UNIT 1 ELECTROSTATICS

CHAPTER–1: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics deals with the behavior of electric charges at rest.

Frictional electricity
It has been found that any substance if rubbed with some other substance acquires an attractive
property. The bodies are then said to have become electrified or they are said to acquire electric
charge. For eg; when a glass rod is rubbed with silk or an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, they
acquire this attractive property. The phenomenon of acquiring electric charges by friction is
called frictional electrification and the bodies are said to possess frictional electricity.
How is frictional electrification caused?
The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number of electrons outside
the nucleus. When a body is rubbed with another, due to friction, some electrons from one body
gets transferred to the other body. The body, which loses electrons, will become positively
charged and which gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The two bodies thus acquire
opposite charges and they are equal in magnitude. This is the reason for frictional electricity.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is found experimentally that the charges are of two types:
1.Positive charge
2.Negative charge
The unit of charge is coulomb (C).
The names of positive and negative charges are purely conventional.
Note: Positively charged body means deficiency of electrons in the body from its neutral state
and a negatively charged body means excess of electrons.

Properties of electric charges.

1.Electric charges are of two kinds – positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike charges
attract each other.
2.The two kinds of charges ie +ve and – ve are really opposite. The combination of a charge +q
with –q results in a net charge equal to zero.
3.Charge is quantized: All electric charges in nature exist either as a basic charge or as some
integral multiple of this charge.
The basic charge is equal to electronic charge e = 1.602 x 10 –19 C. Thus, charge exists in discrete
packets or charge is said to be quantized. According to quantization of electric charge, charge of
a body is an integral multiple of a basic charge, which is the electronic charge.

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ie charge on a body, q =  ne; where, n is an integer and e is the electronic charge.
4.Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated system remains constant. It also
implies that electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. If an object loses some charge,
an equal amount of charge appears somewhere else.
5.Charge is a scalar quantity.
6. Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic sum of individual charges
present on that surface. If q1, q2, q3 ............., qn are the charges on a surface, then total or net
charge, q = q1 + q2 + q3 + .............+ qn
Point charges.
If an electric charge is confined to an extremely small volume, it is called a point charge.
Physically, all charged bodies whose dimensions are very small compared to the distance
between them are referred to as point charges. Any charge whose dimensions are very small
compared to its distance from a point where its effect is to be analyzed is also called a point
charge.

Coulomb’s law or inverse square law.

Coulomb’s law or inverse square law states that the force between two stationary electric charges
is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. Consider two-point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r,
then the force between them, Then

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
𝑟2

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Relative permittivity
Relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio between permittivity  of the medium
to the permittivity  0 of free space.
𝜀
ie 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 or permittivity of medium,  = r 0
0

Coulomb’s law in vector form.

If F12 is the force on q1 due to q2 and r21 is the unit vector pointing from q2 towards q1,

Then

Similarly,

Superposition principle
Superposition principle states that if a number of charges are
interacting, the total force on a charge is the vector sum of
the individual forces exerted on it by all other charges.
If F1 is he force acting on q1 chare due to other n charges,
then

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ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is the region around a charge where its effect can be felt. Intensity of electric field
at a point is the force per unit charge.
Suppose a test charge q placed at a point in an electric field experience an electric force F. Thus,
electric field intensity can be defined as the force per unit positive charge placed at a given point.
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
1.The electric field intensity E is a vector whose direction is the direction of the force F
experienced by the +ve charge placed at that point.
2.The unit of electric field is N/C.
Let us take a charge Q. at a distance r from it, there is another unit charge q. the force on q due to
Q can be written as –

𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝐹=
𝑟2
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞

𝑘𝑄
𝐸=
𝑟2

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Note: Electric field strength also follows law of superposition i.e. net electric field strength at a
point is the vector sum of all field strengths due to individual charges.
Characteristics of Electric field
1. Electric field at a point doesn’t depend on charge q as the ratio F/q is independent of q.
2. For a positive point charge electric field is directed radially outwards.
3. For a negative point charge electric field is directed radially inwards.
4. Magnitude of E due to a charge Q depends inversely on r2, so at equal distances from the
charge Q, E will have same magnitude i.e. it shows radial symmetry.
Electric Field lines
The concept of electric field lines was given by Faraday to visualize the strength of electric
fields. - Electric field lines are imaginary, straight or curved lines around charged bodies such
that tangent to it at a point gives direction of electric field at that point.
Properties of Electric Field lines
1. Field lines originate from a positive charge and terminate at a negative charge.
2. Tangent to any point on the electric field line shows the direction of electric field at that
point.
3. Two field lines can never intersect each other. (This is because at the point of intersection
we can draw two tangents which means electric field at the point of intersection will have
two directions, which is not possible.)
4. Greater is the density of field lines, greater is the strength of electric field in the region.

5. Electrostatic field lines do not form closed loops. Electric field lines do not have any
breaks; they are continuous in nature.
6. Field lines are parallel, equidistant and in same direction in uniform electric field.

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ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
small distance. The strength of the dipole is expressed in terms of a quantity known as dipole
moment p.
Dipole moment is defined as the product of one of the charges and the distance between the
charges (dipole length). Its direction is from negative charge to positive charge.

 Dipole moment p = q(2a); where 2a is the dipole length.

The unit of dipole moment is coulomb – meter [C m].
TORQUE ACTING ON A DIPOLE PLACED IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD.
Consider an electric dipole AB of moment p = q(2a) placed in a uniform electric field E. Let
the dipole make an angle  with the field direction.
Then the two charges will experience equal and
opposite forces qE and thus form a couple.

Thus torque  = one of the forces x perpendicular

distance between them.
ie  = qE x AC
But from figure; AC = 2a sin 
  = qE x 2asin 
 = q (2a) E sin
But q(2a) = p; the dipole moment.
  = p E sin
 =p x E.
Case (i) =00/1800

- we can see that net torque on the dipole is zero when it makes an angle of 0°(parallel) or
180°(antiparallel) with the field.
 = p E sin

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 = p E x0
=0
Case (ii) =900
- When the dipole is parallel to the field, it is known as the position of stable equilibrium and
when it is anti-parallel, it is known as the position of unstable equilibrium.
- The torque on the dipole is maximum when it is perpendicular to the field.
 = p E sin
 = p E x1
=pE

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE ALONG THE AXIAL LINE

Electric Field due to a Dipole along the Equatorial Line

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The vertical components cancel each other and horizontal components add up
Total electric field at P,
E =𝐸+𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But , 𝐸+𝑞 = 𝐸−𝑞
E =2𝐸+𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑘𝑞 𝑎
𝐸 =2× ×
𝑟 2 +𝑎2 √𝑟 2 +𝑎2

Relation connecting Axial field and Equatorial field of a Dipole

Continuous Charge Distribution

Linear charge density
The linear charge density λ of a wire is defined as
𝜆 = 𝛥𝑞 /𝛥𝑙
𝝀 = 𝒒/ 𝒍
The unit of λ is C/m
Line charge q = 𝝀𝒍
Surface charge density
The surface charge density 𝜎 of area element is defined as
𝜎 = 𝛥𝑞 /𝛥𝑆
𝝈 = 𝒒 /𝑺
The unit for σ is C/𝑚2
Surface charge, q= 𝝈𝑺
Volume charge density
The volume charge density ρ of a volume element is defined as
ρ = 𝛥𝑞/ 𝛥𝑉
𝛒 = 𝒒 /𝑽
The units for ρ is C/𝑚3
Volume charge, q= 𝛒V.

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ELECTRIC FLUX. E
Electric flux through a surface is the number of electric lines of force passing normally
through the surface. The flux through an area is given by the product of the electric field and
the component of area perpendicular to the field.
ie electric flux through a surface is given by;

𝜙 = 𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑠
where S is the area of the surface and E is the electric field on the surface. S is a vector
whose direction is normal to S. If  is the angle between the direction of E and the normal to
the surface,
E = E S cos.
Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
Unit: newton metre2 / coulomb [Nm2 /C]
In case of a closed surface, if the lines of force are outward, the flux is taken as +ve and if
lines of force are inward, the flux is negative.

The flux through a surface is maximum when surface is perpendicular to the field and
minimum (zero) when the surface is parallel to the field.

GAUSS’S THEOREM
Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 𝟏/𝜺𝟎
times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
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𝜙= 𝑋𝑞
𝜀0 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

Proof:-
Consider a sphere of radius r enclosing a point charge q. the electric flux through the surface
dS

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𝜙= ∫ E ⋅ dS
𝜙 = ∫ E dS cos0 = ∫ E dS =𝐸∫ dS
𝜙 = ES

Features of Gauss’s Law

• Gauss’s law is true for any surface irrespective of the size and shape.
• The charge includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
• The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the Gaussian
Surface.
• Gauss’s law is applicable to both symmetric and asymmetric system, but it will be much
easier if the system has some symmetry.
• Gauss’s law is based on inverse square dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb’s
law.
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S THEOREM

1. Electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged

wire.

Consider an infinitely long straight charged wire of linear charge

density (charge per unit length) . To find the electric field at a point
P at a distance r from the wire, consider a Gaussian cylinder of radius
r and length h coaxial with the wire.
Now the point P is on the radial surface of the cylinder.
The electric field E at P is radially outward.
Now the electric flux through the curved surface,
E = E x area of the curved surface.
ie E = E x 2rh.
Flux through the two end surfaces = 0.
Total flux through the Gaussian cylinder,
E = E x 2rh.
Charge enclosed by the Gaussian cylinder, q = h
Now by Gauss’s theorem,
𝑞
∅ = ∫ 𝐸 ⋅ ⅆ𝑆 = 𝜀
0

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𝜆ℎ
E x 2rh. =
𝜀0

𝜆
𝐸 = 2𝜋𝜀
0𝑟

2. Electric intensity or electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of

charge.

Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge of

charge density  coulomb/m2. The electric field
E is perpendicular to the sheet everywhere. The
electric field has same magnitude at equal
distance from the surface but points in opposite
directions on either side of the sheet. The field
points away from the plane.
Imagine a cylindrical surface of cross-sectional area S passing normally through the
sheet.
Let P1 and P2 be two points on either side of the sheet and along the axis of the cylinder,
at equal distances from the sheet. The electric fields at P1 and P2 are same in magnitude.
Hence total area of Gaussian surface = 2S. [the curved surface area of the cylinder is not
considered since E is parallel to the area]
 E · ds = 2 E S
Also charge density
 = q/S
q =  S
Now by Gauss’s theorem,
𝑞
∅ = ∫ 𝐸 ⋅ ⅆ𝑆 = 𝜀
0
𝜎𝑠
2𝐸𝑆 =
𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸 = 2𝜀
0
Hence E is independent of the distance of the point from the infinite sheet of charge.
3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.

A spherical shell is a hollow sphere of small thickness. Consider a spherical shell of

radius R with its center at the origin. Let a charge q be given to the
shell. It gets distributed over the shell uniformly. Let the charge
density of the surface be .
Then total charge, q = 4R2.
Here the electric field is acting radially outwards.
Case 1. Field at a point outside the shell.
Consider a point P outside the shell at a distance r form the center
of the shell. Let E be the electric field at P. Now imagine a

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spherical surface of radius r and center coinciding with the center of the shell as the
Gaussian surface.

But for Gaussian surface, ds = 4r2.

 E · ds = 4r2E
But by Gauss’s theorem,

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝛾 2
4 𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2
𝜎𝑅 2
𝐸=𝜀 2
0𝑟
Case 2. Field at a point on the surface of the shell.

For a point on the surface of the shell, r = R.

Then field E =  /0
Case 3. Field at a point inside the shell.
For a point inside the shell, the Gaussian surface lies inside the shell and hence encloses
no charge.
q=0
Therefore, E · ds = 0.
E=0
ie the field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell is always zero. This is true for a
shell of any shape or size. This disappearance of electric field inside a cavity in a
conductor is called electrostatic shielding.

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CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE: -
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL (V)
Electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done by external force
to bring a unit positive charge (slowly, without acceleration) from infinity to the given point.
𝑤
𝑉= that is; W=qV
𝑞
Unit of potential is J/C or volt (V)
It is a scalar quantity.

Electrostatic Potential difference between two points

Electrostatic Potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done by an
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to other in that field.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE.

Consider a positive point charge q placed at the origin O. We wish to calculate its electric
potential at a point P at distance r from it, as shown in Fig. By definition, the electric potential at
point P will be equal to the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to the point P.

By Coulomb’s law of force we have ,

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The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to the point P will be

𝑤
𝑉= 𝑞

Variation of potential V with

r and field with r for a point charge Q.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A ELECTRIC

DIPOLE.
Let P be a point at a distance r form the center of a dipole AB of
moment p(=2ql). Let line OP makes an angle  with the dipole.
Potential at the point P is sum of potential due to -q(V2) and
potential due to +q(V1)

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If l2 << r2 then

Case 1. If point p is on the axis of dipole, then  =0.

Case 2. If A is on the equatorial line of dipole, then  =90°.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF

CHARGES
As electric potential is scalar quantity the total potential at the point
P is algebraic sum of individual potential due to each charge,

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POTENTIAL ENERGY FOR A SYSTEM OF CHARGES:
For a system of two charges:

Work done in bringing q1 chare from infinity is w1=0

Work done in bringing q2 charge from infinity is w2= q2 V1

Total potential energy stored, U =W1+W2

= 0+ q2V1
𝑘𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑟1 2
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For a system of three charges:

Work done in bringing q1 chare from infinity is w1=0

Work done in bringing q2 charge from infinity is w2= q2 V1
Work done in bringing q3 charge from infinity is w3=q3V1+q3V2

Total potential energy stored, U =W1+W2+W3

= 0+ q2V1+ q3V1+q3V2
𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
= 𝑟1 2+ 𝑟1 3+ 𝑟2 3
12 13 23

POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL ELECTRICAL FIELD

Two particle system:

To calculate the potential energy of a system of two charges (q1, q2) in an external field, first we
calculate the work done in bringing charge q1 from infinity which will be q1.V(r1). Then we
calculate the work done in bringing q2 from infinity, but this time the work done is not just
against the external electric field but also against the field due to q1.

Work done on q1 due to external field = q1.V(r1)

Work done on q2 due to external field = q2.V(r2)
Work done on q2 due to q1 = kq1q2/r12
Therefore, total potential energy of the system = q1.V(r1) + q2.V(r2) + kq1q2/r12

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF DIPOLE IN EXTERNAL FIELD

We know that when a dipole is kept in an external electric field, it experiences a torque
𝜏=pXE
which causes it to rotate.

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Let the dipole be at an angle 𝜃1 with the field initially. An external torque (𝜏 ext) is applied to it
which is equal and opposite to the torque
Due to E. 𝜏 ext rotates the dipole (very slowly and without acceleration) Such that it now makes
an angle 𝜃2 with the field.

Let us calculate the work done in the process-

Let the dipole rotate in the plane of the paper by an infinitesimal amount d𝜃. Let the work done
in this process be dw

If initially the dipole is oriented perpendicular to the

direction of the field (𝜃1 = 90°) and then brought to
some orientation making an angle 𝜃 with the field (𝜃 2 = 𝜃), then potential energy of the dipole
will be
U = pE (cos 90° - cos 𝜃)
= pE (0 - cos 𝜃)
=- pE cos 𝜃

U=-P.E

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Relation between potential (V) and field (E)

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
Equipotential surfaces are surfaces which have a constant value of potential at all points.

Properties:-
1. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.
2. Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point.
3. Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions of strong field and farther apart
in the regions of weak field.
4. No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other.
Patterns:-
Equipotential surfaces of a positive
point charge. For uniform electric field:-

Equipotential surfaces of two equal and

opposite point charges : Electric dipole.
Equipotential
surfaces of two
equal
positive charges.

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Electrostatics of conductors
Metallic conductors have mobile charge carriers in the form of free electrons.
1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
2. At the surface of a charged conductor electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at
every point
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the
same value (as inside) on the surface.
5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor

6. Electrostatic shielding whatever be the charge and field configuration outside, any cavity
in a conductor remains shielded from outside electric influence i.e. the field inside the
cavity is always zero.
Use- to protect sensitive instruments from outside electrical influence.
Dielectrics and polarization
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances.
Dielectric in an external field
When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field, the field causes re orientation of the
molecules of the dielectric such that each molecule becomes a dipole and the net result of this is
the appearance of charges on the surface of the dielectric which produces a field which opposes
the external field. This is called polarization of a dielectric.
Unlike a conductor, this induced field doesn’t cancel out the external field completely but can
only reduce it.

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Capacitor: A system of two conductors separated by an insulator which is used to store
electrical energy / charge.

*The two conductors have charges Q and -Q. Q is called the charge
of the capacitor.
*The total charge on capacitor = 0
*The pot. Difference (V) b/w the conductors is the work done in
taking a unit +ve charge from one conductor to another

Capacitance: The ratio Q/V for a capacitor is constant and is called the capacitance (c) of the
capacitor.
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SI unit of capacitance : Farad (F)

C=QV
Parallel plate capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel

conducting plates separated by a small distance.
Consider the following setup; two conducting plates of area
A with charge Q and -Q respectively and surface charge
density σ= Q/A are separated by a distance d.

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A DIELECTRIC

SLAB
When space b/w the plates is partially filled with dielectric.
Consider a case where a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K and thickness t is placed b/w
the plates of a capacitor of plate separation d (d>t)

Between the capacitor plates electric field is E over a distance ‘t’ and E0 over a distance (d-t).
Then the potential difference is given by,

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The capacitance of the capacitor on introduction of dielectric slab becomes
C=Q/V

when space b/w the plates are completely filled with dielectric

Thus the capacitanceof a parallelplate capacitor increases K times when its entire space is filled
with a dielectric material.

K=c/c0

Dielectric
constant

Thus the dielectric constant of a dielectric material may be defined as the ratio of the capacitance
of a capacitor completely filled with that material to the capacitance of the same capacitor with
vacuum between its plates.

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COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
1. Series combination
Consider the two capacitors C1& C2, connected with each other and a battery of emf V (as
shown in the figure), have charge Q each. Let the potential drop across C1& C2 be V1 and V2
resp. Then we can say that the total potential drop across the combination is equal to the sum of
the potential drops across C1& C2

2. Parallel combination
Consider the two capacitors C1& C2, connected with each other and a battery of emf V (as
shown in the figure). In this case, both capacitors will have the same potential difference. Let the
charge on C1& C2 be Q1 & Q2 resp. We can imagine the combination as a capacitor (C) with
charge Q, which is the sum of the charges Q1 & Q2-

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR: -

A capacitor is a device to store energy. The process of charging up a capacitor involves the
transferring of electric charges from its one plate to another. The work done in charging the
capacitor is stored as its electrical potential energy.

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So the potential energy stored in a capacitor is,

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