Chapter (1) Units and Measurements

1. Measurement
Measurement essentially is a comparison process. Quantitative measurements must be
expressed in numerical comparison to certain agreed upon set of standards.

2. Standard
Standard is something or a reference used as a measure for length, mass or time.

3. Unit
Unit is a quantity or amount used as a standard of measurement.

4. Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is the quantity that can be measured, and consists of a numerical
magnitude and a unit.

5. Basic type of physical quantities

(Length, mass, time and temperature, electric current, amount of substance, luminous
intensity) are called basic type of physical quantities.

6. Derived type of physical quantities

(Area, volume, velocity, work, energy, etc.) are called derived type of physical
quantities.

7. Basic Units
The units of basic quantities are called basic units.

8. Derived Units
A derived unit is a unit of measurement formed by combining the basic (or base) units
of a system.

9. The British system (or) The FPS system

The British system is based on foot (ft), pound (lb) and second (s). It is also called the
FPS system.

pg. 1
10. The metric system
The metric system consists of (i) the CGS system and (ii) the MKS system.

11. CGS system

The CGS system is based on centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second (s).

12. MKS system

The MKS system is based on metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s).

13. The SI units (SI = Systeme International)

The SI unit is just the modified form of the MKS system of units.
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Chapter (2) Motion

1. Types of physical quantities

There are two types of physical quantities. They are scalar quantity and vector quantity.

2. Scalar quantity
A physical quantity that has only magnitude is called scalar quantity.

3. Vector quantity
A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called vector quantity.

4. Resolution of a vector
The process of sub- dividing a vector into two or more vectors is called resolution of a
vector.

5. Vector components
The new vectors obtained are called “vector components” of the original vector.

6. Distance
Distance (or) distance travelled by a body is the length of the path along which the
body moves.

pg. 2
7. Displacement
Displacement is the distance travelled along a particular direction.

8. Average speed
The average speed is the ratio of total distance to time taken.
𝑠 𝑠
vav = (or) 𝑣 =
𝑡 𝑡

9. Average velocity
The average velocity is the ratio of total displacement to time taken.
𝑠 𝑠⃗
𝑣⃑ av = (or) 𝑣⃑ =
𝑡 𝑡

10. Instantaneous speed

The instantaneous speed is defined as the time rate of change of distance.
∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Instantaneous speed: v= lim =
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

11. Instantaneous velocity

The instantaneous velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement.

∆𝑠⃑ 𝑑𝑠⃑
Instantaneous velocity: 𝑣
⃑⃑⃑⃑= lim =
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

12. Average acceleration

The average acceleration is the ratio of the change in velocity to the time taken.
⃑⃑ − ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑣 𝑣0
The average acceleration - 𝑎⃑av = 𝑡

13. Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity.

⃑⃑
∆𝑣 ⃑⃑
𝑑𝑣
Instantaneous acceleration: ⃑⃑⃑⃑= lim
𝑎 =
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

14. Linear Motion

Motion along a straight line is called linear motion.

pg. 3
15. Uniform Motion
Motion with uniform velocity (or) constant velocity is called uniform motion.

16. Non – uniform motion (or) accelerated motion

Motion with changing velocity is called Non – uniform motion (or) accelerated
motion.

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Chapter (3) Forces

1. Kinematics
The portion describing motion is called kinematics.

2. Dynamics
The portion explanation of motion is called dynamics

3. Newton’s First Law (Law of inertia)

When no net external force acts upon it, a particle at rest will remain at rest and a
particle in motion at a constant velocity will continue to move with the same constant
velocity.
In mathematical form,
If 𝐹⃗ net = 0 then 𝑎⃗ = 0, 𝑣⃗ = constant (or) zero
Where 𝐹⃗ net = the net external force and 𝑎⃗ = acceleration

4. Inertia
The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and its reluctance to stop once it
has begun moving.

5. Newton’s Second Law (Law of force and acceleration)

The net external force acting upon a particle is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of
the particle.

pg. 4
In mathematical form,
⃑𝑭⃗net = m𝐚
⃑⃗ where, 𝐹⃗ net = the net external force
m = mass
𝑎⃗ = acceleration

6. Newton’s Third Law (Law of action and reaction)

Whenever two particles interact, the force exerted by the second on the first is equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the first on the second.
In mathematical form,
𝐅⃗second on first = - 𝐅⃗first on second

7. One newton
A force that is acting on 1kg mass to give it an acceleration of 1ms -2 is called one
newton.

8. One dyne
A force that is acting on 1g mass to give it an acceleration of 1cms-2 is called one dyne.

9. One pound
A force that is acting on 1slug mass to give it an acceleration of 1fts -2 is called one
pound.

10. Newton's gravitational law

Everybody attracts every other body in the universe. The gravitational force between
the two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
In symbols, F∝ (or) F = G
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐
where, F = the gravitational force between two masses
m1, m2 = masses of the bodies
r = distance between the two bodies
G = gravitational constant

pg. 5
11. FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
(a) The gravitational force (long – range force)
(b) Weak interaction (short – range force)
(c) Electromagnetic force (long – range force)
(d) Nuclear force (short – range force)

12. Elastic force

When a spring is stretched (or) a plastic ruler is bent, the force that causes the spring
and the ruler to retain their original form is called elastic force.

13. Frictional Force

The force that acts to resist the motion of the body is frictional force.

14. Acceleration due to gravity

The acceleration due to the gravitational force is called acceleration due to gravity.

15. Weight
The attracting force of the earth acting on a body is defined as the weight of the
body.

16. Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in a body and also a measure of inertia.

17. Momentum
Momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass of the body and its
velocity.
In symbols, 𝑝⃗ = m 𝑣⃗ where, ⃑⃗ = momentum, m = mass, v
p ⃑⃗ = velocity

18. Law of conservation of momentum

If there is no net external force acting on an isolated system, the total momentum
of the system is constant.

pg. 6
Chapter (4) Pressure

1. Hydrostatics
The study of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics.

2. Hydrodynamic
The study of fluids at motion is hydrodynamic.

3. Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted normally on unit area.
F
p= Where, p = pressure, F = force, A = area
A

4. Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a substance.
m
ρ= where, ρ = density, m = mass, V = volume
V

5. Relative density (or) specific gravity

Relative density is how much a substance is denser than water. Relative density is also
known as specific gravity.
density of substance
relative density = density of water at 4℃

6. Archimedes’ Principle
When an object is partially (or) totally immersed in a liquid, the object displaces liquid
volume that is equal to the volume of the immersed portion.
(or)
The loss in weight of the object is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. (or) The
upward thrust acting on a body which is immersed partially or totally in a liquid is equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.

7. Hydrometer
The hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the density (or) relative density of
liquids.

pg. 7
Chapter (5) Work and Energy
1. Work
Work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force.
W = Fs
Where W = work done,

F = force acting on the particle,

s = the distance moved in the direction of the force.

2. One Joule (1 J)
1 Joule of work is done when a force of 1 newton moves an object through a distance
of 1 metre in the direction of the force.

3. One foot pound (1 ft – lb)

When the unit of force is in pound (lb) and the distance is in foot (ft), the unit of work
is foot-pound (fl-lb).

4. One erg (1 erg)

When the unit of force is in dyne and the distance is in centimetre, the unit of work is
erg.
(1 J = 107 ergs)

5. Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.

6. Different forms of energy

There are different forms of energy. They are
- mechanical energy,
- light energy,
- heat energy,
- sound energy,

pg. 8
- chemical energy,
- magnetic energy,
- electrical energy and
- nuclear energy or atomic energy.

7. Kinetic energy (KE)

Energy acquired by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.
𝟏
KE = 𝟐
mv2
Where, KE = kinetic energy of a body
m = mass of a body
v = velocity of a body

8. Potential Energy (PE)

The energy stored in a body due to its position or configuration is called the potential
energy.
PE = mgh

Where, PE = potential energy of a body

m = mass of a body

g = acceleration due to gravitation

h = height of a body

9. Gravitational potential energy

The energy stored in a body due to its position is called the gravitational potential
energy (PE).

10. Elastic Potential Energy

The potential energy due to configuration is called elastic potential energy.
1
The elastic potential energy in compressed (or) stretched springs = 2
kx2
where k = spring constant, x = extension (or) compression of spring.

pg. 9
11. Law of conservation of energy
` The total energy of an isolated system is constant. This law also expressed as: Energy
is not created or destroyed in any process. The total energy of the universe is constant.
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Chapter (6) Heat and Temperature

1. Heat
The energy exchanged between an object and its surrounding due to different
temperatures is defined as heat.

2. Temperature
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a body. (or) Temperature
is the quantity that determines how cold or how hot the object is.

3. Thermometer
Thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body.

4. Thermometric properties
Thermometric substances can be solids, liquids (or) gases. They have physical
properties that vary continuously and linearly with temperature. These properties are
called thermometric properties.

5. Linear Expansion
When an object is heated, its length increases. This is called the linear expansion of the
object.
∆l=∝l∆T
Where; ∆ l = change in length
∆T = change in temperature
𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion
l = original length of the object

pg. 10
6. Coefficient of linear expansion
The coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the change in length per unit length for
one degree change in temperature.
∆𝒍
In symbols, 𝜶 = 𝒍∆𝑻
Where; α = coefficient of linear expansion,
∆l = change in length,
l = original length,
∆T = change in temperature

7. Area expansion
When an object is heated, its area increases. This is called the area expansion of the
object.
∆A= 𝜷 A∆T
Where; ∆A = change in area
∆T = change in temperature
𝜷 = coefficient of area expansion
A = original area of the object

8. Coefficient of area expansion

The coefficient of area expansion of a substance is the change in area per unit area for
one degree change in temperature.

∆𝑨
In symbols, β = 𝑨∆𝑻
Where; A = original area,
∆A = change in area,
∆T = change in temperature

9. Volume expansion
The increase in volume is directly proportional to its original volume and the change in
temperature.
∆V=γV∆T
Where; ∆V = change in volume , 𝛄 = coefficient of volume expansion
∆T = change in temperature, V = original volume of the object

pg. 11
10. Coefficient of volume expansion
The coefficient of volume expansion of a substance is the change in volume per unit
volume for one degree change in temperature.
∆𝒗
γ = 𝒗∆𝑻
Where: V = original volume,
∆V = change in volume,
∆T = change in temperature

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Chapter (7) Wave and Sound

1. Wave motion
Wave motion is a method of transferring energy by successive disturbance through the
medium. This movement of energy takes place without transferring mater.

2. Two types of waves

There are two types of waves. They are mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

3. Transverse waves

If the displacements of particles of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of

the wave, such a wave is called a transverse wave.

4. Longitudinal wave

If the displacements of particles of medium are parallel to the direction of the waves,
such a wave is called a longitudinal wave.

5. Combinational Waves
Some waves in nature exhibit a combination of transverse and longitudinal waves.
Water waves are a combination of transverse waves and longitudinal waves. They are
good example of combinational waves.

pg. 12
6. Periodic wave
A periodic wave is a wave which is produced by the periodic displacements of particles
of medium.

7. Wave crest
The highest points which show the maximum displacement of vibrating particle from its
rest position (or) equilibrium line are called wave crest.

8. Wave trough
The lowest points which show the maximum displacement of vibrating particle from its
rest position (or) equilibrium line are called wave trough.

9. Amplitude (A)
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum value of the displacement of a vibrating
particle.

10. Wavelength (𝝀 )

The distance between any two consecutive wave crests (or) two consecutive wave
troughs is called wavelength.

11. Frequency (f)

The number of complete waves passing a point per second is called frequency of waves.
The frequency of the wave depends on the vibrating source. The number of oscillations
of a vibrating source in one second is also called frequency.

12. Period (T)

The time taken by the wave to travel the distance between any two consecutive wave
crests (or) the time required for one complete vibration is called period of a wave.

13. Velocity of Wave (v)

Velocity of wave is the speed with which a wave crest travels.

pg. 13
14. Ripple Tank
The ripple tank is a convenient piece of apparatus for demonstrating the properties of
waves.

15. Wavefront

The surface that joins all the points of same phase is called wavefront.

16. Audible range

The average person can only hear sound that has a frequency higher than 20 Hz and
lower than 20 000 Hz. This interval of frequency is called the audible range (or) hearing
range.

17. Ultrasound

A sound with frequency greater than 20 000 Hz is called ultrasound.

18. Infrasound

A sound with frequency lower than 20 Hz is called infrasound.

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Chapter (8) Light

1. Self – luminous sources
The object which can emit their own light are called luminous sources.

2. Non – luminous sources

The objects which cannot emit light are called non – luminous sources.

3. Reflection of light
When light is incident on the surface of an object some of the light is sent back and
this phenomenon is called reflection of light.

pg. 14
4. A ray of light
A ray of light is a path along which the light travels. A ray is represented by a straight
line with an arrow-head. The arrow-head points in the direction of propagation of
light.

5. Beam of light
A beam of light is a collection of rays of light.

6. The incident ray

A ray which represented the incident light is called the incident ray.

7. The reflected ray

A ray which represents the reflected light is called the reflected ray.

8. Normal
A line perpendicular to the surfaces at the point of incidence is called a normal.

9. Angle of incidence
The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called angle of incidence.

10. Angle of reflection

The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called angle of incidence.

11. Laws of reflection

(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

12. Mirror
An object having a smooth reflecting surface is called a mirror.

13. Plane mirror

If the reflecting surface is plane, the mirror is called a plane mirror.

pg. 15
14. Lateral inversion
The right side of an object appears as the left side of its image in a plane mirror. This
effect is called the lateral inversion.

15. Principle of reversibility of light

If the direction of a ray of light is reversed, the light ray will travel along its original
path. This is known as the principle of reversibility of light. This principle is valid also
for refraction of light.

16. Concave mirror

If the reflecting surface of a mirror forms part of the inner surface of a hollow sphere,
the mirror is called a concave mirror.

17. Convex mirror

If the reflecting surface of a mirror forms part of the outer surface of a hollow sphere,
the mirror is called a convex mirror.

18. Pole of a concave or convex mirror

The centre of the surface of a concave (or) convex mirror is called its pole.

19. Centre of Curvature of a Concave (or) Convex Mirror

The centre of a sphere, part of whose surface is the concave (or) convex mirror, is
called the centre of curvature of that mirror concave (or) convex mirror.

20. Radius of Curvature of a Concave (or) Convex Mirror

The radius of a sphere, part of whose surface is the concave (or) convex mirror, is
called radius of curvature of that mirror.

21. Principal Axis

The line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of a concave (or) convex
mirror is called the principal axis.

pg. 16
22. Principal Focus of a Concave Mirror
When the rays parallel and close to the principal axis are incident on a concave mirror
the reflected rays pass through a point on the principal axis. That point is called the
principal focus of the concave mirror. Since the reflected rays actually intersect at that
point, the focus of a concave mirror is a real focus.

23. Principal Focus of a Convex Mirror

When the rays parallel and close to the principal axis are incident on a convex mirror
the reflected rays appear to come from a point on the principal axis. That point is called
the principal focus of the convex mirror. Since the reflected rays do not actually pass
through that point, the principal focus of a convex mirror is a virtual focus.

24. Focal Length

The distance between the pole and the focus of a concave (or) convex mirror is called
the focal length of the concave (or) convex mirror.

25. Magnification
The lateral magnification produced by a mirror is defined as the ratio of the height of
the image to the height of the object.
𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞
Magnification = 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 = 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭
If m = magnification, II’ = size of image and OO’ = size of object then
𝐼𝐼 ′
m= 𝑂𝑂 ′
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pg. 17
Chapter (9) Electricity
1. Two types of electricity
There are two types of electricity. There are electrostatic (or) static electricity and
electrodynamics (or) current electricity.

2. Electrostatic
Electrostatics is the study of electric charge at rest.

3. Electrodynamics
Electrodynamics is the study of moving electric charges and their interaction with
magnetic and electric fields.

4. Electric current
The flow of charges is called an electric current.

5. Electric charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes an electromagnetic field.

6. The properties of electric charges

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

7. Bound electrons
The electrons closer to the nucleus (or) the inner electrons are called bound electrons.

8. Free electrons
The electrons far away from the nucleus (or) the outer electrons are called free
electrons.

9. Conductor
The substance which has plenty of free electrons is called a conductor.

pg. 18
10. Insulator
The substance which has very few (or) no free electrons is called an insulator.

11. Semiconductor
The substance which has a moderate amount of free electrons are called
semiconductors.

12. Induction
Induction is the process of charging a conductor without any contact with the charged
body.

13. The law of conservation of electric charges

The net electric charge in an isolated system remains constant. The net charge is the
algebraic sum of the charges in an isolated system.

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Chapter (10) Magnetism

1. Magnets
Magnets are the material which exhibit magnetic properties such as (i) attract magnetic
materials (ii) have two poles and (iii) like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

2. Magnetite
Magnetite has a unique property and consists of an oxide of iron. Magnetite is a natural
magnet.

3. Magnetic materials
The materials which can be attracted by the natural magnet are called magnetic
materials.

pg. 19
4. Non – magnetic materials
The materials which cannot be attracted by the natural magnet are called magnetic
materials.

5. Permanent magnet
Any materials (such as magnetite) that is able to keep its magnetism for a long time is
called a permanent magnet.

6. The laws of magnetic poles

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

7. Magnetic pole strength

Magnetic pole strength is a measure of the strength of magnetic poles.

8. Magnetic force between two poles

The force between two poles is directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths
and inversely proportional to the distance squared between them.

9. Magnetic field
The magnetic field is a region where magnetic effects can be detected.

10. Magnetisation

A process of making a magnetic material into a magnet is called magnetisation.

11. Two types of magnetization

There are two types of magnetization. There are (i) magnetization by stroking and (ii)
magnetization using direct current.

pg. 20
12. Hard magnetic materials
Magnetic materials such as steel which are harder to magnetise but retain their
magnetism longer are called hard magnetic materials.

13. Soft magnetic materials

Magnetic materials such as iron or special alloys like mumetal alloy which are easier to
magnetise but do not retain their magnetism very long are called soft magnetic
materials.

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Chapter (11) Quantum and Atomic Physics

1. Thermionic emission
The process by which, free electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when
external heat energy is applied, is called thermionic emission.

2. Vacuum diode
Vacuum diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube. It consists of two electrodes, a
cathode and an anode (or) plate. The cathode emits the free electrons by thermionic
emission. It is an electron emitter. The anode collects the electrons. A vacuum diode is
used as an AC (alternative current) to DC (direct current) converter.

3. Blackbody
A blackbody is a perfect radiator of light that absorbs and emits all radiation incident
on it. Its light output depends on its temperature.

4. Blackbody radiation
When a blackbody is heated, the radiation it emits is called blackbody radiation.

5. Intensity of radiation
Intensity of radiation is the energy emitted from unit area of the surface in one second.

pg. 21
6. Blackbody spectrum
The graph drawn with the intensity of blackbody radiation against the wavelength at a
given temperature is called blackbody spectrum.

7. Wien's law
The wavelength at which maximum intensity occurs (𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is inversely proportional to
the absolute temperature of the blackbody.
𝟏
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ 𝑻

8. Stefan Boltzmann's law

The total emissive power of a blackbody (𝜀0 ) is directly proportional to the fourth power
of absolute temperature.

𝜺𝟎 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 , 𝝈 = Stefan's constant

9. Atomic number (Z)

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons (or) electrons in an atom
of that element.

10. Mass number (A)

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass
number (or) the nucleon number.

11. Isotopes

Atoms that have the same atomic number but different neutron numbers (and thus
different mass numbers) are called isotopes.

12. Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects, which are
any natural bodies outside of the earth's atmosphere.

pg. 22
13. Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and
behavior.

14. Cosmology
Cosmology studies the universe as a whole and its phenomena at largest scales.

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pg. 23