anselmolle haavasta, jonka hän varmaan tulisi
näkemään. Siihen vastasi Leonela, ettei hän osannut valehdella
piloillaankaan.

— Entä minä, rakas ystäväni, — virkkoi Camila — kuinka osaisin

valehdella minä, joka en uskalla keksiä tai ylläpitää mitään valhetta,
vaikka oma henkeni olisi vaarassa? Koska siis emme voi siten asiasta
suoriutua, on varmaan parasta sanoa hänelle selvä totuus, jottei hän
huomaa meidän esittäneen asiaa väärin.

— Ole huoletta, señora; — vastasi Leonela — minä ajattelen

huomisaamuun, mitä hänelle sanomme, ja sinä voit ehkä salata
haavasi, koska se on sellaisessa paikassa, niin ettei sitä kukaan näe,
ja taivas suvainnee suosia meidän oikeita ja kunniallisia
aikomuksiamme. Rauhoitu, valtiattareni, yritä tyynnyttää
mielenliikutustasi, jottet ole järkytetty herran tullessa takaisin, ja jätä
muu huoli minulle ja Jumalalle, joka aina auttaa hyviä aikomuksia.

Anselmo oli erittäin tarkkaavasti kuunnellut ja katsellut tämän

murhenäytelmän esitystä, jossa hänen oma kunniansa surmattiin, ja
sen henkilöt esiintyivät niin tavattomin ja tehoisin ilmein, että näytti
siltä kuin he olisivat todella muuttuneet niiksi henkilöiksi, joiden
näyttämöosia esittivät. Hän odotti hartaasti yön tuloa, jotta pääsisi
talosta poistumaan ja tapaamaan hyvää ystäväänsä Lotarioa
saadakseen hänen kanssaan onnitella itseään siitä kalliista päärlystä,
jonka oli löytänyt havaitessaan vaimonsa lopulta uskolliseksi. Naiset
huolehtivat siitä, että hänelle tarjoutui tilaisuutta lähteä ulos, ja hän
käytti sitä hyväkseen mennen heti etsimään Lotarioa. Eipä voi hevin
kertoa, kuinka monesti hän, ystävänsä tavattuaan, häntä syleili, mitä
kaikkea kertoi mielihyvästään ja kuinka ylisti puolisoaan Camilaa.
Kaikkea tuota kuunteli Lotario voimatta ilmaista minkäänlaista iloa,
koska hänen muistiinsa kuvastui, miten pahoin Anselmo oli petetty ja
kuinka kohtuuttomasti hän itse ystäväänsä solvasi. Vaikka huomasi,
ettei Lotario ollut iloinen, Anselmo uskoi syynä olevan sen, että
Lotario oli jättänyt Camilan haavoittuneena makaamaan ollen itse
vikapää onnettomuuteen. Siksi Anselmo muun muassa kehoitti häntä
olemaan välittämättä siitä, mitä Camilalle oli sattunut, sillä haava oli
varmaan vähäpätöinen, koska naiset olivat yhteisesti päättäneet sen
häneltä salata. Lotarion ei niinmuodoin tarvinnut ollenkaan pelätä,
vaan päinvastoin tästä lähtien nauttia ja riemuita hänen kanssaan,
koska hän, Anselmo, havaitsi Lotarion toimesta ja avulla tulleensa
koroitetuksi kaikkein korkeimpaan auvoon, mitä saattoi omakseen
ikävöidä. Anselmo sanoi vielä toivovansa, että he tulisivat pitämään
ainoana huvinaan sepittää Camilan ylistykseksi säkeitä, jotka
säilyttäisivät hänen kuolematonta muistoaan tulevaisiin
vuosisatoihin. Lotario kiitti hänen hyvää aikomustaan ja sanoi
omasta puolestaan auttavansa tuon mainion rakennuksen
pystyttämisessä.

Niin tuli Anselmosta kaikkein sievimmin petetty aviomies, mitä

maailmassa voi olla: hän itse toi omin käsin taloonsa kunniansa
tuhoojan luullen sinne tuovansa sen kirkastajan, ja Camila otti hänet
vastaan näennäisen tuskaisin ilmein, vaikka hänen sydämensä iloitsi.
Tämä pettely jatkui joitakin aikoja, kunnes Onnen pyörä muutaman
kuukauden kuluttua kääntyi, siihen asti ylen ovelasti salattu rikos tuli
ilmi ja Anselmo sai hengellään maksaa mielettömän uteliaisuutensa.

Viidesneljättä luku,

missä kerrotaan Don Quijoten urheasta ja hirmuisesta taistelusta

nahkaisia punaviinileilejä[21] vastaan sekä saatetaan päätökseen
kertomus mielettömästä uteliaisuudesta.

Kertomuksessa ei ollut enää paljon luettavaa, kun Sancho Panza

poukahti ylen kiihtyneenä ulos siitä suojasta, missä Don Quijote oli
lepäämässä, ja huusi kovalla äänellä:

— Tulkaa, hyvät herrat, tulkaa pian auttamaan herraani, joka on

joutunut kaikkein tuimimpaan ja ankarimpaan otteluun, mitä silmäni
ovat milloinkaan nähneet. Jumaliste, hän on antanut jättiläiselle,
neiti prinsessa Minomicónan viholliselle, sellaisen iskun, että on
listinyt häneltä pään ihan kerrassaan, kuin nauriin ikään!

— Mitä sanotkaan, veikkoseni? — kysyi kirkkoherra lukematta

kertomuksen loppuosaa sen pitemmälle. — Oletteko järjissänne,
Sancho? Miten hiidessä voikaan olla niin laita kuin sanotte, kun
jättiläinen on kahdentuhannen peninkulman päässä täältä?

Samassa he kuulivat kamarista kamalaa meteliä ja Don Quijoten

huudon:

— Odota, sinä rosvo, ryöväri, konna; nyt olen saanut sinut käsiini
eikä käyrä sapelisi sinua avita!
Hän kuului huimasti iskevän huoneen seiniin. Sancho sanoi:

— Älkää huoliko jäädä tänne kuuntelemaan, vaan käykää

erottamaan tappelevia tai auttamaan isäntääni, vaikka eihän se
oikeastaan ole enää tarpeen, sillä jättiläinen on varmaan jo saanut
surmansa ja tekee parhaillaan Jumalalle tiliä menneestä ja kehnosta
elämästään. Näinhän minä, kuinka veri virtasi permantoon ja pää oli
poikki ja kellahtanut sivulle, ison viinileilin kokoinen.

— Minut saa tappaa, — virkkoi siihen majatalonisäntä — ellei Don

Quijote eli Don Piru-Itse ole iskenyt miekallaan jotakin niistä
punaviinileileistä, jotka olivat täytettyinä hänen pääpuolissaan, ja
tämä viisas mies on varmaan luullut ulosvuotanutta viiniä vereksi.

Niin sanottuaan hän meni huoneeseen, kaikkien toisten häntä

seuratessa, ja he näkivät Don Quijoten mitä merkillisimmässä
asussa. Hän oli paitasillaan, vaate ei ulottunut etupuolella
peittämään hänen reisiänsä ja takaa se oli vaaksan vertaa lyhyempi;
sääret olivat erittäin pitkät ja laihat, karvaiset eikä suinkaan puhtaat;
päässä hänellä oli likainen punainen yömyssy, isännän omaisuutta;
vasemman käsivartensa ympäri hän oli kietonut sänkypeitteen, jota
Sancho katseli karsaasti, hyvin tietäen, mistä syystä, ja oikeassa
kädessä oli paljastettu miekka, jolla hän huitoi joka taholle samalla
huudahdellen, kuin olisi tosiaankin taistellut jonkun jättiläisen
kanssa. Ja parasta vielä, etteivät hänen silmänsä olleet avoinna; hän
näet yhä nukkui ja uneksi taistelevansa jättiläisen kanssa:
päätökseen saatettavan seikkailun mielikuva oli hänessä niin
voimakas, että sai hänet uneksimaan jo saapuneensa Minomicónin
kuningaskuntaan ja olevansa ottelussa vihamiehensä kanssa, ja hän
oli hutkinut nahkaleilejä, luullen jättiläistä lyövänsä, niin huikeasti,
että koko huone oli viinin vallassa. Sen nähtyään majatalon isäntä
suuttui niin sydämestään, että hyökkäsi Don Quijoten kimppuun ja
alkoi paukuttaa häntä nyrkeillään niin tuimasti, että olisi tehnyt lopun
taistelusta jättiläistä vastaan, elleivät Cardenio ja kirkkoherra olisi
pelastaneet ritaria hänen käsistään. Ritari parka nukkui yhä kaikesta
huolimatta, kunnes parturi nouti kaivolta sangollisen kylmää vettä
valahduttaen sen yhdellä iskulla hänen iholleen. Siitä Don Quijote
heräsi, mutta ei nytkään niin selkeäksi, että olisi kyennyt tajuamaan,
missä tilassa oli. Havaittuaan, kuinka lyhyissä ja kevyissä pukimissa
ritari esiintyi, Dorotea ei mielinyt astua huoneeseen näkemään
puoltajansa ja vastustajansa kamppailua.

Sancho etsiskeli kaikkialta permannolta jättiläisen päätä ja virkkoi

sitten, kun sitä ei löytynyt:

— Tiedänhän minä, että tässä talossa kaikki on pelkkää noituutta,

sillä viime kerralla, tässä samassa paikassa, missä nyt seison, minua
puitiin nyrkillä naamaan ja kartulla muihin paikkoihin, enkä minä
tiennyt, kuka sen teki, kun en ketään nähnyt; nyt taas ei näy
missään sitä päätä, jonka omin silmin näin kierähtävän alas, ja verta
sitä tuli kuin suihkulähteestä.

— Mistä verestä ja suihkulähteestä puhut sinä, Jumalan ja hänen

pyhimystensä vihollinen? — virkkoi isäntä. — Etkö näe, lurjus, ettei
tässä ole muuta verta eikä lähdettä kuin nämä nahkaleilit, jotka on
puhkottu, ja punaviini, jota läikkyy lattialla, niin että mielisin nähdä
helvetissä läikkymässä sen kurjan sielun, joka ne on puhkonut.

— En minä mitään tiedä, — vastasi Sancho — tiedän vain niin

hullusti käyvän, että minulta hupenee kreivikunta, kun en tuota
päätä löydä, kuin suola veteen.
Sancho oli valveillaan pahemmin pyörällä kuin hänen isäntänsä
nukkuessaan; niin pitivät häntä lumoissaan herran hyvät lupaukset.
Majatalonisäntä joutui ihan suunniltaan huomatessaan
aseenkantajan hidasverisyyden ja herran tekemän vahingon ja
vannoi, ettei nyt kävisi niinkuin edellisellä kerralla, jolloin nuo olivat
puikkineet tiehensä maksamatta; ritarilliset erioikeudet eivät nyt
vapahtaisi herraa korvaamasta vanhaa ja uutta vahinkoa, siihen
luettuna sekin, mitä saattoi tulla maksamaan rikkinäisten
nahkaleilien välttämätön paikkaus.

Kirkkoherra piteli Don Quijotea käsistä, ja tämä, luullen nyt

saattaneensa seikkailun päätökseen ja olevansa prinsessa
Minomicónan edessä, painui polvilleen kirkkoherran eteen ja lausui:

— Teidän korkeutenne, ylhäinen ja suurimaineinen valtiatar, te

voitte tästä päivästä lähtien elää turvallisena, hyvin tietäen, ettei tuo
kehno olento kykene teille pahaa tekemään, ja minä olen tästä
päivästä lähtien vapaa teille antamastani lupauksesta, koska olen
kaikkivaltiaan Jumalan avulla ja hänen suosiostaan, jolta minulla on
elämä ja henki, täsmällisesti sen täyttänyt.

— Enkö minä sitä sanonut? — virkkoi Sancho tuon kuultuaan. —

Enhän minä päissäni ollut; katsokaa, eikö isäntäni olekin jo
suolannut jättiläisen! Se on pakosta kuin köyhän kuolema;
kreivikunta on varmassa tiedossa!

Kukapa olisi voinut olla nauramatta heidän hullutuksilleen, isännän

ja rengin? Kaikki nauroivat, lukuunottamatta majatalonisäntää, joka
manaili itseään alimpaan helvettiin; mutta lopulta saivat sentään
parturi, Cardenio ja kirkkoherra melkoista vaivaa nähden saatetuksi
Don Quijoten sänkyyn, ja sinne hän jäi jälleen nukkumaan ilmeisesti
lopen uupuneena. He antoivat hänen nukkua ja lähtivät majatalon
porstuaan lohduttamaan Sancho Panzaa, joka ei ollut löytänyt
jättiläisen päätä; mutta suurempi työ heillä oli lepyttäessään
majatalonisäntää, joka oli viinileiliensä äkillisen poismenon vuoksi
ihan suunniltaan. Emäntäkin huusi ja itki:

— Onnettomalla hetkellä ja turmion tunnilla astui minun

huoneeseeni tämä vaeltava ritari, joka tulee minulle niin kalliiksi, että
kunpa en olisi häntä ikäpäivinäni nähnyt. Viime kerralla hän meni
menojaan jättäen maksamatta, mitä oli velkaa yökauden oleskelusta,
illallisesta, yösijasta, oljista ja kauroista häntä itseään, hänen
aseenkantajaansa, hevosluuskaa ja aasia varten, sanoen vain
olevansa seikkaileva ritari (Jumala häntä seikkailuissa riepoittakoon,
häntä ja kaikkia maailman seikkailijoita), joten hänen ei tarvinnut
mitään maksaa, koska niin oli kirjoitettu vaeltavan ritariston
taksoihin; ja hänen tähtensä tuli sitten tämä toinen herra ja vei
minun häntäni, ja takaisin hän sen toi ainakin puolen reaalin edestä
huonontuneena, ihan karvattomana, niin ettei siitä ole enää siihen
virkaan, johon mieheni sitä tarvitsee; ja kaiken lopuksi ja kukkuraksi
hän vielä rikkoo leilini ja laskee maahan viinin, niin että soisin
näkeväni hänen omaa vertansa laskettavan! Mutta älköön luulko;
minä vannon isäni luitten ja äitini autuuden nimessä, että saavat
minulle maksaa joka kolikon, muuten en ole nimeltäni, mikä olen,
enkä oman äitini tytär!

Näitä ja muita samanlaisia purkauksia syyti emäntä ylen

kiukkuisena, ja häntä säesteli hänen kelpo piikansa Maritornes. Tytär
oli vaiti ja hymyili vain silloin tällöin itsekseen. Kirkkoherra rakensi
rauhan lupaamalla korvata vahingon niin hyvin kuin suinkin voi, sekä
leilit että viinin ja erittäinkin hännän vahingoittumisen, jota pidettiin
niin tähdellisenä. Dorotea lohdutti Sanchoa lupaamalla hänelle,
mikäli ja milloin kävisi ilmi, että hänen isäntänsä todella oli katkaissut
kaulan jättiläiseltä, parhaan kreivikuntansa, kunhan ehtisi takaisin
valtakuntaansa ja saisi siellä rauhassa elellä. Siitä Sancho löysi
lohdutuksen ja vakuutti prinsessalle, että hän voi varmaan uskoa
hänen nähneen jättiläisen pään, jossa oli vielä suuremmaksi
vakuudeksi ollut vyötäisiin ulottuva parta, ja että sen piileksiminen
johtui siitä, että kaikki, mitä tässä talossa tapahtui, oli silkkaa
noituutta, kuten hän itse oli saanut kokea kerran ennen tänne
yövyttyään. Dorotea sanoi uskovansa, että niin oli laita, ja kehoitti
häntä olemaan huoletta, sillä kaikki kävisi hyvin ja päättyisi aivan
mielen mukaan. Kaikkien tyynnyttyä kirkkoherra halusi lukea
kertomuksen loppuun, koska huomasi olevan vain vähän jäljellä.
Cardenio, Dorotea ja kaikki muut pyysivät häntä niin tekemään. Hän
mieli huvittaa toisia sekä saada lukemisesta nautintoa itselleenkin ja
alkoi esittää kertomuksen loppua, joka oli näin kuuluva:

— Sitten kävi niin, että Anselmo, varmasti luottaen Camilan

siveyteen, eli tyytyväisenä ja huolettomana, ja Camila kohteli
tahallaan jurosti Lotarioa, jotta Anselmo erehtyisi luulemaan hänen
suhdettaan Lotarioon aivan toisenlaiseksi kuin se todellisuudessa oli.
Sitäkin suuremmaksi varmuudeksi Lotario pyysi lupaa olla käymättä
Anselmon kodissa, koska hänen näkeminen ilmeisesti rasitti Camilaa;
mutta petetty Anselmo sanoi, ettei hän saanut millään ehdolla niin
tehdä, ja siten Anselmo tuhansin tavoin valmisteli omaa häpeäänsä
luullen olevansa onnensa seppo. Sillävälin oli Leonela, huomatessaan
voivansa kenenkään häiritsemättä jatkaa lemmenseikkailuaan,
riehahtanut niin kovin, että mistään muusta välittämättä ajoi
valtoimin ohjaksin nautintoaan tavoitellen, luottaen siihen, että
hänen emäntänsä suojasi häntä, vieläpä neuvoikin, miten menetellä,
jotta voi tyydyttää pyyteensä tarvitsematta paljoa varoa. Vihdoin
Anselmo kumminkin kuuli eräänä yönä askelia Leonelan huoneesta
ja aikoessaan mennä katsomaan, kuka siellä oli, huomasi ovea
pidettävän kiinni, mikä herätti hänessä sitäkin suurempaa intoa sen
avaamiseen; hän ponnisteli niin voimallisesti, että sai sen
aukenemaan, ja tuli sisään parahiksi nähdäkseen miehen hyppäävän
ikkunasta kadulle. Hän aikoi kiiruhtaa miehen jälkeen saadakseen
hänet kiinni tai nähdäkseen, kuka hän oli, mutta ei voinut toteuttaa
kumpaakaan aikomustaan, sillä Leonela tarttui häneen sylisin ja
sanoi hänelle:

— Tyynny, isäntäni, älä huoli olla levoton äläkä seuraa häntä, joka
hyppäsi ikkunasta; hän on minun omani, vieläpä niin, että on
mieheni.

Anselmo ei tahtonut häntä uskoa, vaan paljasti silmittömästi

suuttuneena tikarin ja aikoi iskeä Leonelaa kehoittaen häntä
tunnustamaan totuuden, ellei mielinyt menettää henkeään.
Peloissaan, oikein tietämättä, mitä puhui, Leonela virkkoi:

— Älä minua surmaa, herra; minä kerron sinulle seikkoja, jotka

ovat tärkeämpiä kuin voit kuvitellakaan.

— Kerro ne heti; —vastasi Anselmo — ellet, niin olet kuoleman

oma.

— Nyt se on mahdotonta, — sanoi Leonela — kun olen niin

hämmentynyt; jätä minut huomiseen saakka, niin saat kuulla minulta
seikkoja, joita hämmästyt. Ja ole varma siitä, että hän, joka tuosta
ikkunasta hyppäsi, on eräs tämän kaupungin nuorukainen, joka on
luvannut ottaa minut vaimokseen.

Siitä Anselmo tyyntyi ja suostui odottamaan niin kauan kuin

Leonela pyysi, sillä hän ei otaksunut joutuvansa kuulemaan mitään,
mikä loukkaisi Camilaa, koska varmaan ja ehdottomasti uskoi hänet
moitteettomaksi. Niin hän poistui huoneesta, johon sulki Leonelan
kieltäen häntä sieltä lähtemästä, ennenkuin oli sanonut, mitä hänellä
oli sanottavaa.

Anselmo lähti kohta Camilan luo hänelle kertomaan, kuten sitten

kertoikin, millainen kohtaus hänellä oli ollut kamarineidin kanssa ja
kuinka tämä oli luvannut ilmoittaa hänelle suuria ja tärkeitä asioita.
Ei ole tarpeen sanoa, säikähtikö Camila vai ei; ajatellessaan, kuten
oli syytä ajatella, että Leonela aikoi kertoa Anselmolle, mitä tiesi
hänen uskottomuudestaan, hän joutui niin ankaran pelon valtaan,
ettei uskaltanut jäädä odottamaan nähdäkseen, oliko hänen
epäilyksensä perusteeton vai ei, vaan keräsi jo samana yönä,
havaittuaan Anselmon vaipuneen uneen, kalleimmat korunsa ja
hiukan rahoja, lähti kodistaan kenenkään huomaamatta, meni
Lotarion asuntoon, kertoi hänelle, mitä oli tapahtumassa, ja pyysi,
että Lotario veisi hänet turvaan tai että he yhdessä lähtisivät
jonnekin, missä heidän ei tarvitsisi pelätä Anselmoa. Camila sai
Lotarion sellaisen hämmingin valtaan, ettei hän osannut vastata
sanaakaan eikä kyennyt ratkaisemaan, mitä nyt oli tehtävä. Vihdoin
hän päätti viedä Camilan erääseen luostariin, jossa hänen sisarensa
oli priorittarena. Camila suostui siihen, Lotario kuljetti hänet
luostariin, niin nopeasti kuin asia vaati, ja jätti hänet sinne. Hän itse
poistui kohta kaupungista ilmoittamatta lähdöstään kenellekään.

Huomaamatta, ettei Camila ollutkaan hänen vierellään, ja hartaasti

haluten saada tietää, nutä Leonelalla oli hänelle kerrottavaa,
Anselmo nousi päivän koittaessa ja meni huoneeseen, johon oli
Leonelan sulkenut. Hän avasi oven ja astui sisään, mutta ei löytänyt
sieltä Leonelaa löysihän vain ikkunasta muutamia yhteensolmittuja
lakanoita, jotka selvästi osoittivat, että tyttö oli sitä tietä laskeutunut
alas ja mennyt menojaan. Anselmo palasi heti aivan alakuloisena
kertomaan asiaa Camilalle ja säikähti kovin, kun ei löytänyt häntä
vuoteesta eikä koko talosta. Hän kyseli talon palvelijoilta, mutta
kukaan ei osannut hänelle selittää, mitä hän tiedusteli. Etsiessään
Camilaa hän sattui näkemään, että hänen lippaansa olivat auki ja
että suurin osa jalokiviä oli poissa, ja siitä hän vihdoin oivalsi
onnettomuutensa ja ettei Leonela ollut syypää hänen kovaan
kohtaloonsa. Päättämättä pukeutumistaan hän sitten lähti
sellaisenaan, surullisena ja mietteissään, kertomaan
onnettomuudestaan ystävälleen Lotariolle. Kun ei Lotariokaan ollut
kotonaan ja palvelijat sanoivat hänen yöllä talosta hävinneen
otettuaan mukaansa kaikki hallussaan olevat rahat, niin Anselmo
luuli tulevansa mielipuoleksi. Kaiken päätökseksi ja kukkuraksi hän
sitten kotiin palattuaan ei löytänyt sieltä yhtäkään palvelijaa eikä
palvelijatarta, vaan autiot ja tyhjät suojat.

Hän ei tietänyt, mitä ajatella, sanoa tai tehdä, ja vähitellen hänen

järkensä himmentyi. Hän tarkasteli olotilaansa ja huomasi yhdessä
hetkessä jääneensä ilman vaimoa, ystävää ja palvelijoita, korkean
taivaan hylkäämäksi ja ennen kaikkea kunniattomaksi, sillä Camilan
katoaminen ilmaisi hänelle tuhon tulleen. Pitkän kotvan kuluttua hän
vihdoin päätti lähteä maalle sen ystävänsä luo, jonka vieraana oli
ollut antaessaan tilaisuutta tähän onnettomuuteen johtavien juonien
punomiseen. Hän lukitsi talonsa, nousi satulaan ja lähti matkaan,
rinnassaan painostava tunto; mutta hän oli tuskin ehtinyt
puolitiehen, kun hänen täytyi ajatustensa ahdistamana laskeutua
maahan ja sitoa ratsunsa puuhun, jonka runkoa vasten hän sitten
vaipui hiljaa ja murheellisesti huokaillen. Siinä hän viipyi iltaan
saakka ja näki sitten kaupungista tulevan ratsastajan, jota tervehti
kysyen vielä, kuuluiko Firenzeen mitään uutta. Kaupunkilainen
vastasi:
— Merkillisintä, mitä pitkään aikaan on siellä kuultu. Kerrotaan
näet julkisesti, että lähellä P. Johanneksen kirkkoa asuvan rikkaan
Anselmon vaimon Camilan on viime yönä ryöstänyt Anselmon hyvä
ystävä Lotario, ja että hän itsekin on kadonnut. Kaiken tämän on
kertonut muudan Camilan palvelijatar, jonka kuvernööri tapasi yöllä
hänen laskeutuessaan lakanan varassa eräästä Anselmon talon
ikkunasta. En kumminkaan tarkoin tiedä, kuinka se tapahtui, tiedän
vain, että koko kaupunki ihmettelee tätä tapahtumaa, koska ei voitu
odottaa mitään sellaista sattuvan hyvien ja läheisten ystävien
kesken, joiden kerrotaan kiintyneen toisiinsa niin, että heitä
mainittiin vain ystävysten nimellä.

— Tiedetäänköhän, — kysyi Anselmo — minne päin Lotario ja

Camila ovat lähteneet?

— Siitä ei ole aavistustakaan, — vastasi kaupunkilainen — vaikka

kuvernööri on erittäin tarmokkaasti heitä etsinyt.

— Jumalan haltuun, herra — sanoi Anselmo.

— Jumalan haltuun — vastasi kaupunkilainen lähtien jatkamaan

matkaansa.

Anselmo joutui nuo onnettomat uutiset kuultuaan sellaiseen tilaan,

että oli vähällä menettää järkensä, jopa henkensäkin. Hän nousi niin
hyvin kuin voi ja saapui sitten ystävänsä luo, joka ei ollut vielä
kuullut hänen onnettomuudestaan, mutta nähdessään hänen tulevan
kelmeänä, riutuneena ja heikkona arvasi jonkin vaikean sairauden
häntä rasittavan. Anselmo pyysi, että hänet saatettaisiin vuoteeseen
ja annettaisiin hänelle kirjoitusvälineet. Niin tehtiin, hänet jätettiin
yksin huoneeseen ja makuulle, koska hän niin halusi, ja ovikin
suljettiin hänen pyynnöstään. Onnettomuuden kuva alkoi hänen
yksin jäätyään rasittaa hänen mieltänsä niin kovin, että hän selvästi
oivalsi elämänsä olevan loppumaisillaan, ja siksi hän ryhtyi toimeen
jättääkseen tietoa merkillisen kuolemansa syystä. Hän alkoi
kirjoittaa, mutta hengitys kävi mahdottomaksi, ennenkuin hän ehti
merkitä paperiin kaikkea, mitä olisi mielinyt, ja niin hän heitti
henkensä sen tuskan vuoksi, joka hänelle koitui mielettömästä
uteliaisuudestaan. Havaitessaan, että oli jo myöhä ja ettei Anselmo
luiskahtanutkaan, talon isäntä päätti mennä huoneeseen saadakseen
tietää, voiko hän entistä huonommin, ja näki hänen makaavan
suullaan, ruumis puolittain sängyssä, puolittain pöydällä, jonka
varaan hän oli vaipunut, kirjoitettu paperi avoinna edessään ja kynä
yhä vielä kädessään. Isäntä astui hänen luokseen, sitä ennen
lausuttuaan hänen nimensä, tarttui hänen käteensä, ei saanut
mitään vastausta, huomasi hänet kylmenneeksi ja ymmärsi siitä, että
hän oli kuollut. Hänet valtasi suuri suru ja ihmetys, hän kutsui
talonväen näkemään onnettomuutta, jonka uhriksi Anselmo oli
joutunut, ja luki sitten paperista, jonka tunsi Anselmon itsensä
kirjoittamaksi, seuraavat lauseet:

»Typerä ja mieletön pyyde vei minulta hengen. Jos Camila saa

kuulla kuolemastani, niin tietäköön hän, että minä annan hänelle
anteeksi, sillä hän ei ollut velvollinen tekemään ihmeitä eikä minua
pakottanut mikään vaatimaan, että hän niitä tekisi; koska siis olen
itse aiheuttanut häpeäni…»

Niin pitkälle Anselmo oli kirjoittanut, ja siitä voi huomata, että hän
oli heittänyt henkensä tuossa kohdassa, kykenemättä päättämään
lausetta. Hänen ystävänsä ilmoitti seuraavana päivänä kuolemasta
hänen omaisilleen, jotka jo olivat kuulleet hänen onnettomuudestaan
ja tiesivät, missä luostarissa Camila oli, hänkin jo valmistautumassa
seuraamaan miestään välttämättömälle viimeiselle matkalle, ei siitä
syystä, että oli kuullut miehensä kuolleen, vaan sen vuoksi, mitä sai
kuulla poissaolevasta ystävästään. Kerrotaan, ettei hän, vaikka olikin
nyt leski, halunnut lähteä luostarista eikä myöskään antaa
nunnalupausta, ennenkuin saapui, pian senjälkeen, tieto, että Lotario
oli kaatunut taistelussa, johon niinä aikoina kävi monsieur de Lautrec
suurta sotapäällikköä Cordoban Gonzalo Fernandezia vastaan[22]
Napolin kuningaskunnassa, jonne tuo liian myöhään katuvainen
ystävä oli lähtenyt. Tuon kuultuaan Camila antoi luostarilupauksen ja
heitti sitten pian henkensä murheen ja alakuloisuuden ankaroissa
käsissä. Sellaiseen loppuun saattoi heidät kaikki niin järjetön aloite.

— Tämä kertomus miellyttää minua, — sanoi kirkkoherra — vaikka

en voikaan uskoa, että se kuvailee todellista tapahtumaa, ja siinä
tapauksessa, että se on keksitty, on kirjoittaja keksinyt sen huonosti,
sillä ei voi kuvitella olevan aviomiestä, joka olisi kyllin typerä
ryhtyäkseen niin tuhoisaan kokeeseen kuin Anselmo. Jos tuo seikka
olisi kuvattu tapahtuvaksi rakastajan ja hänen naisensa kesken,
saattaisi se käydä päinsä, mutta miehen ja vaimon välisenä siinä on
jotakin mahdotonta. Esitystapaa sitävastoin en pidä ollenkaan
epämiellyttävänä.

Kuudesneljättä luku,

jossa käsitellään muita majatalossa sattuneita merkillisiä seikkoja.

Samassa virkkoi majatalon ovella seisova isäntä:

— Tuossa tulee sievä joukko vieraita; jos ne poikkeavat tänne,

saamme varmaan lystiä!
— Mitä väkeä ne ovat? — kysyi Cardenio.

— Neljä miestä — vastasi isäntä — tulee ratsain, lyhyin jalustimin,

peitsillä ja kilvillä varustettuina, ja kaikilla on mustat naamiot; ja
heidän seurassaan tulee valkopukuinen nainen naisensatulassa,
hänkin kasvot verhottuina, ja sitäpaitsi kaksi jalankäypää palvelijaa.

— Ovatko he jo lähelläkin? — kysyi kirkkoherra.

— Niin lähellä, että ovat jo perillä — vastasi isäntä.

Sen kuultuaan Dorotea veti hunnun kasvoilleen, ja Cardenio meni

Don Quijoten huoneeseen; ja he olivat tuskin ennättäneet niin tehdä,
kun kaikki isännän mainitsemat henkilöt saapuivat majataloon.
Ratsumiehet, jotka olivat erittäin hienot ryhdiltään ja käytökseltään,
astuivat maahan ja kävivät auttamaan satulasta naishenkilöä: eräs
heistä otti hänet syliinsä ja sijoitti hänet tuolille sen huoneen ovelle,
johon Cardenio oli piiloutunut. Koko tänä aikana ei nainen eivätkä
herrat olleet siirtäneet syrjään kasvojensa verhoja eivätkä virkkaneet
sanaakaan, tuolille istuutuessaau nainen vain huokasi syvään ja
antoi käsiensä vaipua alas, kuin olisi ollut sairas ja uupunut.
Jalankulkevat palvelijat veivät ratsut talliin.

Kirkkoherra huomasi sen ja haluten tietää, keitä olivat henkilöt,

jotka esiintyivät siinä asussa ja niin vaiteliaina, lähti palvelijoitten luo
ja kysyi eräältä, mitä tahtoi tietää. Mies vastasi:

— Totta totisesti, hyvä herra, minä en tiedä teille sanoa, mitä

väkeä he ovat; tiedän vain, että he näyttävät sangen ylhäisiltä,
varsinkin se, joka meni ottamaan syliinsä tuota rouvaa, jonka näitte.
Sanon tämän siksi, että kaikki muut häntä kunnioittavat eikä tehdä
mitään muuta kuin minkä hän määrää ja käskee.
— Entä kuka on tuo rouva? — kysyi kirkkoherra.

— En tiedä sitäkään sanoa, — vastasi palvelija — sillä en ole koko

matkan kestäessä nähnyt hänen kasvojaan; huokailevan olen hänen
kyllä kuullut ja valittelevan, niin että joka kerta luulisi hänen olevan
henkihieverissä. Eikä ole ihmekään, ettemme me, kumppanini ja
minä, tiedä enempää kuin olemme sanoneet, sillä me olemme
heidän seurassaan vasta toista päivää; kohtasimme näet heidät
tiellä, he kehoittivat meitä lähtemään kanssaan Andalusiaan, ja me
suostuimme, kun lupasivat varsin hyvän korvauksen.

— Entä oletteko kuulleet ketään heistä mainittavan nimeltään? —

kysyi kirkkoherra.

— Emme, emme suinkaan; — vastasi palvelija — he näet

ratsastavat niin vaiteliaina, että se on ihan ihme. Heidän joukostaan
ei kuulu mitään muuta kuin rouva rukan huokauksia ja nyyhkytyksiä,
joista meidän tulee häntä surku; ja me uskomme vallan varmaan,
että hän, olipa menossa minne tahansa, menee pakosta;
vaatetuksesta päätellen hän on nunna tai nunnaksi tulossa, mikä on
luultavampaa, ja saattaapa olla, että hän on niin surullinen kuin
nähdään siitä syystä, ettei hän itse mielisi ruveta nunnana elämään.

— Varsin mahdollista — virkkoi kirkkoherra.

Hän poistui palaten Dorotean luo, joka, kuultuaan hunnutetun

naisen huokailevan, astui luontaisen myötätunnon yllyttämänä hänen
luokseen ja sanoi:

— Mikä teitä vaivaa, parahin rouva? Jos se on jotakin sellaista,

minkä parantamisessa meillä naisilla yleensä on tottumusta ja
kokemusta, niin minä puolestani tarjoudun mielelläni teitä
palvelemaan.

Murheellinen nainen ei vastannut tuohon sanaakaan, vaan oli yhä

vaiti, vaikka Dorotea tarjoutui vieläkin innokkaammin auttamaan,
kunnes naamioitu herra (jonka käskyjä palvelija oli sanonut toisten
tottelevan) astui luo ja virkkoi Dorotealle:

— Älkää vaivautuko, armollinen rouva, tarjoamaan tälle naiselle

mitään palvelusta, sillä hänen tapanaan on olla kiittämättä mistään
hänelle annetusta avusta; älkää myöskään yrittäkö saada häneltä
vastausta, ellette mieli kuulla hänen lausuvan jotakin valhetta.

— Minä en ole milloinkaan valehdellut; — virkkoi nyt nainen, joka

oli siihen saakka ollut vaiti — päinvastoin: koska olen niin
totuuttarakastava ja tarkoin varon kaikkia valheellisia juonia, olen
joutunut tähän suureen onnettomuuteen, ja sen saatte todistaa te
itse, sillä minun ehdoton vilpittömyyteni tekee teidät pettäjäksi ja
valehtelijaksi.

Cardenio kuuli kaikki nuo sanat aivan selvästi, koska hän oli niin
lähellä niitten lausujaa, että ainoastaan Don Quijoten huoneeseen
johtava ovi oli heidän välissään, ja ne kuultuaan hän huudahti
ääneen:

— Jumala minua auttakoon! Mitä kuulenkaan? Kenen ääni

kaikuikaan kuuluviini?

Nuo huudahdukset kuultuaan nainen käänsi aivan pelästyneenä

päätään ja nousi sitten, kun ei nähnyt henkilöä, joka oli huutanut,
aikoen mennä viereiseen huoneeseen, mutta sen huomattuaan herra
pidätti hänet sallimatta hänen astua askeltakaan. Hämmentyneenä ja
mielenliikutuksen vallassa ollen nainen pudotti silkkihunnun, joka oli
hänen kasvojaan peittänyt, ja niin tuli näkyviin verraton kauneus,
kasvot, jotka olivat ihmeen ihanat, vaikka kalpeat ja säikähtyneet;
hän näet pälyili kaikkialle, minne katse kantoi, niin kiihkeästi, että
näytti olevan järjiltään, ja tämä hänen ilmeensä herätti Doroteassa ja
kaikissa muissa katselijoissa erinomaista sääliä, vaikka he eivät
tietäneet, mikä oli syynä siihen. Herra piteli häntä yhä lujasti
olkapäistä eikä siinä ahkeroidessaan voinut nostaa paikoilleen
naamiotaan, joka oli putoamassa ja sitten todella putosikin.
Kohottaessaan katsettaan näki Dorotea, joka piti naista sylissään,
että mies, joka hänkin oli käynyt naiseen käsiksi, oli hänen oma
puolisonsa, Don Fernando, ja tuskin ehdittyään hänet tuntea hän
huokaisi sydämensä pohjasta pitkään ja tuskaisesti ah! kaatui
pyörtyneenä selälleen ja olisi kaatunut permantoon, ehei siinä lähellä
seisova parturi olisi ottanut häntä käsivarsiensa varaan. Kirkkoherra
riensi kohta hänen luokseen poistamaan huntua ja pirskottamaan
vettä hänen kasvoihinsa, ja hänen irroitettuaan hunnun Don
Fernando (hän näet oli se mies, joka piti toista naista sylissään) tunsi
hänet ja valahti kuin hengettömäksi hänet nähdessään, mutta ei
kumminkaan päästänyt vapaaksi hänen syleilystään irtautumaan
pyrkivää naista, joka oli Luscinda. Tämä oli tuntenut Cardenion
äänen hänen huudahtaessaan, samoinkuin Cardenio oli tuntenut
hänen äänensä. Cardenio kuuli myös, kuinka Dorotea pyörtyessään
voihkaisi, luuli, että se oli hänen oma Luscindansa, syöksyi
pelästyneenä ulos huoneesta ja näki ensiksi Don Fernandon
syleilemässä Luscindaa. Don Fernando puolestaan tunsi heti
Cardenion, ja kaikki kolme, Luscinda, Cardenio ja Dorotea, olivat
aivan hiljaa ja ihmeissään, tuskin tietäen, mitä heille oli tapahtunut.

Kaikki olivat vaiti ja katselivat toisiaan, Dorotea Don Fernandoa,

Don Fernando Cardenioa, Cardenio Luscindaa ja Luscinda Cardenioa.
Mutta ensimmäisenä rikkoi vaitiolon Luscinda puhutellen Don
Fernandoa näin:

— Päästäkää minut, Don Fernando, oman itsenne tähden, ellette

muusta syystä sitä tekisikään, sallikaa minun turvautua siihen
muuriin, jonka muratti olen, siihen tukeen, josta minua eivät ole
voineet erottaa teidän ahdistelunne, uhkauksenne, lupauksenne eikä
lahjanne. Huomatkaa, kuinka taivas on tavattomia ja meiltä
kätkettyjä teitä pitkin kuljettanut luokseni minun oikean puolisoni; ja
tiedättehän te lukemattomista kalliistimaksamistanne kokemuksista,
että ainoastaan kuolema voi häivyttää hänet muististani. Saakoon
siis tämä harhaluuloja hälventävä selitykseni (koska se ei voi mitään
muuta vaikuttaa) rakkautenne muuttumaan raivoksi, kiintymyksenne
katkeruudeksi, ja lopettakaa sen tunteen vallassa minun elämäni;
kun luovun siitä hyvän puolisoni nähden, katson sen hyvin
käytetyksi: kenties hän uskoo minun kuollessani, että olen säilynyt
hänelle uskollisena elämäni viimeiseen hetkeen saakka.

Sillävälin oli Dorotea tullut jälleen tajuihinsa ja oli kuunnellut

kaikkia Luscindan lausumia, joista arvasi, kuka hän oli.
Huomatessaan, ettei Don Fernando vieläkään päästänyt Luscindaa
syleilystään eikä vastannut hänelle, hän ponnistihe minkä jaksoi,
nousi, meni Don Fernandon luo, painui polvilleen hänen eteensä,
vuodatti runsaan määrän kauniita ja liikuttavia kyyneliä ja virkkoi
hänelle:

— Elleivät sen auringon säteet, joka nyt on pimenneenä sylissäsi,

sammuta ja himmennä sinun silmiesi valkeutta, olet varmaan jo
huomannut, että eteesi polvistunut on Dorotea, kurja ja onnea vailla
niin kauan kuin sinä niin tahdot. Minä olen se mitätön maalaistyttö,
jonka sinä hyvyytesi tai mieltymyksesi vuoksi tahdoit koroittaa niin
korkealle, että hän saattoi nimittää itseään sinun omaksesi; minä
olen se tyttö, joka kunniallisuuden piiriin suljettuna eleli
tyytyväisenä, kunnes sinun kiihkeiden kehoitustesi ja näennäisesti
vilpittömien ja hellien tunteittesi liikuttamana avasi häveliäisyytensä
ovet ja luovutti sinulle vapautensa avaimet. Kuinka huonosti olet
osoittanut minulle kiitollisuuttasi tästä lahjastani, havaitaan erittäin
selvästi siitä, että minun täytyy olla, missä minut nyt näet, ja nähdä
sinut sellaisena kuin näen. En kumminkaan haluaisi sinun johtuvan
ajattelemaan, että olen tullut tänne häpeän polkuja, sillä minut on
tänne tuonut vain tuska ja murhe siitä, että olet minut unohtanut.
Sinä tahdoit minut omaksesi ja tahdoit niin, ettet voi lakata olemasta
omani, vaikka et enää huolisikaan minua omanasi pitää. Ajattele,
herrani, että sitä kauneutta ja ylhäisyyttä, jonka tähden minut
hylkäät, voi korvata minun sinulle varaamani ylenpalttinen rakkaus.
Sinä et voi olla kauniin Luscindan oma, koska olet minun omani, eikä
hän voi tulla sinun omaksesi, koska hän on Cardenion, ja sinun on
varmaan, jos asiaa harkitset, helpompi taivuttaa mielesi kiintymään
häneen, joka sinua palvoo, kuin saada rakastamaan se, joka sinua
inhoo. Sinä houkuttelit kiihkeästi minua, joka en ollut varuillani, sinä
kiusasit minua, siveätä; säätyni ei ollut sinulle tuntematon; sinä
tiedät hyvin, kuinka antauduin kokonaan sinun valtoihisi: sinulla ei
ole aihetta eikä mahdollisuutta väittää joutuneesi petetyksi. Ja jos
kerran on niin laita, kuten onkin, ja sinä olet yhtä hyvä kristitty kuin
ritarikin, miksi pidätyt niin monin verukkein suomasta minulle lopulta
samaa onnea, jonka soit minulle aluksi? Ja ellet rakasta minua siksi,
että olen sinun oikea ja laillinen puolisosi, rakasta ja pidä minua
ainakin orjanasi; minä katson olevani onnellinen ja auvokas, kun vain
saan olla sinun omasi. Älä anna minut jättämällä ja hylkäämällä
aihetta siihen, että juoruseurat kerääntyvät minua häpäisemään; älä
tee vanhuutta niin katkeraksi vanhemmilleni, sillä sellaista palkkaa
eivät ansaitse ne uskolliset palvelukset, joita he ovat hyvinä
alustalaisina aina suorittaneet sinun vanhemmillesi. Jos taas ajattelet
veresi pilaantuvan, kun se sekaantuu minun vereeni, niin ota
huomioon, ettei maailmassa ole paljon tai ei yhtään aatelia, joka ei
olisi kulkenut sitä tietä, ja ettei naispuolen aateluus ole mikään
tärkeä seikka ylhäisissä sukujohdoissa; koska sitäpaitsi aito aateluus
on hyvettä, niin sen sinulta puuttuessa, jos epäät minulta, mitä olet
oikeudenmukaisesti minulle velkaa, olen aateluudeltani sinua
etevämpi. Sanon sinulle vielä viimeiseksi, herrani, että olen sinun
puolisosi, tahdoit tai et; todistajina ovat omat sanasi, jotka eivät saa
eivätkä voi olla valheelliset, jos kerran kunnioitat itsessäsi sitä, minkä
puuttumisen vuoksi minua ylenkatsot; todistajana olkoon myös sinun
piirtämäsi nimikirjoitus, ja todistajana olkoon taivas, jonka kutsuit
todistamaan, mitä minulle lupasit. Ja vaikka kaikkea tuota puuttuisi,
tulee omatuntosi varmaan sinulle huutamaan vaikenemalla kesken
riemujesi, julistaen nyt lausumaani totuutta ja häiriten parhaat ilosi
ja nautintosi.

Tuon ja paljon muuta lausui murheellinen Dorotea, niin tuskaisesti

ja vuodattaen niin runsaita kyyneliä, että kaikki läsnäolijat, nekin,
jotka kuuluivat Don Fernandon seurueeseen, sulivat myötätuntoon ja
itkuun. Don Fernando kuunteli Doroteaa sanaakaan vastaamatta,
kunnes hän lakkasi puhumasta ja alkoi nyyhkiä ja huokailla niin
haikeasti, että kuulijan sydämen olisi täytynyt olla pronssia
voidakseen heltymättä havaita niin ankaran tuskan ilmaukset.
Luscinda katseli häntä, yhtä syvästi ottaen osaa hänen suruunsa
kuin ihaillen hänen erinomaista älyään ja kauneuttaan, ja olisi
mielellään mennyt hänen luokseen lausumaan joitakin lohdutuksen
sanoja, mutta ei voinut, kun Don Fernando piti häntä yhä syliinsä
suljettuna. Pitkän kotvan tarkkaavasti katseltuaan Doroteaa Don
Fernando avasi hämmentyneenä ja liikutettuna sylinsä, päästi
Luscindan vapaaksi ja virkkoi:

— Sinä voitit, kaunis Dorotea, sinä voitit, sillä kenelläkään ei voi

olla sydäntä väittää valheeksi niin monia toisiinsa liittyviä totuuksia.

Don Fernandon päästäessä hänet irti Luscinda tunsi voipuvansa ja

oli kaatua permantoon, mutta Cardenio, joka oli siinä aivan lähellä,
Don Fernandon takana, minne oli sijoittunut, jottei tämä häntä
tuntisi, riensi nyt, välittämättä mistään pelosta ja uhmaten kaikkea
mahdollista vaaraa, tukemaan Luscindaa, sulki hänet syliinsä ja
lausui hänelle:

— Jos laupias taivas suo ja sallii sinun, uskollisen, horjumattoman

ja kauniin valtiattareni, vihdoin nauttia lepoa, niin enpä usko sinun
löytävän mistään turvallisempaa lepopaikkaa kuin sylistäni, johon
sinut nyt suljen, niinkuin suljin jo ennen, kun onnellinen kohtalo
antoi minulle luvan nimittää sinua omakseni.

Nuo sanat kuullessaan Luscinda kohotti katseensa Cardenioon.

Aikaisemmin hän oli jo tuntenut Cardenion äänen ja nyt, saatuaan
näkemällä vakuuden siitä, että siinä tosiaan oli Cardenio, hän joutui
melkein suunniltaan, ei välittänyt mistään soveliaisuuden
vaatimuksista, vaan kietoi käsivartensa hänen kaulaansa, painoi
kasvonsa hänen kasvoihinsa ja sanoi hänelle:

— Niin, te, minun herrani, olette tämän vangittunne oikea

omistaja, miten tyly sallimus sitä vastustaneekaan ja miten
uhattaneenkaan tätä elämää, jonka ylläpitäjä on teidän elämänne.

Se oli merkillinen näky Don Fernandolle ja kaikille läsnäolijoille,

jotka ihmettelivät sellaista ennenkuulumatonta tapausta. Doroteasta